ELEMENTS 

OF 

GENERAL HISTORY, 

ANCIENT AND MODERN. 

BY ALEXANDER PHASER TYTLER. F. R, S. ll. 
Professor of History in the Uoiversity of Edinburgh. 

WITH A 

CONTINUATION, 

TERMINATING AT THK 

DEMISE OF KING GEORGE III., 1820. 

BY REV. EDWARD NARES, D. D. 
Proietsor of Modern Histor}' ia the Unirer&ity of Oxf«rd. 

TO WHICH ARE ADDUd, A SUCCINCT 

H^f stovu Of tJjt Unittti Sktattn ; 

AN IMPROVED 

TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY; 

A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 

\NCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY, 

AND , 

QUESTIONS ON EACH SECTION. 

Adapted for the use of Schooli and Academies 
BT AN EXPERIENCED TEACHER. ♦ 



CONCORD^ It. H. 
SPRINTED BY ISAAC HILLo 



J*'. 






•*****###* 



DISTRICT OF NEW-HAMPSHIRE, TO WIT: 

District Clerk'' s Office. 



I re * ^-^ ^* remembered, that on the fourth day of Sep- 
I L. S. I tember, A. D. 1823, and in ihe foity-eighlh jear of the 
^*##**##| Independence of tbe United Slates of America, ISAAC 
HILL, of (he said District, hath deposited in this office the title of a book, 
the right whereof he claims as piopri:tor in the words following, to wit — 
'^Ele7nents of General Nistory, ancient and modem. By .Alexander Fra- 
ser Tytler, F. R. S. E. Professor of JHistory in ihe University of Ed' 
•bftburgh, fViih a continuation, terminating at the demise of King 
George IIL, 1820. By Rev. Edivard JVares. D. D. Professor of Mod- 
ern History m the University of Oxford. To which are added, a suc' 
dnct History of ihe United states ; an improved Table of Chronology i 
.tL comparative view of ^^ncient and Modefn Geography, and Questions on 
each section, jidaptedfor the use of Schools and Academies. By an ct- 
^^erienced Teacher." 

In ccnformity lo the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled 
»* An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of 
Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors, and proprietors of »uch copies, 
during the times tbiprein mentioned ;" and also an act, entitled " an act 
supplementary to an act, entitled an act for the encouragement of learning, 
by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and 
proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned, and ex- 
lending the benefit thereof to the arts ol designing, engraving, and etch- 
ing historical and other prints." 

WILLIAM CLAGGETT, Clerk 
of ihe District of JVew-Hampshire. 
A true copy of Record. 

Attest WILLIAM CLAGGETT, Clerk. 



J 



?!E:S!!'JLi931. 



J- HE following work contains the Outlines of a Course of Lec- 
tures on General History, deliverer! for many years iu the Univer- 
sity of Edinburgh, and received with a portion of the public ap- 
probation amply sufficient to compensate the labours of the author. 
He began to compose these Elements principally Avith the view of 
furnishing an aid to students attending his Lecture? ; but soon con- 
ceived, that, by giving a little more amplitude to their compoiii- 
tion, he might render the work of more general utility. As now 
given to the public, he would willingly fiattcr himself that it may 
be not only i-erviceable to youth, in furnishing a regular plan for 
the prosecution of this important study, but useful even to tiiosf-; 
who have acquired a competent knov^^ledge of general history from 
the perusal of the works of detached historian?, and who v/ish to 
methodize that knowledge, or even to refresh their memory on 
inaterial facts and the order of events. 

In the composition of these Elements the author has endeavour- 
ed to unite with the detail of facts, so much of reflection as to aid 
the mind in the formation of rational views of the causes and con- 
sequences of events, as well as of the policy of the actors ; but 
he has anxiously guarded against that speculative refinement 
which has some'imes entered into works of tiiis nature. Such 
works profess to exhibit the philosophy or the spirit of history, 
but are more adapted to display the writer's ingenuity as a theo- 
rist, or talents as a rhetorician, than to instruct the reader in tfie 
more aseful knowledge of historical facts. 

As the progress of the human mind forms ?i capital object in the 
study of history, the state of the arts and sciences, the religion^ 
Ja^vs, government, and manners of nations, are material parts, 
even in an elementary work of this nature. The history of liter- 
ature is a most important article in this study. The author has 
therefore endeavoured to give to each of these topics its due share 
of attention ; and in that view they are separately treated, in dis- 
tinct sections, at particular periods of time. 

ALEX. ERASER TYTLER, 

Edinburgh, April ^ 1 80 L 



The present edition of Tytler's Elements of Histo- 
ry, with the impiovements ^nd Continuation, is believ- 
ed to be decidedly superior to any edition which ever 
preceded it. So much information in so small a space, 
and at so small expense, cannot be found in any other 
book of the kind : in England the historical part of 
I his edition alone is published in three volumes at an 
'^xpense little short of twelve dollars! — Speaking of 
this work a literary gentleman who has examined the 
pages critically, as well of Tytler as of Nares' work 
and the improvements, remarks : " The whole, as such, 
is better calculated for schoo^ls than any other histor- 
ical work with which I am acquainted. It is a system 
of the Elements of History ; w hereas there is nothing 
of system in the works mostly used." 

To a part of this edition, the Questions are added : 
with the other, they are not included. These Ques- 
tions are, however, printed in a separate pamphlet, and 
%vill accompany the volume, and be for sale at the 
several bookstores. 

Concord, X, H. Oct, 1823. 



51^ 



CONTENTS. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Page. 
Advantaores arisin* from the Study of History, and more par- 
ticularly from prosecuting it according t© a regular Tlan l2 
Plan OF THE COURSE - - - 14 



PART FIRST. 

ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Earliest authentic Accounts of the History of the 

World - - - - la 
Considerations on the Nature of the First Govern- 
ments, and on the Laws, Customs, Arts and Sci- 
ences of the first Ages - - 20 
Of the Egyptians - - - 22 
Of the Phoenicians - - - 24 
The History of Greece - - 24 
Reflections on the first and rudest Periods of the 

Grecian History - - • 26 
Early period of Grecian History. Arr^onautic Ex- 
pedition. Wars of Thebes and Troy - 27 
Establishment of the Greek Colonies - 28 
The Republic of Sparta - - 29 
The Republic of Athens - - 31 
Of the state of the Persian Empire, and its History 

down to the War with Greece - 33 

The War between Greece and Persia - 35 

Age of Pericles - - - 37 

The Republic of Thebes - - 39 

Philip of Macedon - - - 35 

Alexander the Great - - 40 

Successors of Alexander - -, 43 

Fall and conquest of Greece - - 43 

Political Reflections arising from the History of the 

States of Greece - - 45 

State of the Arts in Greece - «v 45 

Of the Greek Poets . >. 49 

1* 



Sect. 


1. 


Sect. 


2. 


Sect. 


3. 


Sect. 


4. 


Sect. 


5. 


Sect. 


6. 


Sect. 


7. 


Sect. 


8. 


Sect. 


9. 


Sect. 


10, 


Sect. 


11. 


Sect. 


12. 


Sect. 


13. 


Sect. 


14. 


Sect. 


15. 


Sect. 


16. 


Sect. 


17. 


Sect. 


18. 


Sect. 


19. 


Sect. 


20. 


Sect. 


21, 



CONTENTS,. 

Page. 

Of Ibe Greek Historians - - 51 

Of the Greek Philosophers - - 62 

The History of Pi,ome - - 55 
Reflections on the Government and State of Rome 

under the Kings . - . 59 
Rome under the^Consuls .- - 60 
The Law of Volero - - 63 
The Decemvirate - - - 64 
Tncrease of popular Fewer - - 65 
Conquest of Italy by the Romans - 66 
History of Carthago - - 67 
History of Sicily . - - 68 
The Punic Wars ... 69 
The Gracchi, and the Corruption of the Common- 
wealth . > . 72 
Progress of the Civil Wars. Second Triumvirate, 

and fall of the Republic - - 75 
Considerations on such particulars as mark the Ge- 
nius and national Character of the Romans 79 
System of Roman Education - - 79 
Of the Progress of Literature arr,ong the Romans 80 
State of Philosophy among the Romans - 83 
Of the Public and Private Manners of the Romans 85 
Of the Art of War among the Romans - 86 
Reflections arising from a View of the Roman His- 
tory during the Commonwealth 88 
Rome under the Emperors - - 91 
The same subject continued - - 95 
Age of the Antonines, &;c. - - &8 
State of the Roman Empire at the time of Constan- 
tine. His Successors - - 100 
6ect. 45. Progress of the Christian Religion from its Institu- 
tion to the Extinction of Paganism in the Reign 
of Theodosius - - 104 
-ject. 46. Extinction of the Roman Empire in the West 106 
>ect. 47. Of the Origin, Manners, and Character of the Goth- 
ic Nations before their establishment in the Ro- 
man Empire - - 109 
'Sect. 48. Of the Manners, Laws, and Government of the 
Gothic Nations after their establishment in the 
Roman Empire - - - 111 
Sect. 49, Method of studying Ancient History - 114 



PART SECOND. 

MODERN HISTORY. 

Sect. 1. Of Arabia and the Empire of the Saracens 119'' 

Sect. 2. Moaarcby of the Franks - - 121. 



Sect. 


22 


Sect. 


23 


Sect. 


24 


Sect. 


24 


Sect. 


:.6 


Sect. 


27 


Sect. 


28 


Sect. 


29. 


Sect. 


30 


Sect. 


31. 


Sect. 


32 


Sect. 


33. 


Sect. 


34. 


Sect. 


35. 


Sect. 


36. 


Sect, 


37. 


Sect. 


Ot'. 


Sect. 


39. 


Sect. 


40. 


Sect. 


41. 


Sect. 


42. 


Sect. 


43. 


Sect. 


44. 



COMTENTS; VI I 

Page. 

Sect. 3. Reflections on the State of France during the Mero- 
vingian race of its Kin2,s - - 122 

Sect. 4. Charlemagne. The new Empire of the V/est 125 

Sect. 5. Manners, Governments, and Customs of the Age 

of Charlemagne - - •■ 127 

Sect. 6. Retrospective View of the Affairs of the Church 

before the Age of Charlemagne - 129 

Sect. 7. Empire of the West under the Successors of Charle- 
magne _ _ - 131 

Sect. 8. Empire of the East during the Eighth and Ninth 

Centuries - - - 132 

Sect. 9. State of tlic Church in the Eighth and Ninth Centu- 
ries . - - 133 

Sect. 10. Of the Saracens in the Eighth and Ninth Centuries 135 

Sect. 11. Empire of the West and Italy in the Tenth and 

Eleventh Centuries - - 136 

Sect. 12. History Ot Britain from its earliest Period down to 

the Norinan Conquest - - 137 

Sect. 13. Of the Government, I^aws, and Manners of the 

Anglo-Saxons _ . . 142 

Sect. 14. State of Europe during the Tenth, Eleventh, and 

Twelfth Centuries - - 144 

Sect. 15. History of England in the Eleventh, Twelfth, and 

part of the Thirteenth Centuries - 146 

Sect. 16. State of Germany and Italy in the Thirteenth 

Century _ - - 151 

Sect. 17. The Crusades or Holy Wars - - 151 

Sect. 18. Of Chivalry and Romance - - 154 

Sect. 19. State of Europe in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth 

Centuries - - - 157 

Sect. 20 Revolution in Switzerland - - 158 

Sect, 21. State of Europe continued in the Thirteenth, Four- 
teenth, and part of the Fifteenth Centuries 159 

Sect. 22. History of England in the Thirteenth Century 160 

Sect. 23, History of Scotland from the Eleventh to the Four- 
teenth Century - - - 162 

Sect. 24. History of Englanti in the Fourteenth Century 163 

Sect. 2Ef. England and France in the Fifteenth Century. 

State of Manners - - 165 

Sect. 26. Decline and Fall of the Greek Empire 167 

Sect. 27. Government and Policy of the Turkish Empire 168 

Sect. 28. France and Italy in the End of the Fifteenth Cen- 
tury - ' - - - 169 

Sect. 29. History of Spain in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth 

Centuries _ - - 171 

Sect. 20. France, Spain, and Italy, in the End of the Fif- - 

teenth and Beginning of the Sixteenth Century 172 

Sect. 31. History of England from the Middle of the Fif- 
teenth to the Beginning of the Sixteenth Cen- 
tury. Civil Wars of York and Lancaster 173 



vat CONTENTS. 

Page. 
Sect. 32. History of Scotland from the iMIddle of the Four- 
teenth Century to the End of the Reign of 
James V ... I75 

Sect. 33. Of the Ancient Constitution of the Scottish Gov- 
ernment ' - - 178 

Sect. 34. A View of the Progress of Literature and Science 
in Europe from the Revival of Letters to the End 
of the Fifteenth Century - - 179 

Sect. 35. View of the Progress of Commerce in Europe be- 
fore the Portuguese Discoveries - 182 

Sect. 36. Discoveries of the Portuguese in the Fifteenth Cen- 
tury, and their effects on the Commerce of 
Europe - - - 185 

Sect. 37. Germany and France in the Reigns of Charles V 

and Francis I - - - 187 

Sect. 38. Observations on the Constitution of the German 

Empire - - - 190 

Sect. 39. Of the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland, 

and the Revolution in Denmark and Sweden 191 

Sect. 40. Of the Reformation in England under Henry VIII 

and his Successors - - 194 

Sect. 41. Of the Discovery and Conquest oi America by the 

Spaniards - - - 195 

Sect. 42. Possessions of the other European Nations in Amer- 
ica - - - - 198 

Sect. 43. Of the State of the Fine Arts in Europe, in the Age 

of Leo X - - - - 200 

Sect. 44. Of the Ottoman Power in the Sixteenth Century 203 

Sect. 45. State of Persia, and the other Asiatic Kingdoms, in 

the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries 204 

Sect. 46. History of India - - - - 206 

Sect. 47. Ancient State of India ; Manners, Laws, Arts and 

Sciences, and Religion, of the Hindoos 207 

Sect. 48. Of China and Japan - - - 209 

Sect. 49. Of the Antiquity of the Empire of China. State 
of the Arts and Sciences, Manners, Government, 
Laws ... - 210 

Sect. 50. Mr. Bailly's Theory of the Origin of the Sciences 

among the Nations of Asia - - 214 

Sect. 51. Reign of Philip II of Spain. Revolution of the 
Netherlands, and Establishment of the Republic 
of Holland .... 216 

Sect. 52. Of the Constitution and Government of the Unit- 
ed Provinces . . - - 218 

Sect. 53. Reign of Philip II continued - - 219 

Sect. 54. State of France in the End of the Sixteenth Cen- 
tury, under Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX, 
Henry III, and Henry IV - - 220 

Sect. 55. History of England and Scotland in the Reigns of 

Elizabeth a»d Mary Queen of Scivts -- 22^. 



GONTENTS. IX 

Page. 
'^eet. 5G. Histoiy of Great Britain in the Reigns of James I 

and Charles I, - - - - 226 

The CommonAvealth of Eng^land - - 230 

Reig^ns of Charles II and James II - - 232 

On (he British Constitution - - 235 

Of the Public Revenue of Great Britain - 239 

History of Frar:ce under Lewis XIII - 240 

Spain under Philip III and Philip IV. Constitution 

of Portugal and Spain . _ _ 041 

Affairs of Germany from the Abdication of Charles 

V to the Peace of \VestphaUa - - 243 

France under Lewis XIV - " - - 244 

On the Constitution of France under the Monar- 
chy ----- 248 
Sect. 60. Of Peter the Great, Czar of Muscovy, and Charles 

XH, King of Sweden - - - 250 

Sect. 67. A View of the Progress of Science and Literature 
in Europe, fron the End of the Fifteenth to the 
End of the Sixteenth Century - - 252 



Sect. 


57. 


Sect. 


58. 


Sect. 


59. 


Sect. 


60. 


Sect. 


6L 


Sect. 


G2. 


Sect. 


63. 


Sect. 


64. 


Sect. 


65. 



APPENDIX, 



THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

:ieoi. 1. A General View of the History of Mankind in the 

Primeval Ages - _ - 257 

Sect. 2. Summary View of Jewish History - - 259 

Sect. 3. The Antiquity of the Scriptures - - 260 

Sect. 4. The Subject of the Books, and Characters of the 

Writers - - - - 261 

Sect. 5. Of the Antediluvian World -. - 267 

Sect. 6. First Ages after the Deluge - 268 

Sect., 7. Of the" Jews - - - 269 

Sejj^. 8. The History of the Hebrews during the Govern- 
ment of the Judges - _ _ 272 
Sect. 9. Retrospect of the Government of the Hebrews 273 
Sect. 10. Regal Government of the Hebrews - 274 
Sect. 11. Restoration of the Jews to their Liberty and Coun- 
try ... . - 277 
Sect. 12. The State of Learning and Commerce among the 

Jews - - - 281 

CQaclLLsioH - - - ^ -, 282 



contents: 



PART TIIIRD. 
MODERN HISTORY. 

Page. 

1. France, fram the death of Lewis XI V^., 1715, to 

the Peace of Vienna, 17.".8, - 7 285 

2. England, from the Accession of the House of Han- 

over, 1714, to the end of the Reign of George 

the rir>t, 1727, - - - 290 

3. Austria (and Germany), from the Peace of Rastadt, 

1714, to the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748, 297 

4. England, from the Accession of George II. to the 

Throne, 1727, to hia death, 1760, - 302 

5. State of Europe at the Conclusion of the Peace of 

Aix-la-ChaDelle, 1748, - - 30C 

6. Of the Seven' Years' War, 1755— 17G2, - 311 

7. From the Accession of George III., J760, to the 

Commencement of the Diipvites -with America. 
1764 - - - - ' 319 

8. Disputes between Great Britain and her A.merican 

Colonies, 1764—1783, - - 323 

9. France, from the Peace of Pari?, 1763, to the Open- 

ing of the Assembly of the States General, 1789, 32t> 

10. Austria, from the conclusion of the Seven Years' 

- War, to the death of Maria Theresa, 1763—1780, 340 

11. Reigns of Joseph II., Leopold II., &c., from 1765 to 

1800, - - - - 343 

12. Fra.nce, from the Opening of the Assembly of the 

States General, 1789, to the deaths of the King 
and Queen, 1793, - - . 331 

13. Great Britain, from the conclusion of the American 

War, 1783, to the Peace of Amiens, 1802, 357 

14. France, from the death of the King and Queen, and 

Overtiirow of the Girondist or Brissotine Party, 
1793, to the Establishment of the iJircctory, 1795, 369 

15. France, from the Establishment of the Directory, 

1795, to the Peace of Amiens, - 374 

16. France, from the Peace of Amiens to the Treaty of 

lilsit, 1807, - - - 0^4 

17. Spain and Portugal, from 1788 to 1814, - 391 

18. France, from the Peace of 1'ilsit, to the Abdication 

of NapoLon, 18! 4, - - - 397 

19. Poland, from the Commencement of the eighteenth 

Century, to the Treaty -f Vienna, 1815, 402 

20. Great Britain, from the Peace of Amiens, 1802, to 

the death of George III., 1820, - '409 

21. France, from the Entrance of the Ailies into Paris, 

March, 1814, to the final Evacuation of it by the 
Foreign Troops, 1818, - - 41 fj 



CONTENTS . Xi 

Page. 
Sect. 22. Northern States of Europe, from the Close of the 

seventeenth Century, - - - 420 

Sect. 23. Southprn States of Europe, from the Close of the 

seA'cnteenth Century, - - 429 

Sect. 24. Of India, or Hlndostan, - - 434 

State of Arts, Sciences, Religion, Laws, Government, &c. 441 

Botany, - - - . - 447 

Electricity - - - - - 449 

Mineralogy and Geology, . - - 454 

Geography, ----- 454 

Discoveries and Inventions, - - - 465 

Religion, ----- 467 

History, Polite Literature, Fine Arts, Sic. - - 468 

Treaty of Vienna, 1815, - - - 470 



PART FOURTH 



THE UNITED STATES. 

Sect. 1. Discovery of America, - , - 471 

Sect. 2. Discoveries by the English. Settlement of Virginia 474 
Sect, 3. Settlement of Massachusetts, Rhode-Island, Con- 
necticut, New- Hampshire, Maine, Maryland, 
North and South Carolina, New- York, New- Jer- 
sey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Georgia, 479 
Sect. 4. War with France, and Conquest of Canada. Dis- 
putes with Great Britain, andf^ar of the Revolu- 
tion, - - - - - 487 
Sect. 5. Establishment of the State a#i National Govern- 
ments. Wars with Tripoli and the Indians, &c. 499 
Sect. 6. War with Great Britain, &c., - - 502 



A Table of Chronology, - - - - 51^ 

Comparative view oe Ancient and Modern Geogra- 
phy, ^ . - , , 559 



iiSd 



1» T. HE value of any science is to be estimated according: to 
its tendency to i^romote improvement, either in private virtue, or 
in those qualities M'hich render man extensively useful in society. 
Some objects of pursuit have a secondary utility ; in furnishing 
rational amusement, which, relieving: the mind at intervals from 
the fatigue of serious occupation, invigorates and prepares it for 
fresh exertion. It is the perfection of any science, to unite these 
advantages, to promote the advancement of public and private 
virtue, and to supply such a degree of amusement, as to supersede 
the necessity of recurring to frivolous pursuits for the sake of re- 
laxation. Under this description falls the science of history. 

2. History, says Dionysius of Halicarnassus, is '' philosophy 
teaching by examples." The superior efficacy of example to pre- 
cept is universally acknowledged. All the laws of morality and 
rules of conduct are verified by experience, and are constantly 
submitted to its test and examination. IHstory, which adds to 
our own experience an immense treasure of the experience of 
others, furnishes innumerable proofs, by which we may verify all 
the precepts of morality and of prudence. 

3. History, beside its general advantages, has a distinct species 
of utility to diflferent men, according to their several ranks in soci- 
ety, and occupations in life. 

4. In this country it is an indispensable duty of every man of 
liberal birth, to be acquainted, in a certain degree, with the sci- 
ence of politics ; and history is the school of politics. It opens to 
us the springs of human aflfairs ; the causes of tho rise, grandeur, 
revolutions, and fall of empires ; it points out the reciprocal influ- 
ence of government and of national manners ; it dissipates preju- 
dices, nourishes the love of our country, and directs to the best 
means of its improvement ; it illustrates equally the blessings of 
political union, and the miseries of faction ; tlie danger, on on^ 
hand, of uncontroled liberty, and, on the other, the debasing in- 
fluence of despotic power. 

5. It is necessary that the study of history should be prosecuted 
according to a regular plan ; for this science, more })erhap3 than 
any other, is liable to perversion from its proper use. \Vith some 
it is no better than an idle amusement ; with others it is the food 
of vanity ; with a third class it fosters the prejudices of party, and 
leads to political bigotry. It is dangerous for tliose who, even 
with the beat intentions, seek for historical knowledge, to pursue 

2 



1 4 JOTR©DUCTI©N. 

the study without a guide ; for no science has been so little 
methodized. The sources of prejudice are infinite ; and the mind 
cf youth should not be left undirected amidst the erring-, the par- 
tial, and contradictory representations of historians. Besides the 
importance of bein^ ab:^ to discriminate truth from falsehood, the 
attention ought to be directed only to useful truths. Much dan- 
g-er arises from the perusal of memoirs, collections of anecdotes, 
fee. ; for many of those works exhibit the most depraved pictures, 
weaken our confidence in virtue, and present the most unfavour- 
able views of human nature. 

6. There are many difficulties which attend fhe attempt of form- 
ing a proper plan of study, and giving- an instructive view of gen- 
eral history. Utility is to be reconciled with amusement, preju- 
judices are to be encountered, variety of taste to be consulted, 
political opinions balanced, judgment and decision exercised on 
topics keenly controverted. The proposer of such a plan ought 
therefore to be possessed equally of firmness of mind and modera- 
tion of sentiment. In many cases he must abandon popularity for 
the calm approbation of his own conscience. Disregarding every 
partial and inferior consideration, he must direct his view solely 
to the proper end of all education, the forming of good men, and 
of good citizens. 

7. The object and general purpose of the following course is to 
exhibit a progressive view of the state of mankind, from the ear- 
liest ages of which we have any authentic accounts, down to the 
close of the 17th century, to delineate the origin of states and of 
empires, the great outlines of their history, the revolutions which 
they have undergone, the causes which have contributed to their 
rise and grandeur, and operated to their decline and extinction. 
For thess purposes it is necessary to bestow particular attention 
on the manners o{ nations, their laws, the nature of their govern- 
ments, their religion, their intellectual improvements, and their 
progress in the arts and sciences. 



mA^ m ^WM mwim^ 



Two opposite methods have been followed in gfiving acadeini 
cal lectures on the study of history : one exhibiting a strict chro- 
nological arrangement of events, upon the plan of Tursclline''s 
Epitome ; the other, a scries of disquisitions on the various heads 
or titles of public law, and the doctrines of politics ; ilku-trated 
by examples drawn from ancient and modern history. Objections 
occur to both these methods: the former furnishes only a dry 
chronicle of events, which nothing connects together but the or- 
der of time ; the latter is insufficient for the most important pur- 
poses of history, the tracing of events to their causes, the detec- 
tion of the springs of human actions, the display of tlae progress 
of society, and of the rise and fall of states and empires ; finally, 
by confining history to the exemplification of the doctrines of pol- 
itics^ we lose its effect as a school of morals. 

In the following lectures we hold a middle course between these 
extremes, and endeavour, by remedying the imperfection of each, 
to unite, if possible, the advantag^ts of both. 

While so much regard is had to ciironology as is necessary for 
showing the progress of mankind in society, and communicating 
just ideas of the state of the world in all the different ages to 
which authentic history extends, we shall, in the delineation of 
the rise and fall of empires and tiiair revolutions, pay more atten- 
tion to the connection of subjtct tlian that of iivtt. 

In this view we m.ust reject the common lutethod of arranging 
|;eneral history according to epochs, or csras. 

When the world is viewed at any period either of ancient or of 
modern history, we generally observe one nation or empire pve- 
dominant, to who?n all the rest bear, as it were, an under :- .rt, 
and to whose history we find that the principal events in ih': m- 
nals of other nations may be referred fiom some natural connec- 
tion. This predominant empire or state it. is proposed to < xi ibit 
to view as the principal object, v/hose history therefore i'^ tc be 
more fully delineated, while the rest are only incidentsi .y t:uch.;d 
when they come to have a natural connection with tie p.mcipal. 

The Jewish history, belonging to a different department of aca- 
demical education, enters not into the plan of fhcse lectures ; 
though we often resort to the sacred writings for detached facts 
illustrative of the manners of ancient nati^rs. See JijptndiX: 

In the ancient world, among the profane rations, the Greeks are 
the earliest people who make a distinguished figure, and whose his- 
tory is at the same tiaae authentic. 



16 rLAN or THE COURSE. 

The Greeks owed their civilization to the Egyptians and Phos- 
laicians. The Grecian history is therefore properly introduced by a 
short accovint of these nations, and of the Assyrians, their rivals, 
•onquer; d at one time by the Egyptians, and conquerors after- 
■n'ari.s of them in their turn. 

Rise of the independent states of Greece, and singular consti- 
tution of the two great republics of Sparta and Athens. 

The 'vvar of Greece v/ith Persia induces a short account of the 
preceding periods of the history af that nation, the rise of the 
Persian monarchy, the nature of its gorernment, manners, and 
reiiffion. 

The Grecian history is pursued through all the revolutions of 
the jiation, till Greece becomes a province of the Roman empire. 

Political reflections applicable to the history of the states of 
Greece. — Progress of the Greeks in the arts. — Of the Greek po- 
ets, — historian?, — philosophers. 

Rome, after the conquest of Greece, becomes the leading ob- 
ject of attention. 

Origin of the Romans. — Nature of their government under the 
kings. — Easy substitution of the consula.r for the regal dignity. — 
JJubsequent clianges in the constitution. — Progress to a democra- 
cy. — Extension of the Roniq.n arms. — Conquest of Italy. — Wars 
with foreign nations. 

The Punic wars open a collateral view to the history of Car- 
thage and of Sicily. 

Success of the Roman arms in Asia, Macedonia, and Greece. — 
Opulence of the republic from her conquests, and corruption of 
her manners. — The civil wars, and ruin of the commonwealth. 

Particulars which mark the genius and national spirit of the 
Romans : — education, — laws, — literary character, — art of war, — 
public and private manners. 

Rome under the emperors. — Artful policy by which the first 
emperors disguised their absolute authority.— ^Decline of the am- 
bitiovis character of the Romans. — Easy submission to the loss of 
civil liberty. — The military spirit purposely abased by the empe- 
rors. — The empire divided becomes a languid body, without in- 
ternal vigour. — The Gothic nations pour down from the north. — 
Its.ly conquered successively by the Heruli, Ostrogoths, and Lom- 
hards. — Extinction of the western empire. 

The manners, genius, laws, and government of the Gothic na- 
tions form an important object of inquiry, from their influence om 
the manners and policy of the modern European kingdoms. 

In the delineation of modern history the leading objects of at-- 
tention are more various ; the scene is oftener changed : nations, 
too, which for a while occupy the chief attention, become for a 
time subordinate, and afterwards re^a^sume their rank as prin- 
cipal ; yet the same plan is pursued as in the department of an- 
cient history : the picture is occupied only by one great object at 
a time, to which all the rest hold an inferior rank, and are taken 
notice of only when connected with the principal. 

Upon the fall of the western empire the Sa^racQns are \he fifit 



PLAN OF THE COURSE. 17 

who dii?ting-ui?h themselves by the extension of their ConcLUests, 
and the splendour of their dominion. 

While the Saracens extend their arms in the east and in Afri- 
ca, a new empire of the west is founded by Charlemag-ne.— The^ 
rise and progress of the monarchy of the Franks. — The orig:in of 
the feudal system. — State of the" European manners in the age of 
Charlemagne. — Government, arts and sciences, literature. 

As collateral objects of attention^ we survey the remains of the 
Roman empire in the east ; the conquests and settlements of the 
Normans ; the foundation and progress of the temporal dominion 
of the church of Rome ; the conquest of Spain by the Saracens. 

The conquest of England by the Normans solicits our attentioa 
to the history of Britain. Retrospective view of the British his- 
tory, from its earliest period to the end of the Anglo-Saxon govern- 
ment iu England. — Observations on the government, laws, and 
manners of the Anglo-Saxons. 

Collateral view of the state of the continental kingdoms of 
Europe, during the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries. — France 
under the Capetian race of monarchs. — Conquests of the Nor- 
mans in Italy and Sicily. — State of the northern kingdom-s of Eu- 
rope. The eastern empire. — Empire of Germany. — Disputes of 
supremacy betAveen the popes and the emperors. 

The history of Britain still the principal object of attention. — 
England under the kings of the Norman line, and the first prin- 
ces of the Plantagenet branch. — The conquest of Ireland, under 
Henry II. introduces an anticipated progressive view of the 
political connection between England and Ireland down to the 
present time. As we proceed in the delineation of the Britisli 
history, we note particularly those circumstances which mark the 
g'rowth of the English constitution. 

At this period all the kingdoms of Europe join in the crusades. — 
A brief account is given of those enterprizes. — Moral and politic- 
al effects of the crusades on the nations of Europe. — Origin of 
chivalry, and rise of romantic fiction. 

Short connected sketch of the state of the European natior>8 
after the crusades. — Rise of the house of Austria. — Decline of the 
feudal government in France. — Establishment of the Swiss repub- 
lics. — Disorders in the popedom. — Council of Constance. 

The history of Britain resumed. — England under Henry III. 
and Edward I.— The conquest ©f Wales.— The history of Scot- 
land at this period iatimately connected with that of England. — • 
View of the Scottish history from Malcolm Canmore to Robert 
Bruce. — State of both kingdoms during the reigns of Edward II. 
and III. — The history of France connected with that of Britaiti. — 
Frances itself won by Henry V. 

The state of the east at this period affords the most interesting- 
object of attention. — The progress of the Ottoman arms retarded 
for a while by the conquests of Tamerlane and of Scanderbeg. — 
The Turks prosecute their Victories under Mahomet the great, to 
the total extinction of the Constantinopolitaa empire^ — 1 he eon.- 
«iitution_axid policy of the Turkish empire* 
2* 



18 PLAN QF THE COURSE* 

France, in this age, emancipates herself from the feudal serri" 
tude ; and Spain, from the union of Arrag-on and Castile, and the 
fall of the kingdom of the Moors, becomes one monarchy under 
Ferdinand and Isabella. 

The history of Britain is resumed. — Sketch of the history of 
Eng^land down to the reign of Henry VIII. ; of Scotland, during 
the reigns of the five Jameses. — Delineation of the ancient con- 
stitution of the Scottish government. 

The end of the fifteenth century is a remarkable aera in the his- 
tory of Europe. Learning and the sciences underwent at that 
time a very rapid improvement ; and, after ages of darkness, 
ghone out tat once with surprising lustre. — A connected view ig 
presented of the progress of literature in Europe, from its revival 
down to this period. — In the same age the advancement of navi- 
gation, and the course to India by the Cape of Good Hope, ex- 
plored by the Portuguese, affect the commerce of all the Europe- 
an kingdoms. 

The age of Charles V. unites in one connected view the aflfaira 
«f Germany, of Spain, of France, of England, and of Italy. The 
discovery of the new world, the reformation in Germany and Eng- 
land, and the splendour of the fine arts under the pontificate of 
Leo X. render this period one of tiie most interesting in the an- 
jials of mankind. 

The pacification of Europe, by the treaty of Catteau Cambre- 
»is, allows us for a while to turn our attention to the state of Asi;r. 
A short sketch is given of the modern history of Persia, and the 
state of the other kingdoms of Asia, in the sixteenth and seven- 
teenth centuries ; the history of India ; the manners, laws, arts 
and sciences, and religion of the Hindoos ; the history of China 
and Japan; the antiquity of the Chinese empire, its manners, 
laws, government, and attainments in the arts and sciences. 

Returtiiug to Europe, the attention is directed to the state of 
the continental kingdoms in the age of Philip II. Spain, the 
Netherlands, France, and England, present a various and anima- 
ted picture. 

England under Elizabeth. The progress of the reformation in 
Scotland. — The distracted reign of Mary, queen of Scots. — The 
history of Britain pursued without interruption down to the revo- 
hUion.^ and here closed by a sketch of the progress of the Englisb 
constitution, and an examination of its nature at this period, when 
it became fixed and determined. 

The history of the southern continental kingdoms is brought 
down to the end of the reign of Louis XIV. ; of the northern, to 
the conclusion of the reigns of Charles XIL of Sweden, and of 
Peter the great, czar of Muscov3^ 

Vv'e finish this view of universal history, by a survey of the 
state of the arts and sciences, and of the progress of literature U 
Europe, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 

The chronology observed in this View of Universal History is 
that of archbishop Usher ^ ivhich is founded on the Hebrew text 
of the Sacred Writings. A short Table of ChroUQlogy ii iubjnn- 
ed to th^si h€ads, for th^ aast of tki HudmU 



PART FIRST. 



SECTION I. 



EARLIEST AUTHENTIC ACCOUNTS OF THE HISTORY 
OF THE WORLD. 

It is a difficult task to delineate the state of mankind in the ear- 
liest ages of the Tvoiid. We Avant information sufficient to g^ive 
us positive ideas on the subject ; but as man advances in civiliza- 
tion, and in proportion as history becomes useful and important, 
its certainty increases, and its materials are more abundant. 

Various notions have been formed with respect to the popula- 
tion of the antediluvian world and its physical appearance ; but 
as these are rather matters of theory than of fact, they scarcely 
fall within the province of history ; and they are of the less con- 
sequence, because we are certain that the state of those antedi- 
luvian agfes could have had no material influence on the times 
which succeeded them. 

The books of Moses afford the earliest authentic history of the 
a^es immediately following^ the deluge. 

About 150 years after that event Nimrod (the Belus of profane 
historians) built Babylon, and Assur built Nineveh, which becanae 
the capital of the Assyrian empire. 

Kiuus the son of Belus, and his queen Semiramis, are said to 
have raised the empire of Assyria to a higher degree of splendour. 

From the death of Ninias the son of Ninus, down to tlie revolt 
of the Medes under Sardanapalus, a period of 800 years, there is 
a chasm in the history of Assyria and Babylon. This is to be 
supplied only from conjecture. 

The earliest periods of the Egyptian history are equally uncer- 
tain with those of the Assyrian. Menes is supposed the first king 
©f Egypt ; probably the Misraim of the Holy Scriptures, the grand- 
son of Noah, or, as others conjecture, the Oziris of Egypt, the in- 
ventor of arts, and the civilizer of a great part of the eastern world. 

After Menes or Oziris Egypt appears to have been divided into 
four dynasties, Thebes, Thin, Memphis, and Tanis ; and the peo- 
ple to have attained a considerable degree of civilization : but a 
period of barbari«a iucceeded Uftder tke shepherd-kings. iult>»i*i- 



2@ ANCIENT HISTORY. 

in^ for the space of some centuries, down to the age of Sesostrig 
(1650 A. C. ), who united the separate principalities into one 
king-dom, re^^ulated its policy with admirable skill, and distinguish- 
ed himself equally by his foreign conquests, and by his domestic 
administration. 

SECTION 11. 

CONSIDERATIONS ON THE NATURE OF THE FIRST 
GOYERIsMENTS, AND ON THE LAWS, CUSTOMS, ARTS, 
AND SCIENCES OF THE EARLY AGES. 

j 1. The earliest government is the patriarchal, which subsists 
in the rudest periods of society. 

This has an easy progress to the monarchical. 

The first monarchies must have been very weak, and their ter- 
ritory extremely limited. The idea of security precedes that of 
conquest. In forming our notions of the extent of the first mon- 
archies, we are deceived by the word king, whicli accordiag to 
modern ideas, is connected with an extent of territory, and a pro- 
portional pov/er. The kings in scripture are no more thai), the 
chiefs of tribes. There were five kings in the vale of Sodom. 
Joshua defeated in his wars thirty-oue king-3, and Adonizedec 
threescore and ten. 

Ths regal office was in all probability at first elective. The 
transmission of the sceptre to the heir of the last monarch arises 
in time, from the experience of the raischiefs attending frequent 
elections, and the disorders occasioned by ambitious men aspiring- 
St that dignity. 

The first ideas of conquest must have proceeded from a people 
in the state of shepherds, who, necessarily changing their pas- 
tures, would probably make incursions on the appropriated terri- 
tory of their neighbotirs. Such were the Arabian or Phcenician 
invaders, whe, under the name of shepherd-kings, conquered 
Egypt. But kingdoms so founded could have little duration. 
Laws and good policy, essential to the stability of kingdoms, are 
the fruit of intellectual refinement, and arise only in a state of 
society considerably advanced in civilization. "** 

The progress from barbarism to civilization is slow, because 
every step in the progress is the result of necessity, after the ex- 
perience of an error, or the strong feeling of a want. 

i 2. Origin of LdK.'i. Certain political writers have supposed 
that in the infancy of society penal laws must have been extreme- 
ly mild. We presume the contrary to have been rather the case, 
as the more barbarous the people, the stronger must be the bond* 
to restrain them : and history confirms the supposition in the an- 
cient laws of the Jews, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. 

Among the earliest laws of all states are those regarding mar- 
riage ; for the institution of marriage is coeval with the formatioav 
of society. The first sovereigns of all states are said to have in- 
stituted marriage j ^.ad tile eaxiiest laws provided eacouragemenie 
to matiimowy. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 21 

Among; the ancient nations the husband purchased his wife by 
money, or personal services. Among- the Assyrians the marriage- 
able v/omen were put up to auction, and the price obtained for the 
more beautiful was assigned as a dowry to the more homely. 

The laws of succession are next in order to those of marriage. 
The father had the absolute power in the division of his estate. 
But primogeniture was understood to confer certain rights. 

Laws arise necessarily and imperceptibly from the condition of 
of society ; and each particular law may be traced from the state 
©f manners, or the political emergency which gave it birth. 
Hence we perceive the intimate connection between history and 
jurisprudence, and the light which they must necessarily throw 
upon each other. The laws of a country are best interpreted 
from its history ; and its uncertain history is best elucidated by 
its ancient laws. 

i 3. Earliest Mathods of nuthtnticating Contracts. Before the 
invention of wiling, contracts, testaments, sales, marriages, and 
the like, v/ere transacted in public. The Jewish and the Grecian 
histories furnish examples. Some barbarous nations authenticate 
their bargains by exchanging symbols or tallies. — The Peruvians 
accomplished most of the purposes of writing by knotted cords of 
Tarious colours, termed quipos. The Mexicans communicated in- 
telligence to a distance by painting. Other nations used an a- 
bridged mode of painting, or hieroglyphics. Before writing the 
Egyptians used hieroglyphics for transmitting and recording knowl- 
edge : after writing, they employed it for veiling or concealing 
knowledge from the vulgar. 

f 4. Methods for recording Historical Facfs^ and publishing 
Laws. Poetry and song were the first vehicles of history, and 
the earlies mode of promulgating laws. The songs of the bards 
record a great deal of ancient history ; and the laws of many of 
the ancient nations were composed in verse. 

Stones, rude and sculptured, tumuli and mounds of earth, are 
the monuments of history among a barbarous people ; and col- 
umns, triumphal arches, coins, and medals, among a more refined. 
These likewise illustrate the progress of manners and of the arte. 

f 5. Rtligiouf! Institutions. Among the earliest institutions of 
all nations, are those which regard religious worship. The sen- 
timent of religion is deeply rooted in the human mind. An unin- 
structed savage will Infer the existence of a God, and his attri- 
butes, from the general order and mechanism of nature ; and even 
the temporary irregularities of nature lead to religious veneration 
of the unknown power which conducts it. 

Before conceiving the idea of a Being utterly imperceptible to 
his senses, a savage would naturally seek that Being in the rnost 
striking objects of sense to which he owed his most apparent ben" 
efits. The sun, extending his beneficial influence overall nature, 
Tvas among the earliest objects of worship. The fire presented a 
symbol of the sun. The other celestial bodies naturally attracted 
their share of veneration. 

The symbolical mode of writing led to many peculiarities of the 
idolatrous worship of the ancient nations. Animals, symbolical of 



'52 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



the attributes of deity, became g^ods themselves. The same God, 
represented by difFerent animals, was supposed to have chang-ed 
himself into different forms. The g-ratitude and veneration for 
men whose lives had been eminently useful, joined to the belief 
«f the souPs immortality, led to the apotheosis o{ heroes. ]Maay 
excellent reflections on idolatry and polytheism are found in the 
feook called The Wisdom of Solomon. 

The priesthood was anciently exercised by the chief er m^.- 
narch ; but as an empire became extensive, the monarch exercised 
this office by his delegates ; and hence an additional source of 
veneration for the priesthood. The priests were the framers and 
the administrators of the laws. 

i 6. »^rts and Scitnces ef the Ane.ient J^aiions. The useful arts 
are the offspring of necessity ; the sciences arc the fruit of ease 
and leisure. The construction of huts, of weapons of war and of 
hunting, are the earliest arts. Agriculture is not practised till the 
tribe becomes stationary, and property is defined and secured. 

The sciences arise in a cultivated society, where individuals 
enjoy that leisure which invites to study and speculation. The 
priests maintained in that condition by the monarch were the ear- 
liest cultivators of science. The Egyptian science was confined, 
to the priests. Astronomy, which is among the earliest of the sci- 
ences, OAved its origin probably to superstition. Medicine was 
among the early sciences. All rude nations have a pharmacy of 
their own, equal in general to their wants. Luxury, creating new 
and more complex diseases, requires a profounder kno^vledge of 
jsicdicine, and of the animal economy. 



SECTION HI. 

OF THE EGYPTIANS. 

1. A great portion of the knowledge and attainments of the 
ancient nations, and by consequence of those of the moderns, is to 
be traced to Egypt. The Egyptians instructed the Greeks ; the 
Greeks performed the same office to the Romans ; and the latter 
have transmitted much of that knowledge to the world, of which 
we are in possession at this day.* 

2. The antiquity of this empire, though we give no credit to 
the chronicles of Manetho, must be allowed to be very great. The 
Mosaic writings represent Egypt, about 430 years after the flood, 
as a flourishing and well regulated kingdom. The nature of the 
country itself afl"ords a presumption of the great antiquity of the 
empire, and its early civilization. From the fertilizing effects of 
the waters of the Nile, it is probable that agriculture would b« 
more early practised there, than in regions less favoured by na- 
ture. The periodical inundations of the Nile are owing to the 
Tapours of the Mediterranean condensed on the mountains &f 
Ethiopia. 

* For the supposed orijia o/ Egyptian science, see Part II. Sect, 50. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 53 

3. The government of Eg-ypt was a hereditary monarchy. The 
powers of the monarch were limited by constitutional laws ;^yet , 
in many respects his authority was extremely despotical. The 
functions of the sovereign were partly civil and partly religious.— 
The king- had the chief regulation of all that regarded the worship 
of the gods ; and the priests, considered as his deputies, filled all 
the offices of state. They were both the legislators and the civil 
judges ; they imposed and levied the taxes, and reguJated weights 
and measures. The great national tribunal v/as composed of 
thirty judges, chosen from the three principal departraents of 
the empire. The administration of justice was defrayed by the 
sovereign, and, as parties were their own advocates, was no bur- 
den upon the people. The penal laws of Egypt were uncommonly 
severe. Female "chastity was most rigidly protected. Funeral 
rites were not conferred till after a scrutiny into the life of the 
deceased, and by a judicial decree approving his character. The 
characters even of the sovereigns were subjected to this inquiry. 

The re, was an extraordinary regulation in Egypt regarding the 
borrowing of money. The borrower gave in pledge the body o 
his father, and it was deprived of funeral rites if he failed to re- 
deem it. 

Population was encouraged by law ; and every man was bound 
to maintain and educate the children born to him of his slaves. 

4. The manners of the Egyptians were very early formed. They 
had a singular attachment to ancient usages ; a dislike to innova- 
tion ; a jealousy and abhorrence of strangers. 

5. They preceded most of the ancient nations in the knowledge 
of the useful arts, and in the cultivation of the sciences. Archi- 
tecture was early brought to great perfection. Their buildings, 
the pyramids, obelisks, &c., have, from the mildness of the cli- 
mate, suffered little injury from time. Pliny describes the con- 
trivance for transporting the obelisks. The whole country abounds 
with the remains of ancient magnificence. Thebes, in Upper 
Egypt, was one of the most splendid cities in the world. 

The pyramids are supposed to have been erected about 900 
years A. C. They were probably the sepulchral monuments of 
the sovereigns. The Egyptians believed that death did not sepa- 
rate the soul from the body ; and hence their extreme care to 
preserve the body entire, by embalming, concealing it in caves 
and catacombs, and guarding it by such stupendous structures. 
Mr. Bruce supposes the pyramids to be rocks hewn into a pyra- 
midal form, and encrusted, where necessary, with rnason-work. 

The remains of art in Egypt, though venerable for their great 
antiquity, are extremely deficient in beauty and elegance. The 
Egyptians were ignorant of the construction of an arch. The re- 
mains of painting and sculpture evince but a slender proficiency 
in those arts. 

6. The Egyptians possessed con«iderable knowledge of geome- 
try, mechanics, and astronomy. 1'hey had divided the zodiac into 
twelve signs ; they calculated eclipses ; and seem to have had aa 
idea of the motion of tixe earUri. 



24 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

7. The morality taught by the priests wa? pure and refined ; 
but it had little influence on the manners of the people. 

8. So likewise the theology and secret doctrines of the priests 
were rational and sublime ; but the worship of the people was de- 
based by the most absurd and contemptible superstition. 

9. Notwithstanding the early civilization and the great attain- 
ments of this people, their national character v/as extremely low 
and despicable among the contemporary nations of antiquity. The 
reason of this is, they were a people who chose to sequester them- 
selves from the rest of mankind ; they were not known to other 
nations by their conquests ; they had little connection with them 
by commerce ; and they had an antipathy to the persons and 
manners of strangers. 

10. There were likewise many circumstances of their own man- 
ners which tended to degrade them in the opinion of other nations. 
All professions were hereditary in Egypt, and the rank of each 
was scrupulously settled ; the objects of the religious worship were 
different in different parts of the kingdom, a fertile source of di- 
vision and controversy ;^ their peculiar superstitions were of the 
most absurd and debasing nature ; and the manners of the people 
were extremely loose and profligate. 



SECTION IV. 

OF THE PHCENICIANS. 

1. The Phosniclans were among the most early civilized nations 
of the east. We are indebted to them for the invention of writing, 
and for the first attempts at commercial navigation. The frag- 
ments of Sanchoniatho are the most ancient monuments of writing 
after the books of Moses. Sanchoniatho was contemporary with 
Joshua, about 1440 A. C. and 500 before the cities of Attica were 
united by Theseus. 

2. The Phoenicians, (the Canaanites of scripture), were a com- 
mercial people in the days of Abraliam. In the time of the He- 
brew judges they had begun to colonize. Their first settlements 
were Cyprus and Rhodes ; thence they passed into Greece, Sicily, 
Sardinia, and Spain ; and formed establishments likewise on the 
western coast of Africa. The Sidonians carried on an extensive 
eommerce at the tin^e of the Trojan war. 



SECTION V. 



THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 



1. Greece being indebted for the first rudiments of civilizatio» 
to the Egyptians and Phoenicians, its history is properly introduced 
by an account of those more aucieat nations. 



.4NCIENT niSTORY. ^O 

5:. The early antiquities of this country are diso;uised by lable ; 
but from the time when it becomes important, it has been treated 
of bv eminent writers. 

S." The ancient inhabitants of Greece, the Pelasgi, Hiantes, 
Leleges, were extremely barbarous ; but a dawning of civilization 
arose under the Titans, a Phoenician or Egyptian colony, who 
settled in the country about the time of Moses. The Titans gave 
the Greeks the first ideas of religion, and introduced the worship 
of tlieir own gods, Saturn, .mpiter, Ceres, fcc. Succeeding ages 
confounded those Titans themselves with the gods, and hence 
sprung numberless fables. 

4. Inachus, the last of the Titans, founded the kingdom of Ar- 
gos, 1856 A. C. ; and Egialtes, one of his sons, the kingdom of 
Sicyon. 

5. In the following century happened the deluge of Ogyges, 
1796 A. C. Then followed a period of barbarism for above 200 
years. 

6. Cecrops, the leader of another colony from Egypt, landed 
in Attica, 1582 A. C. ; and, connecting himself with the last king, 
succeeded, on his death, to the sovereignty. He built twelve 
cities, and was eminent, both as a lawgiver and politician. 

7. The Grecian history derives some authenticity at this period 
from the Chronicle of Paros, preserved among the Arundelian mar- 
bles at Oxford. The authority of this chronicle has been ques- 
tioned of late, and many arguments adduced presumptive of its 
being a forgery ; but, on a review of the whole controversy, we 
judge the arguments for its authenticity to preponderate. It fixes 
the dates of tlie most remarkable events in tlae history of Greece, 
from the time of Cecrops down to the age of Alexander the great. 

8. Cranaus succeeded Cecrops, in whosG time happened two 
remarkable events recorded in the Chronicle of Paros : the judg- 
ment of the areopagus between Mars and Neptune, two princes of 
Thsssaly ; and the deluge of Deucalion. The court of areopagus, 
at Athens, was instituted by Cecrops. The number of its judges 
varied at different periods, from nine to fifty-one. The deluge of 
Deucalion, magnified and disguised by the poets, was probably 
only a partial inundation. 

9. Amphyction, the contemporary of Cranaus, if the founder of 
the amphyctionic council, must have possessed extensive vi^v/s of 
policy. This council, from a league of twelve cities, became a 
representative assembly of the states of Greece, and had the most 
admirable political effects in uniting the nation, and givuig it a 
common interest. 

10.. Cadmus, about 1519, A. C., introduced alphabetic writing 
into Greece, from Phoenicia. The alphabet then had only sixteen 
letters ; a.id the mode of writing (termed bou-dopkcdon)^ was al- 
ternately from right to left and left to right. From this period the 
Greeks made rapid advances in civilization. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



SECTION VI. 

REFLECTIONS ON THE FIRST AND RUDEST PERIODS 
OF THE GRECIAN HISTORY. 

1. The country of Greece presents a larg^e, irregular peninsula, 
intersected by maj^y chains of mountains, separating its different 
districts, and opposing natural impediments to general intercourse, 
and therefore to rapid civilization. The extreme barbarism of the 
Pelasgi, who are said to have been cannibals, and ignorant of the 
use of fire, has its parallel in modern barbarous nations. There 
were many circumstances that retarded the progress of the Greeks 
to refinement. The introduction of a national religion was best 
iitted to remove those obstacles. Receiving this nexv system of 
theology from strangers, and entertaining at first very confused 
ideas of it, they would naturally blend its doctrines and worship 
with the notions of religion which they formerly possessed ; and 
he ice we observe only partial coincidences of the Grecian with 
the Egyptian and Phoenician mythologies. It has been a vain and 
preposterous labour of modern mythological writers, to attempt to 
trace all the fables of antiquity, and the various systems of pagan 
theology, up to one common source. The absurdity of this is best 
shown, by comparing the different and most contradictory solutions 
of the same fable given by different mythologists ; as, for example, 
lord Bacon and the abbe Banier. Some authors, with much indis 
cvetion, have attempted to deduce all the Pagan mythologies fron^ 
the holy scriptures. Such researches are not only unprofitable, 
but positively mischievous. 

2. /Superstition, in the early periods, was a predominant charac-^ 
teristic of the Greeks, To this age, and to this character of the 
people, we refer the origin of the Grecian oracles, and the institU" 
lion of the public games in honour of the gods. 

The desire of penetrating into futurity, and the superstition com- 
*non to rude nations, gave rise to the oracles of Delphi, Dodona,&c. 

The resort of strangers to these oracles on particular occasions, 
led to the celebration of a festival, and to public games. 

The four solemn games of the Greeks, particularly termed zcjoo^, 
v/ere the Olympic, the Pythian, the Nemean, and the Isthmian. 
They consisted principally in contests of skill in all the athletic 
exercises, and the prizes Avere chiefly honorary marks of distinc- 
tion. Archbishop Potter, in his Archcdogia Grccca, fully details 
their particular nature. These games had excellent political ef- 
fects, in promoting national union, in diffusing the love of glory, 
and training the youth to martial exercises. They cherished at 
once a heroicalaiid superstitious spirit, Avhich led to the formation 
Qi extraordinary and hazardous enterprises. 



A*:ciEfJT history'. 27 



SECTION VII. 

t>ARLY PERIOD OF THE GRECIAN HISTORY; THE AR- 
GONAUTIC EXPEDITION. WARS OF THEBES AND OF 
TROY. 

1. The history of Greece, for a period of 306 years precedir.^ 
'che Trojan war, is intermixed with fables ; but contains, at the 
same time, many facts entitled to credit, as authentic. Erectheus, 
or Erichthonius, either a Greek who had visited Egypt, or the lead- 
er of a new Eg-yptian colony, cultivated the plains of Eleu^is, and 
instituted the Elcusirian mysteries, in imitation of the Eg-;"fptiaU 
g-ames of Isis. These mysteries were of a religious and moral na- 
ture, conveying the doctrines of the unity of God, the immortali- 
ty of the soul, and a future state of reward ar^i punishment, 
Cicero speaks of them with high encomium* But the ceremonies 
connected with them were childish and ridiculous. 

2. Theseus laid the foundation of the grandeur of Attica, by 
uniting- its twelve cities, and giving them a common constitution, 
1257 A. C. 

3. The first great entcrprize of the Greeks was the i-\rgonautic 
expedition, 12G3 A. C. (Usher), and 937 A. C. (sir I. Newton). 
This is supposed to have been both a military and a mercantile 
adventure, and was singularly bold for the times in which it was 
undertaken. The object was, to open the commerce of the Eux- 
>ne sea, and to secure some establishments on its coasts. The as- 
tronomer Chli-on directed the plan of the voyage, and formed, for 
the use of the mariners, a scheme of the constellations, fixing with 
accuracy the solstitial and equinoctial points. Sir Isaac Newton 
has founded his emendation of the ancient chronology on a calcu- 
lation of the regular procession of the equinoxes from this period 
to the present, as well as on an estimate of the medium length of 
human generations. 

4. The state of the militarv art at this time in Greece may be 
estimated from an account of the sieges of Thebes and Troy. 

In these enterprizes the arts of attack and defence v/erc very 
rude and imperfect. The siege was entirely of the nature of 
blockade, and therefore necessarily of long duration. A dispute 
ibr the divided sovereignty of Thebes between the brothers Eteo- 
cles and Polynices, gave rise to the war, Avhich was terminated by 
single combat, in which both were killed. 

5. The sons of the com.manders slain in this war renewed the 
quarrel of their fathers, and occasioned the w^ar of the Epigonoi^ 
a subject on which Homer is said to have written a poem, now 
lost, equal to the Iliad and Odyssey. 

6. Ihe detail of the war of Iroy rests chiefly on the authority 
of Homer, and ought not, in spite of modern scepticism, to be re- 
fused, in its principal facts, the credit of a true history. After a 
blockade of ten years Troy was taken, either by storm or surprise, - 
1184 A. C, and being set on fire in the night, v/as burnt to the 
ground ; not a vestig^e of its ruins existing at the present day. 



28 Ai\'CiE^7T iiistohY. 

The empire fell from that mmiient. The Greeks settled a col«5nv 
near the spot, and the rest of the kingdom was occupied Ly the 
X^ydian?. 
" 7. Military expeditions at this time were carried on only in tin* 
spring" and summer. In a tedious siege the winter was a season 
of armistice. The science of military tactics was tlion utterly 
imknov/n, every battle beini» a multitude of single combats. The 
soldier had no pay hut his share of the booty, divided by the 
chiefs. The weapons of war were the sword, the bow, the jave- 
lin, the club, the hatchet, and the sling. A helmet of brass, an 
fuormous shield, a cuirass, and buskins were the weapons of de- 
r«-uce. 

SECTION YIII. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GREEK COLONIES. 

L Aboat eighty years after the taking of Troy began the war 
(tf the fleraclidae. Hercules, the son of Amphitryon, sovereign 
of Mycenfe, was banished from hi? country with all liis family, 
while the crown Avas possessed by a usurper. His descendants, 
after the period of a century, returned to Peloponnesus, and sub- 
griiing all their enemies, took possession of the states of Mycena;, 
Argos, and LacediemoH. 

2. A long period of civil war and bloodshed siicceede*!, and 
Greece, divided among a number of petty tyrants, suffered equally 
the miseries of oppression and anarchy. 

Codra?, king of Athens, showed a shigular example of patriot- 
sm, in devoting himself to death for his country; yet the Athe- 
nians, weary of monarchy, determined to make the experiment of 
a popular constitution. Medon, the son of Codrus, was elected 
chief mai^istrate, with the title of archon. This is the commence- 
ment of the Athenian republic, about 1068 A. C. 

3. It was at this time that the Greeks began to colonize. The 
oppression which they suffered at home forced many of them to 
abandon their country, and seek refuge in other lands. A large 
body of jEoiians from Peloponnesus founded twelve cities in the 
Lesse; Asia, of which Smyrna was the most considerable. A 
troop of Ionian exiles built Ephesus, Colophon, Clazomene, and 
ether towns ; giving to theii' new settlements the name of their 
native country, Ionia. The Dorians sent off colonies to Italy and 
Sicily, founding, in the former, Tarentum and Locri, and in tlie 
latter, Syracuse and Arigentum. The mother country considered 
its colonies as emancipated children. These speedily attained to 
eminence and splendour, rivalling and surpassing their parent 
states : and the example of their prosperity, which was attributed 
to the freedom of their governments, incited the states of Greece, 
oppressed by a number of petty despots, to put an end to the re- 
gal government, and try the experiment of a popular constitution. 
Athens and Thebes gave the first examples, which were soon fol- 
lowed by all the rest. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 29 

4. These infant republics demanded new laws ; and it was ne- 
cessary that some enlightened citizen should arise, who had dis- 
cernment to perceive what system of legislation was most adapt- 
ed to the character of his native state ; who had abilities to com- 
pile such a system, and sufficient authority with his countrymen 
to recommend and enforce it. Such men were the Spartan Ly- 
curgus and the Athenian Solon. 



SECTION IX. 

THE REPUBLIC OF SPARTA. 

1. The origin of this political system has given rise to much in- 
g^enious disquisition among the moderns, and affords a remarkable 
instance of the passion for systematizing*. It is a prevailing pro- 
pensity with modern philosophers to reduce every thing to general 
principles. Man, say they, is always the same animal, and, when 
placed in similar situations, will always exhibit a similar appear- 
ance. His manners, his improvements, the government and lav, s 
under which he lives, arise necessarily from the situation in which 
we find him ; and all is the result of a few general laws of na- 
ture, which operate universally on the human specie?. But in 
the ardour of this passion for generalizing, these philosophers oflea 
forget, that it is the knowledge of facts which can alone lead to 
the discovery of general laws : a knowledge not limited to the his- 
tory of a single age or nation, but extended to that of the whole 
species in every age and climate. Antecedently to such knovW- 
ed^c^ all historical system is mere romance. 

2. Of this nature is a late theory of the constitution of Sparta, 
first started by Mr. Browne, in his Essay on Civil Liberty ; and 
from him adopted by later writers. It thus accounts for the ori- 
gin of the Spartan constitution.* " The army of the Heraclida,. 
when they came to recover the dominion of their ancestors, Vvas 
composed of Dorians from Thessaly, the most barbarous of ail the 
Greek tribes. The Achaeans, the ancient inhabitants of Laconia, 
were compelled to seek new habitations, while the barbarians of 
Thessaly took possession of their country. Of all the nations 
which are the subject of historical record, this people bore the 
nearest resemblance to the rude Americans. An American tribe 
where a chief presides, where the council of the aged deliberate, 
and the assembly of the people gives their voice, is on the eve of 
such a political establishment as the Spartan constitution.'" The 
Dorians or Thessalians settled in Lacedsemon, manifested, it is 
said, the same manners with all other nations in a barbarous state. 
Lycurgus did no more than arrest them in that state, by forming 
their usages into laws. He checked them at once in the first stage 
©f their improvement. "He put forth a bold hand to that spring 
Vfhich is in society, and stopt its motion." 

* Logan's Philosophy of History, &c. 
3* 



30 



ANCIENT HISTORy^ 



3. This theory, however' ingenious, is confuted by facts. All 
ancient authors agree, that Lycurgus operated a total change on 
the Spartan manners, and on the constitution of his country ; v/hile 
the moderns have discovered that he made no change on either. 
The most striking features of the manners and constitution of 
Sparta had not the smallest resemblance to those of any rude na- 
tions with which we are acquainted. The eommvinion of slaves 
and of many other species of property, the right of the state m 
the children of all the citizens, their common education, the pub- 
lic tables, the equal division of lands, the oath of government be- 
tween the kings and people, have no parallel in the history of any 
barbarous nation. 

4. The real history of Sparta and its constitution is therefore 
not to be found in modern theory, but in the writings of the 
Greek historians, and these are our sole authorities worthy of 
credit. 

After the return of the Heraclidae, .Sparta was divided between 
the two sons of Aristodemus, Eurysthenes and Procles, who jointly 
reigned ; and this double monarchy, transmitted to the descend- 
ants of each, continued in the separate branches for near 900 
years. A radical principle of disunion, and consequent anarchy, 
made the want of constitutional laws be severely felt, Lycurgus^ 
brother of Polydectes, one of the kings of Sparta, a man distin- 
guished alike by his abilities and virtues, was hivested, by the con- 
curring voice of the sovereigns and peopl??, with the important du- 
ty of reforming and new-modelling the constitution of his coun- 
try, 084 A. C. 

5. Lycurgus instituted a senate, elective, of twenty-eight mem- 
bers ; whose oflice was to preserve a just balance between tho 
power of the kings and that of the people. Nothing could come 
before the assembly of the people which had not received the pre- 
vious consent of the senate ; and, on the other baud, no judgment 
• f the senate was effectual without the sanction of the people.. 
The kingTs presided in the senate ; they were the generals of the 
republic : but tliey could plan no euterprize without the consaat 
of a council of the citizens. 

6. Lycui-gus bent his attention most particularly to the regula- 
tion of manners ; and one great principle pervaded his whole sys- 
tem : Luxury is the bane of society. 

He divided the territoiy of the republic into 39,000 equal por- 
tions, among the whole of its free citizens. 

He substituted iron money for gold and silver, prohibited the 
practice of commerce, abolished all useless arts, and allowed evta 
those necessary to life to be practised only by the slaves. 

The vi^kqle citizens made their principal repast at the public ta- 
bles. The raeals were coarse and parsimonious ; the conversa- 
tion was fitted to improve the youth in virtue, and cultivate the 
patriotic spirit. 

1 he Spartan education rejected all embellishments of the un- 
derstanding- It nourished only the severer virtues. It taught 
the duties of religion, obedience to tlie laws, respect for parents, 
rcvcxeiipe fwv old a?;e; ijif:e.iible hoaour. undaunted courage, con-* 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 31 

tempt of danger and of death ; above all, the love of glory and of 
their country. 

7. But the general excellence of the institutions of Lycurgus 
was impaired by many blemishes. The manners of the Lacedae- 
monian women were shamefully loose. They frequented the 
baths, and fought naked in the palaestra promiscuously with the 
men. Theft was a part of Spartan education. The youth were 
taught to subdue the feelings of humanity ; the slaves were treat- 
ed with the most barbarous rigour, and often massacred for sport. 
The institutions of Lycurgus had no other end than to form a na- 
tion of soldiers. 

8. A faulty part of the constitution of Sparta was the office of 
the ephori : magistrates elected by the people, whose power, 
though in some respects subordinate, was in others paramount t® 
that of the kings and senate. 



SECTION X. 

THE REPUBLIC OF ATHENS. 

1. On the abolition of the regal office at Athens, the change of 
the constitution was more nominal than real. The archonship 
was, during three centuries, a perpetual and hereditary magistra- 
cy. Ill 754 A. C. this office became decennial. In 648 the ar- 
( hons were annually elected, and were nine in number, with equal 
authority. Under all these changes the state was convulsed, and 
the condition of the people miserable. 

2. Draco, elevated to the archonship 624 A. C, projected a re- 
form in the constitution of his country, and thought to repress dis- 
orders by the extreme severity of penal laws. But his talents 
\/ere unequal to the task he had undertaken. 

3. Solon, an illustrious Athenian, of the race of Codrus, attain- 
ed the dignity of archon 594 A. C, and was entrusted with the 
vare of framing- for his country a new form of government, and a 
new system of laws. He possessed extensive knowledge, but 
wanted that intrepidity of mind which is necessary to the charac- 
ter of a great statesman. His disposition was mild and tempori- 
^ing ; and, without attempting to reform the manners of his coun- 
trymen, he accommodated his system to their prevailing habits 
iind passions. 

4. The people claimed the sovereign power, and they received 
it ; the rich demanded offices and dignities : the system of Solon 
accommodated them to the utmost of their vdshes. He divided 
the citizens into four classes, according- to the measure of their 
wealth. To tlie throe first, the richer citizens, belonged all the 
offices of the commouAvealth. The fourth, the poorer class, more 
numerous than all the other three, had an equal right of suffrage 
with them in the public assembly, where all laws were framed, 
and measures of state decreed. Consequently the weight of the 
latter decided every question. 



32 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

5. To reg-ulate in some degree the proceedings of those assem- 
blies, and balance the weight of the popular interest, Solon insti- 
tuted a senate of 400 members (afterwards enlarged to 500 and 
600), with whom it was necessary that every measure should ori- 
ginate, before it became the subject of discussion in the assembly 
of the people. 

6. To the court of areopagus he committed the guardianship of 
the laws, and the power of enforcing them ; with the supreme ad- 
ministration of justice. To th'-s tribunal belonged likewise the 
custody of the treasures of the state, the care of religion, and a 
tutorial power over all the youth of the republic. The number of 
its judges was various at different periods, and the most immacu-' 
late purity of character was essential to that high office. 

7. The authority of the senate and areopagus imposed some 
check on the popular assemblies ; but as these possessed the ulti- 
mate right of decision, it was always in the power of ambitious 
demagogues to sway them to the worst of purposes. Continual 
factions divicled the people, and corruption pervaded ev^ry depart- 
ment of the state. The public measures, the result of the inter- 
ested schemes of individuals, were often equally absurd as they 
were profligate. Athens often saw her best patriots, the wisest 
and most virtuous of her citizens, shamefully sacrificed to the most 
depraved and most abandoned. 

8. The particular lavfs of the Athenian state are more deserv- 
ing of encomium than its form of government. The laws relating 
to debtors were mild and equitable, as were those which regulated 
the treatment of slaves. But the vassalage of women, or their ab- 
solute subjection to the controul of their nearest relations, ap- 
proached too near to a state of servitude. The proposer of a law 
found on experience impolitic was liable to punishment ; an enact- 
ment apparently rigorous, but probablv necessary- in a popular gov- 
urnment. 

9. One most iniquitous and absurd peculiarity of the Athenian, 
and some other governments of Greece, was the practice of the 
ostracism^ a ballot of all the citizens, in which each wrote down 
tlie name of the person in his opinion most obnoxious to censure ; 
and he who was thus marked out by the greatest number of voices, 
though unimpeached of any crime, was banished for ten years from 
his country. This barbarous and disgraceful institution, ever ca- 
pable of the grossest abuse, and generally subservient to the worst 
of purposes, has stained the character of Athens with many fla- 
g^rant instances of public ingratitude. 

10. The manners of the Athenians formed the most striking con- 
trast to those of the Lacedaemonians. At Athens the arts were in 
the highest esteem. The Lacedaemonians despised the arts, and 
all who cultivated them. At Athens peace was the natural state 
of the republic, and the refined enjoyment of life the aim of all its 
subjects. Sparta was entirely a military establishment ; and her 
subjects, when unengaged in war, were totally unoccupied. Lux- 
ury was the character of the Athenian, as frugality of the Spar- 
tan. They were equally jealous of their liberty, and equally brave 



ANCIENT HiSTORir. 33 

,") ' 
in ^var. The courage of the Spartan sprang from constitutional 
lerocity, that of the Athenian from the principle of honour. 

11. The Spartan g-overnment had acquired solidity, while all 
the rest of Greece was torn by domestic dissensions. Athens, a 
prey to faction and civil disorder, surrendered her liberties to Pi- 
sistratus, 550 A. C. ; who, after various turns of fortune, estab- 
lished himself firmly in the sovereig-nty, exercised a splendid and 
muniiicent dominion, completely gained the affections of the peo- 
ple, and transmitted a peaceable crown to his sona Hippias and 
Ilipparchus. 

12. Ilermodias and Aristogiton undertook to restore the democ- 
racy ; and succeeded in the attempt. Hipparchus was put to 
death ; and Hippias, dethroned, solicited a foreign aid to replace 
him in the sovereignty. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, meditated 
at this time the conquest of Greece. Hippias took advantage of 
the views of an enemy against his native country, and Greece wa.« 
iiow involved in a war with Persia. 



SECTION XL 

OF THE STATE OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE, AND ITS HIS- 
TORY DOWN TO THE WAR WITH GREECE, 

1. The first empire of the Assyrians ended under Sardanapalus, 
and three monarchies R.rose upon its ruins, Nineveh, Babylon, and 
the khigdom of the Medes, 

2. The history of Babylon and of Nineveh is very imperfectly 
known. The Medes, hitherto independent tribes, Avere united un- 
der a monarchy by Dejoces. His son Phraortes conquered Persia, 
but was hijnself vanquished by Nabuchodonosor I., king of Assy- 
ria, and put to death. Nabuchodonosor 11. led the Jews into cap- 
tivity, took Jerusalem and Tyre, and subdued Egypt. 

3. The history of Cyrus is involved in great uncertainty ; nor 
is it possible to reconcile or apply to one man the different ac- 
counts given of him by Herodotus, Ctesias, and Xenophon. Suc- 
ceeding his father Cambyses in the throne of Persia, and his un- 
cle Cyaxares in the sovereignty of the Medes, he united these 
empires, vanquished the Babylonians and Lydians, subjected the 
greatest pax't of the Lesser Asia, and made himself master of Sy- 
ria and Arabia. 

4. He was succeeded by his son Cambyses, distinguished only 
as a tyrant and a madman. 

5. After the death of Cambyses, Darius, the son of Hystaspes, 
was elected sovereign of Persia, a prince of great enterprize and 
ambition. Unfortunate in a rash expedition against the Scythians, 
he projected and achieved the conquest of India. Inflated with 
success, he now meditated an invasion of Greece, and cordially- 
entered into the views of Hippias, who sought by his means to re- 
gain the sovereignty of Athens. 

6. Government^ Manners^ Laws^ &c. of the Ancient Persians^ 
The jovernjtnent of Persia, was aa absolute monjirchy ; the will 



34 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

of the sovereig:u being subject to uo controul, and his person if - 
vered as sacred : yet the education bestowed by those monarchj 
on their children was calculated to inspire every valuable quality 
bf a sovereign. 

The ancient Persians in general bestowed the utmost attention 
on the education of youth. Children at the age of fiYe wefe com- 
mitted to the care of the magi, for the improvement of their mind 
and morals. They were trained at the same time to every manly 
exercise. The sacred books of the Zendavesta promised to every 
"Worthy parent the imputed merit and reward of all the good ac-' 
tions of his children. 

7. Luxurious as they were in after times, the early Persians 
were distinguished for their temperance, bravery, and virtuous 
simplicity of manners. They were all trained to the use of arms, 
and displayed great intrepidity in war. The custom of the women 
following their armies to the lield, erroneously attributed to effemi-' 
nacy, was a remnant of barbarous mannerij. 

8. The kingdom of Persia was divided into several provinces, 
each under a governor or satrap, who was accountable to the sove- 
reign for the v/hole of his conduct. The prince, at stated times, 
visited his provinces in person, correcting all abuses, easing the 
burdens of the oppre?sed^ and encouraging agriculture and the 
practice of the useful arts. The laws of Persia were mild and 
equitable, and the utmost purity was observed in the adinini^r-tra- 
tion of juslico, 

9. The religion of the ancient Persians is of great antiquity. 
It is conjectured that there v/ere two Zoroasters ; the first, the 
founder of this ancient religion, and of whom are recorded mira- 
cles and prophecies ; the second, a reformer of that reiigio!i, con- 
temporary with Darius the son of irlystaspes. The Ztndarcsfa^ 
or sacred book, compiled by the former, was improved and purified 
by the latter. It has been lately translated into French by M. 
Anquetil, and appears to contain, amidst a mass of absurdity, 
some sublime truths, and excellent precepts of morality. The 
theology of the Zendavesta is founded on the doctrine of two op- 
posite principles, a good and an evil, Ormusd and Ahriman, eter- 
nal beings, who divide between them the government of the uni- 
verse, and whose warfare must endure till the end of 12,000 years, 
when the good will finally prevail over the evil. A separation 
•will ensue of the votaries of each : tbe just shall be admitted to- 
the immediate enjoyment of Paradise ; the wicked, after a limit- 
ed purification by fire, shall ultimately be allowed to partake in 
the blessings of eternity. Ormsud is to be adored through the 
medium of his greatest works, the sun, moon, and stars. The fire, 
the symbol of the sun, the air, the earth, the water, have their 
subordinate worship. 

The morality of the Zendavesta is best known from its abridg- 
ment, the Sadder^ compiled about three centuries ago by the mod- 
ern Guebres. It inculcates a chastened species of epicurism ; al- 
lowing a free indulgence of the passions, while consistent with the 
welfare of society. It prohibits equally intemperance and ascetic 
mortiiication. It recommends, as precepts of religion, the cultiFa- 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 35 

tion of the earth, the plantings of fruit-trees, the destruction of 
noxious animals, the biinging" water to a barren land. 

10. fcuch were the ancient Persians. But their character had 
underg-one a great char.g-e before the period of the war with 
Greece. At thi:^ ti^ie they were a deg-enerate and corrupted peo- 
ple. Athens had recently thrown off the yoke of the Fisistratidae, 
and highly valued her new liberty, Sparta, in the ardour of pat- 
riotism, forgot all jealousy of her rival state, and cordially united in 
the defence of fneir common country. The I'ersians, in this con- 
test, had no other aivantag-e than that of numbers, an unequal 
match for superior heroism and military skill. 



SECTION X!I. 

THE WAR BETWEEN GREECE AND PERSIA. 

1. The ambition of Darius, the son of Hystaspcs, heightened 
by the passion of rever^ge, gave risn to the project of that mon- 
arch fcr the invasion of Greece. 'I'he Athenians had aided the 
people of Ionia in a:i attempt to throw otTthe yoke of Persia, and 
burnt and ravaged Sardis, the capital of I-ydia. Darius speedily 
reduced the lonians to submission, and then turned his arms 
against the Greeks, their allies ; the exile Hippias eagerly prompt^ 
ing the expedition. 

2. After an insolent demand of submission, which the Greeks 
scornfully refused, Darius began a hostile attack both by sea and 
land. I'he first Persian fleet was wrecked in doubling the pro- 
montory of Athos ; a second, of 600 sail, ravaged the Grecian isl- 
ands ; while an immense army landing in Euboea, poured down 
with impetuosity on Attica. The Athenians ni'^t them on the 
plain of Marathon, and, headed by Miltiades, defeated them with 
prodigious slaughter, 490 A. C. The loss of the Persians iu this 
battle was 630C, and that of the Athenians 190. 

3. The merit oi' Miltiades, signally displayed in this great bat- 
tle, was rspaid by his country with the most shockmg ingratitude. 
Accused of treason for an unsuccessful attack on the isle of Faros, 
iiis sentence of death v/as commuted into a fine of fifty talents ; 
which being unable to pay he was thrown into prison, and there 
died of his wounds,. 

4. The glory of ungrateful Athens was yet nobly sustained in 
the Persian war by 'i'he.nistocles and Aristides. Darius dying 
was succeeded by bis son Xerxes, the heir of his father's ambition, 
but not of his a.bilities. He armed, as is said^ five millions of 
men, for the conquest of Greece : 1200 ships of war, and 3000 
•hips of burden. Lauding in Thessaly he proceeded, by rapid 
marches, to Thermopyla?, 3. narrow defile on the 8inus Mahacus, 
Tiie Athenians and fcpartans, ixi'lnd only by the Thespians, i latai- 
ans, and Eginetcs, determined to withstand the invader. Leoni- 
das, king of Sparta, was chosen to defend this important pass with 
iJijUO men. Xerxes, after a weak attempt to corrupt him, impe- 
j-jousJy suBimoned him to lay down his amis. Let kim cotne^ said 



36 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Leondias, and take them. For two days the Persians in vain strove 
to force their way, and were repeatedly repulsed with great slaugh- 
ter. An unguarded track being at length discovered, the defence 
of the pass became a fruitless attempt on the part of the Greeks. 
Leonidas, foreseeing certain destruction, commanded all to retire 
but 300 of his countrymen. His motive was to give the Persians 
a just idea of the spirit of that foe whom th:^y had to encounter. 
He, with his brave Spartans, were all cut off to a man, 480 A. C. 
A raonument, erected on the spot, bore this noble inscription, writ- 
ten by Sinaonides : O stranger.' tell it at LaceiiBnion., that ive died 
here in obedience to her laws. 

5. The Persians poured down upon Attica. The inhabitants of 
Athens, after conveying their women and children to the islands 
for security, betook themselves to their fleet, abandoning the city, 
which the Persians pillaged and burnt. The fleet of the Greeks, 
consisting of 300 sail, was, attacked in the straits of Salairis by 
that of the Persians, amounting to 1^00 ship^^:. Xer::es himself 
beheld from on eminence on the coast the total discomfiture of hie 
squadron. He then fled with precipitation across the Hellespont. 
A second overthrow awaited his army by land: for Mardonius, at 
the head of 300,000 Persians, was totally defeated at Flatsea by 
the combined army of the Athenians and Lacedccmonians, 479 A. 
C. On the same day the Greeks engaged and destroyed the re- 
mains of the Persian fleet at Mycale. From that day the aribi- 
tious schemes of Xerxes were at an end ; and his inglorious life 
was soon after terminated by assassination. He was succeeded in 
the throne of Persia by his son Ariaxorxes Longimanus, 464 A. C. 

6. At this time the national character of the Greeks was at its 
highest elevation. The common danger had annihilated all par- 
tial jealousies between the slates, and given them union as a na- 
tion. But with the cessation of danger those jealousies recom- 
menced. Sparta meanly opposed the rebuilding of deserted Ath- 
ens. Athens, rising again into splendour, saw with pleasure the 
depopulation of Sparta by an earthquake, and hesitated to give 
her aid in that juncture of calamity against a rebellicn of her 
slaves. 

7. Cimon, the son of Miltiades, after expelling the Persians 
from Thrace, attacked and destroyed their fleet en the coa.t of 
Pamphylia, and, landing his troops, gaiiAcd a signal victory over 
their army the same day. Supplanted iii the pul lie *avour by the 
arts of his rival Pericles, he suffered a tomporaiy e,Kil(>, to return 
only with higher popularity, and to signalize himself still mere in 
the service of his ungrateful country, lie attaclved and tota'ily 
destroyed the Persian fleet of 300 sail, and, landing, in Cijicia, 
completed his triumph, by defeating 300,000 Persians under Me- 
gabjzes, 460 A. C. Artaxerxes nov/ had the prude tjce to sue for 
peace, ivhich was granted by the Greeks, on terms most honoura- 
ble f -. the nation. They stipulated for tl.-e £i-eedom of all the Gre- 
cian cities of Asia, and that the fleets of Persia should not ap- 
proach their coasf?« from the Euxine to the extre-u-e boundary of 
Pampbjlia. The last fifty years were the period of ik?. highest 
^lory of the Greeks ; and they oived their prospeiity e.^lirely ti# 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 37 

their union. The peace with Persia, dissolving- that «©nnexion, 
broug-ht back the jealousies between the predominant states, the 
intestine disorders of each, and the national weakness. 

8. The martial and the patriotic spirit began visibly to decline 
in Athens. An acquaintance with Asia, and an importation of 
her wealth, introduced a relish for Asiatic manners and luxuries. 
With the Athenians, however, this luxurious spirit was under the 
j^uidance of taste and g;enius. It led to the cultivation of the 
finer arts ; and the age of Pericles, though the national glory was 
in its wane, is the sera of the highest internal splendour and 
■aagnificence of Greece, 



SECTION XIII. 

AGE OF PERICLES. 

1. Republics, equally with monarchies, are generally regulated 
by a single will : only, in the former there is a more frequent 
change of masters. Pericles ruled Athens with little less than 
arbitrary sv/ay ; and Athens pretended at this time to the com- 
mand of Greece. She held the allied states in the most absolute 
subjection, and lavished their subsidies, bestowed for*the national 
defence, in magnificent buildings, games, and festivals, for her 
own citizens. The tributary states loudly complained, but durst 
not call this domineering republic to account ; and the war of 
Peloponnesus, dividing the nation into two great parties, bound 
the less cities to the strictest subordination on tlie predominant 
powers. 

2. The state of Corinth had been included in the last treaty 
between Athens and Sparta. The Corinthians waging war with 
the people of Corcyra, an ancient colony of their own, both par- 
ties solicited the aid of Athens, v/hich took part with the latter : a 
measure which the Corinthiaiis complained of, not only as an in- 
fraction ©f the treaty with Sparta, but as a breach of a general 
rule of tlae national policy, that no foreign power should interfere 
in the disputes between a colony and its parent state. War was 
proclaimed on this ground between Athens and Lacedaemon, each 
supported by its respective allies. The detail of the war, which 
continued for twenty-eight years, with various and alternate suc- 
cess, is to be found in Thucydides. Pericles died before its ter- 
mination ; a splendid ornament of his country, but a corrupter of 
its manners. Alcibiades rata a similar career, with equal talents, 
equal ambition, and still less purity of moral principle. In the 
interval of a truce with Sparta he inconsiderately projected the 
conquest of Sicily ; and, failing in the attempt, was, en his return 
to i^thens, condemned to death for treason. He hesitated not to 
wreck his vengeance against his country, by seiliug his services, 
first to Sparta, and afterwards to Persia, finally, he purchased 
his peace with his country, by betraying the power which protect- 
ed him, and returned to Athens the idol of a populace as versatile 
as worthless. 

4 



38 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

3. A fatal defeat of the Athenian fleet at iEgoa Potamos, bj 
Lysander, reduced Athens to the last extremity ; and the lace- 
dsemonians blockaded the city by land and sea. The war wa? 
ended by the absolute submission of the Athenians, who agTee( 
to demolish their port, to limit their fleet to twelve ships, and un 
dertake for the future no military enterprize, but under commam 
of the Lacedaemonians, 405 A. C. 

4. To the same Lysander, who terminated the Peloponnesiar 
war so g-loriouslj for Lacedsemon, history ascribes the first great 
breach of the constitution of his country, by the introduction o 
gold into that republic. Lysander, after the reduction of Athens, 
abolished the popular government in that state, and substitutet' 
in its place thirty tyrants, v/hose power was absolute. The mos< 
eminent of the citizens fled from their country ; but a band of pat- 
riots, headed by Thrasybulus, attacked, vanquished, and expellee 
the usurpers, and once more re-established the democracy. 

5. One event, which happened at this time, reflected more dis- 
grace on the Athenian name than their national humiliation : thi? 
was the persecution and death of Socrates, a philosopher who wat 
himself the pattern of every virtue which he tavight. The so- 
phists, whose futile logic he derided and exposed, represented 
him as an enemy to the religion of his country, because, without 
regard to the popular superstitions, he led the mind to the knowl- 
edge of a Supreme Being, the creator and ruler of the universe, 
and to the belief of a future state of retribution. He made his 
defence with the manly fortitu,de of conscious innocence; but in 
vain : his judges were his personal enemies, and he was condemn- 
ed to die by poison, 397 A. C. (See Section XXIII, § 5.) 

6. On the death of Darius Nothus, his eldest son Artaxerxes 
Mnemon succeeded to the empire of Persia. His younger bro- 
ther Cyrus formed the project of dethroning him, and with the aid 
of 13,000 Greeks engaged him near Babylon, but was defeated 
and slain ; a just reward of his most culpable enterprize. The 
remainder of the Grecian army, to the amount of 10,000, under 
Ihe command of Xenophon, made a most amazing retreat, tra- 
versing a hostile country of 1600 miles in extent, from Babylon to 
the banks of the Euxine. Xenophon has beautifully written the 
history of this expedition ; but has painted the character of Cyrus 
in too flattering colours, and without the smallest censure of his 
criminal ambition. 

7. The Greek cities of Asia had taken part with Cyrus. Sparta 
was engaged to defend her countrymen, and consequently was in- 
volved in a war with Persia. Had Athens added her strength, 
the Greeks might have once more defied the power of Asia ; but 
jealousy kept the states divided, and even hostile to each other ; 
and the gold of Artaxerxes excited a general league in Greece 
against Lacedeemon. Y^^gesilaus, king of Sparta, sustained for a 
time the honour of his country, and won some important battles 
in Asia ; but others were lost in Greece ; and a naval defeat near 
Cnidos utterly destroyed the Lacedaemonian fleet. Finally, to 
escape total destruction, the Spartans sued for peace, and obtained 
it bv the sacrifice to Persia of all the Asiatic colonies, 387 A. C. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 3^ 

Avtaxerxes further demanded, and obtained for liu allies the Athe- 
nians, the islands of Scyros, Lemnos, and Imbros : a disgraceful 
treaty ; a mortifying picture of the humiliation of the Greeks. 



SECTION XIV. 

THE REPUBLIC OF THEBES. 

1. While Athens and Sparta v/ere thus viedbly tending' to de- 
cline, the Theban republic emerged from obscurity, and rose for 
a time to a degree of splendour eclipsing; all its contemporary 
states. The republic was divided by faction, one party supporting- 
its ancient democracy, and the other aiming at the establishment 
of an oligarchy. The latter courted the aid of the Sppa'tans, who 
embraced that occasion to take possession of the citadel. Four 
hundred of the exiled Thebans fled for protection to Athens. 
Among these was Pelopidas, who planned and accomplished the 
'.eliverance of his country. Disguising- himself and twelve of his 
riends as peasants, he entered Thebes in the evening, and joining 
I patriotic party of the citizens, they surprized the heads of the 
'surpation amid the tumult of a feast, and put them all to death. 

pamincndas, the friend of Pelopidas, shared wdth him in the 
;lory of this enterprize ; and attacking, wiih the aid of 5000 
\.thenians, the Lacedaemonian ganison, drove them entirely out 
'"f the Theban territory. 

2. A war necessarily ensued between Thobes and Sparta, in 
■ vvhich the former had the aid of Athens. This, however, was but 

lor a season. Thebes singly opposed the power of Sparta, and 
the league of Greece : but Epaminondas and Pelopidas vv-ere her 
generals. The latter, amidst a career of glory, perished \\\ an ex- 
pedition against the tyrant of Pherrea. Epaminondas, triumphant 
at Leuctra and Mamtinea, fell in that last engagement, and with 
hira expired the glory of his country, 363 A. C. Athens and 
Sparta were humbled at the battle of Mantinea. 1 hebes was 
victorious ; but she was undone by the death of Epaminondas. 
All parties were tired of the war; and Artaxerxes, more power- 
ful among those infatuated states than in his own dominions, dic- 
tated the terms of the treaty. It was stipulated that each power 
should retain what it possessed ; and that the less states, nowncft 
from the yoke of the greater, should remain so. 



SECTION XV. 

PHILIP OF MACEDON. 

1. Greece was now in the most abject situation. The spirit &i 
patriotism appeared utterly extinct, and military glory at an end. 
Athens seemed to have lost all ambition ; -the pleasures of luxury 
had entirely supplanted heroic virtue ; poets, musicians, sculp- 
tors, and comedians, were now the only great men of Attica. 



40 iKClENT HISTORY. 

Sparta, no less changed from the simplicity of its ancient mati- 
ners, and its power abridged by the new independency of the 
states of Peloponnesus, was in no capacity to attempt a recovery 
•f its former greatness. In this situation Philip of Macedon 
formed the ambitious project of bringing under his dominion the 
whole of Greece. 

2. He had mounted the throne of Macedon by popular choice, 
in violation of the natural right of the nearer heirs to the crown ; 
and he secured his power by the success of his arms against the 
lllyrians, Pseonians, and Athenians, who espoused the interest of 
his competitors. Uniting to great military talents the most con- 
summate artifice and address, he had his pensionaries in all the 
states of Greece, who directed to his advantage every public 
measure. The miserable policy of these states, embroiled in 
perpetual quarrels, co-operated with his designs. A sacrilegious 
attempt of the Phocians to plunder the temple of Delphos excited 
the sacred tcar^ in which almost all the republics took a part. 
Philip's aid being courted by the Thebans and Thessalians, he 
began hostilities by invading Phocis, the key to the territory of 
Attica. iEschines, the orator, bribed to his interest, attempted to 
quiet the alarms of the Athenians, by ascribing to Philip a desiga 
enly of punishing sacrilege, and vindicating the cause of Apollo. 
Demosthenes, with true patriotism, exposed the artful designs of 
the invader, and with the most animated eloquence roused his 
countrymen to a vigorous effort for the preservation of their natu- 
ral liberties. But the event was ui-successful. The battle of 
Cheronasa, fought 337 A. C, decided the fate of Greece, and sub- 
jected all the states to the dominion of the king of Macedon. 
But it was not his policy to treat them as a conquered people. 
They retained their separate and independent governments, while 
ho controlled and directed all the national measures. Convoking 
a general council of the states, Philip was appointed commander 
in chief of the forces of the nation ; and he laid before them his 
project for the conquest of Persia, appointing each republic to fur- 
nish its proportional subsidies. On the eve of this great enter- 
prize Philip was assassinated by Pausanias, a captain of his 
^"uards, in revenge of a private injury, 336 A. C. The Athenians, 
on the death of Philip, meanly expressed the most tumultuous 
joy, in the hope of a recovery of their liberty ; but this visionary 
prospect was never realized. The spirit of the nation was gone ; 
and in their subsequent revolutions they only changed their mas* 
ters. 

SECTION XVI. 

ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

1. Alexander, the son of Philip, succeeded at the age of twenty 
to the throne of Macedon, and, after a few successful battles 
against the revolted states, to the command of Greece. Assem- 
bling the deputies of the nation at Corinth^ he communicated to 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 41 

them his resolution of prosecuting the designs of his father for the 
conquest of Persia. 

2. With an army of 30,000 foot, and 5000 horse, the sum of 70 
talents, and provisions only for a sing-le month, he crossed the 
Hellespont, and in traversing Phrygia visited tht? tomb of Achil- 
les. Darius Codomannus, resolved to crush at once this inconsid- 
erate youth, met him on the hanks of the Granicus with 100,000 
foot and 10,000 horse. The Greeks swam the river, their kin^; 
leading the van, and, attacking; the astonished Persians, left 
20,000 dead upon the field, and put to flight their whole army. 
Drawing: from his first success a presage of continued victory, Al- 
exander now sent home his fleet, leaving* to his army the sole alter- 
native, that they must subdue Asia or perish. Prosecuting their 
course for some time withoiit resistance, the Greeks were attacked 
by the Persians in a narrow A^alley of Cilicia, near the town of 
Issus. The Persian host amounted to 400,000 ; but their situation 
was such that only a small part could come into action, and they 
were defeated with prodigious slaughter. The loss of the Per- 
sians in this battle v/as 110,000; that of the Greeks (according 
to Q. Curiius^ only 450. 

5. The history of Alexander by Quintus Curtius, though a most 
elegant composition, is extremely suspicious on the score of au- 
thentic information. Arrian is the best authority. 

4. The generosity of Alexander was displaysd after the battle 
of Issus, in his attention to his noble prisoners, the mother, the 
wife, and family of Darius. To the credit of Alexander it must 
he owned that humanity, however overpowered, and at times ex- 
tinguished by his passions, ce^i'tainly formed a part of his natural 
character. 

5. The consequence of the battle of Issus was the submission 
of all Syria. Damascus, where Darius had deposited his chief 
treasures, was betrayed and given up by its governor. The Phoe- 
nicians vv^ere pleased to see themselves thus avenged for the op- 
pression which they had suffered imder the yoke of Persia. 

6. Alexander had hitherto borne his good fortune with modera- 
tion. Ftlix^ says Curtius, si hac continentia ad idiir.ium ritce per' 
xeverart poluisset ; sed nonduni Furtuna se anv.ao ejus infudcrat. 
lie directed his course towards Tyre, and desired admittance to 
perform a sacrifice to Hercules. The Tyrians shut their gatee, 
and maintained for seven months a noble defence. I'he city was 
at length taken by storm, and the victor glutted his reverge by 
the inhuman massacre of 8000 of the inhabitants. The fate of 
Gaza, gloriously defended by Betis, was equally deplorable to itg 
citizens, and more disgraceful to the conqueror. Ten thousand of 
the former v,-cre sold into slavery, and its brave defender dragged 
at the wheels of the victor's chariot ; Glorimite rege^ Achilkvi^ a 
quo genus ipse deducerel^ imitatum se esse^ pmia in hoitem capick- 
da. Curtius. 

7. The taking of Gaza opened Egypt to Alexander, and the 
whole country submitted without opposition. The course he now 
pursued demonstrated that in his conquests he followed no deter- 



42 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Kiined plan. Amidst the most incredible fatigues, he led his ar- 
my through the deserts of Lybia, to visit the temple of his father, 
Jupiter ^mmon. On his return he built Alexandria, at the mouth 
of the Nile, afterwards the capital of the Lower Egypt, and one 
of the most flourishing cities in the world. Twenty other cities 
of the same name were reared by him in the course of his con- 
quests. It is such works as these that justly entitle the Macedo- 
nian to the epithet of Great. By rearing in the midst of deserts 
those nurseries of population and of industry, he repaired the 
waste and havoc of his conquests. Except for those monuments 
of his glory, he would have merited no other eipithet than that 
assigned him by the brahmins of India, The Mighty Murderer. 

8. Returning from Egypt, Alexander traversed Assyria, and 
was met at Arbela by Darius, at the head of 700,000 men. The 
Persian had proffered peace, consenting to yield the whole coun- 
try from the Euphrates to the Hellespont, to give Alexander his 
daughter in marriage, and the immense sum of 10,000 talents. 
But these terms were haughtily rejected, and peace offered only 
upon the unqualified submission of his enemy. The Persians 
were defeated at Arbela, with the loss of 300,000 men. Darius 
(led from province to province. At length betrayed by Bessus, 
one of his ov/n satraps, he was cruelly murdered ; and the Per- 
iian empire, which had subsisted for 206 years from the time of 
Cyrus the great, submitted to the conqueror, 330 A. C. 

9. Alexander now projected the conquest of India, firmly per- 
•uaded that the gods had decreed him the sovereignty of the 
whole habiiable globe. He penetrated to the Ganges, and would 
have proceeded to the eastern ocean, if the spirit of his army had 
kept pace with his ambition. But his troops, seeing no end to 
their toils, refused to proceed. He returned to the Indus, whence 
•ending round his fleet to the Persian gulph under Nearchus, he 
marched his army across the desert to Persepolis. 

10. Indignant that he had found a limit to his conquests, he 
abandoned himself to every excess of luxury and debauchery. 
The arrogance of his nature, and the ardour of his passions, heigh- 
tened by continual intemperance, broke out into the most outra- 
geous excesses of cruelty, for which, in the few intervals of sober 
reflection, his ingenuous mind suffered the keenest remorse. From 
Persepolis he returned to Babylon, and there died in a fit of de- 
bauch, in the thirty-third year of his age, and thirteenth of his 
vei^'n, 324 A. C. 

11. Of the character of Alexander the most opposite and con- 
tradictory estiirates have been formed. While by some he is es- 
teemed nothing better than a fortunate madman, he is by others 
celebrated for the grandeur, wisdom, and solidity of his political 
views. Truth is rarely to be found in extreme censure or ap- 
plause. V. e may allow to Alexander the spirit and the talents of 
a great military genius, without combining with these the sober 
plans of a profound politician. In a moral view of his character, 
we see an excellent and ingenuous nature corrupted at length by 
aa unvarying current of success, and a striking^ example of the 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 43 

fatal violence of the passions, when eminence of fortune removes 
all restraint, and flattery stimulates to their uncontrolled indul- 
gence. 

SECTION XVII. 

SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER. 

1. Alexander, on his death-bed, named no successor, but g-are 
his ring- to Perdiccas, one of his officers. When his courtiers ask- 
ed him to whom he wished the empire to devolve upon his death, 
he replied, ^' To the most worthy ;" and he is said to have added, 
that he foresaw this leg-acy would prepare for hira very extraordi- 
nary funeral rites ; a prediction which was fully verified. 

2. Perdiccas, sensible that his pretensions would not justify a 
direct assumption of the government of this vast empire, brought 
about a division of the whole among thirty-three of the principal 
officers; and trusting to their inevita.Dle dissensions, he proposed 
by that means to reduce all of them under his ov/n avithority. 
Hence arose a series of wars and intrigues, of which the detail is 
barren both of amusement and useful information. It is sufficient 
to say, that their consequence was a total extirpation of the family 
of Alexander, and a new partition of the empire into four great 
mon?a-chies, the shares of Ptolemy, Lysmimachns, Cassander, and 
Seleucus. Of these the most powerful were that of Syria under 
Seleucus and his descendants, and that of Egypt under the Ptole- 
mies. 

" We cannot (says Condillac) fix our attention on the history 
of the successors of Alexander, though a great theatre is opened 
to oar view, a variety of scenes, and multiplied catastrophes. 
A picture is often displeasing from the very circumstance of its 
greatness. We lose the connection of its parts, because the eye 
cannot take them in at once. Stiil less will a large picture give 
xis pleasure, if every part of it presents a diflerent scene, each un- 
connected v/ith the other.'" Sucii is tiie history of the successors 
of Alexander. 



SECTION XVIII. 

FALL AND CONQUEST OF GREECE. 

1. Nor is the history of Greece from the period of the death 
of Alexander any longer an interesting or pleasing object of con- 
templation.' Demosthenes once more made a noble attempt to 
vindicate the national freedom, and to rouse his countrymen, the 
Athenians, to shake off the yoke of Maccdon. But it was too 
late. The pacific counsels of Phocion suited better the languid 
spirit of this once illustrious people. 

2. The history of the different republics present from this time 
nothing but a disgusting series of uninteresting revolutions ; with 
tile exception only of that last effort made by the Achsean states 



44 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

to revive the expiring- liberty of their country. The republic of 
Achaia was a league of a few of the smaller states to vindicate 
their freedom agairst the domineering spirit of the greater. They 
comnaitted the government of the league to Aratus of Sicyon, with 
the title of pra?tor, a young man of high ambition, wh"^ immedi- 
ately conceived the more extensive project of rescuing the whole 
of Greece from the dominion of Ivlacedon. But the jealousy of 
the greater states rendered this scheme abortive. Sparta refused 
to arrange itself under the guidance of the prastor of Achaia : 
and A^ratrs, forgetting his patriotic designs, sought only now to 
wreck his vengeance against the Laccdeemonians. For this par- 
pose, with the most inconsistent policy, he courted the aid even 
of the Macedoniaas: the very tyrants v/ho had enslaved his coun- 
try. 

3. The period was now come for the intervention of a foreign 
power, v/hich was to reduce all under its wide-spreading domin- 
ion. The Romans were at this time the most powerful of all the 
contemporary nations. The people of Etolia, attacked by the 
Macedonians, with a rash policy besought the aid of the Ptomans, 
who, eager to add to their dominion this devoted country, cheer- 
fully obeyed the summons, and speedily accomplished the reduc- 
tion of Macedonia. Perseus, its last sovereign, was led captive 
to Rome, and graced the triumph of Paulus iEmilius, 167 A. C. 
From that period the Romans v/ere hastily advancing to the do- 
minion of all Greece ; a progress'in which their art was more con- 
spicuous than their virtue. They gained their end by fostering' 
dissensions between the states, which they directed to their own 
advantage, corrupting their principal citizens, and using, in fine, 
every art of the most insidious policy. A pretext Vv-^as only want- 
ing to unsheathe the sword, and this was furnished by the Achaean 
states, who insulted the deputies of imperial Rome. This drew 
on tkeoi at once the resentment of the Romans. Ivictellus march- 
ed his legions into Greece, gave there battle, and entirely defeat- 
ed thera. Mummius the consul termina.ted the work, and made 
an easy conquest of the whole of Greece, which from that period 
became a Roman province, under the name of Achaia, 146 A. C. 

4. Rome had acquiied from her conquests a flood of wealth, 
and began now to manifest a taste for luxury, and a spirit of re- 
finement. In these pohits Greece was to its conquerors an in- 
structor and a model : 

Grsecia capta ferura victorem cepit, et arles 
Intulit agresti Latio. ' 

Hence, even though vanquished, it was regarded with a species 
of respect by ita ruder masters. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 45 



SECTION XIX. 

POLITICAL REFLECTIONS ARISING FROM THE HISTO- 
RY OF THE STATES OF GREECE. 

1. The revolutions which the states of Greece underwent, and 
the situations into which they were thrown by their connection 
and differences with each other, and their wars with foreign na- 
tions, were so various, that their history is a school of instruction 
in political science. The surest test ©f the truth or falsehood of 
abstract principles of politics is their application to actual experi- 
ence and to the history of nations. 

2. The oppression which the states of Greece suffered under 
their ancient despots, who were subject to no constitutional con- 
trol, was a njost justifiable motive for their establishing' a new 
form of g-ovemment, which promised them the enjoyment of great- 
er political freedom. We believe too that those new forms of gov- 
ernment were framed by their virtuous leg-islators in the true spirit 
of patriotism. But as to the real merits of those political fabrics, 
it is certain that they were very far from corresponding- in practice 
with what was expected from them in theory. We seek in vain, 
either in the history of Athens or Lacedsemon, for the beautiful 
idea of a well-ordered commonAvealth. The revolutions of gov- 
ernment which they were ever experiencing, the eternal factions 
with which ihey were embroiled, plainly demonstrate that there 
was a radical defect in the structure of the machine, which pre- 
cluded the possibility of regular motion. The condition of the 
people under those governments was such as partook more of ser- 
vitude and oppression, than that of the subjects of the most des- 
potic monarchies. The slaves formed the actual majority of the 
inhabitants in all the states of Greece. To these the free citizens 
were rigorous bond-masters. Bondage being a consequence of the 
contraction of debts even by freemen, a great proportion of these 
was subject to the tyrannical control of their fellow-citizens- 
Nor were the richer classes in the actual enjoyment of indepen- 
dence. They were perpetually divided into factions, which ser- 
vilely ranked themselves under the banners of the contending- 
chiefs of the republic. Those parties were kept together solely 
by corruption. The whole was therefore a systera of servility and 
debasement of spirit, which left nothing of a free or ingenuous na- 
ture in the condition of individuals, nor any thing that could fur- 
nish encomium to a real advocate for the dignity of human nature. 

Such was the condition of the chief republics of antiquity. 
Their governments promised ia theory, what they never conferred 
in practice, the political happiness of the citizens. 
I 3. '^ In democracy (says Dr. Fergusson) men must love equali- 
Jty; they must respect the rights of their fellow-citizens; they 
(must be satisfied with that degree of consideration which they can 
1 procure by their abilities fairly measured against those of an op- 
^.ponent; they must labour for the public without hope of profit ; 
' they must reject erery attempt to create a^ personal dependance.'* 



46 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

This is the pictiu'e of a republic in theory. If \\-e reverse this 
picture in every single particular, and take its direct opposite, we 
shall have the true portrait of a republican government in prac- 
tice. 

4. It is the fundamental theory of Montesquieu's Spirit of Laws^ 
that the three distinct forms of government, the monarchical, des- 
potical, and republican, are influenced by the three separate prin- 
ciples of honour, fear, and virtue ; and this theory is the foundation 
on which the author builds a great part of his political doctrines. 
That each of these principles is exclusively essential to its re- 
spective form of government, but unnecessary and even prejudi- 
cial in the others, is a position contrary both to reason and to truth. 
No form of government can subsist where every one of those prin- 
ciples has not its operation. The admission of such a theory leads 
to the most mischievous conclusions •, as, for example, that in mon- 
archies the state dispenses with virtue in its officers and magis- 
trates ; that public employments ought to be venal ; and that 
crimes, if kept secret, are of no consequence. 

5. It is only in the infant periods of the G-recian history that 
v/e are to look^^^^or those splendid examples of patriotism and he- 
roic virtue, \ *.ch the ardent mind of uncorrupted youth will 
ever delight to contemplate. The most remarkable circumsta.nce 
which strikes us on comparing the latter with the more early pe- 
riods of the history of the Greeks, is the total change in the gen- 
ius and spirit of the people. The ardour of patriotism, the thirst 
of military glory, the enthusiasm of liberty, decline with the 
rising grandeur and opulence of the nation ; and an enthusiasm 
of another species succeeds, and far less worthy in its aim : an 
admiration cf the fine arts, a violent passion for the objects of 
taste, and. for the refinements of luxury. This leads us to con- 
sider Greece in the light in which, after the loss of its liberty, it 
still continued to attract the admiration of other nations. 



SECTION XX. 

STATE OF THE ARTS IN GREECE. 

1. It is not among the Greeks that we are to look for the great- 
est improvements in the useful and necessary arts of life. In ag- 
riculture, manufactures, commerce, they never were greatly dis- 
tinguished. But in those which are termed the fine arts Greece 
surpassed all the contemporary nations. The monuments of those 
which yet remain are the models of im.itation, and the confessed 
standard of excellence, in the judgment of the most polished r;.a- 
tions of modern times. 

2. After the defeat of Xerxes the active spirit of the Athenians, 
whick would have otherM'ise languished for want of an object, 
taking a new direction from luxury, displayed itself signally in 
all the works of taste in the fine arts. The administration of Per- 
icles was the sera of luxury and splendour. The arts broke out 
at once with surprising lustre ; and architecture, sculpture, and 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 47 

painting", were carried to the summit of perfection. This golden 
age of the arts in Greece endured for about a century, till after 
the death of Alexander the great. 

3. The Greeks were the parents of that system of architecture 
which is universally allowed to be the most perfect. 

The Greek architecture consisted of three distinct orders : the 
Doric, the Ionic, and Corinthian. 

The Doric has a masculine grandeur, and a superior air of 
strength to both the others. It is therefore best adapted to works 
of great magnitude, and of a sublime character. The character 
of sublimity is essentially connected with chasteness and simpli- 
city. Of this order is the temple of Theseus at Athens, built ten 
years after the battle of Marathon, and at this day almost entire. 

The Ionic order is light and elegant. The former has a mascu- 
line grandeur ; the latter a femine elegance. The Ionic is like- 
wise simple : for simplicity is an essential requisite in true beauty. 
Of this order were the temple of Apollo at Miletus, the temple of 
the Delphic oracle, and the temple of Diana at Ephesus. 

The Corinthian marks an age of luxury and magniiicence, when 
pomp and splendour had become the predominant ' ssion, but had 
not yet extinguished the taste for the sublime ana beautiful. It 
attempts therefore a imion of all these characters, but satisfies not 
the chastened judgment, and pleases only a corrupted taste. 



First unadorned, 



" .\nd nobly plain, the manly Doric rose ; 
"The Ionic then, with decent matron grace, 
" Wer airy piHar heav'd ; luxuriant last 
" The rich Corinthian spread her wanton wreath." 

Thompson's Ldberty, Pnrt 2. 

4. The Twscan and the Composite orders are of Italian origin. 
The Etruscan architecture appears to have been nearly allied to 
the Grecian, but to have possessed an inferior degree of elegance. 
The Trajan column at Rome is of this order ; less remarkable for 
the beauty of its proportions than for the admirable sculpture 
which decorates it. The Composite order is what its name im- 
plies ; it shows that the Greeks had in the three original order* 
exhausted all the principles of grandeur and beauty ; and that it 
was not possible to frame a fourth, except by combining the for- 
mer. 

5. The Gothic architecture offers no contradiction to these ob- 
servations. The effect which it produces cannot be altogethe,'- 
accounted for from the rules of symmetry or harmony in the pro' 
portions between the several parts ; but depends on a certain ide^ 
of vastness, gloominess, and solemnity, which are powerful inn 
gredients in the sublime. j 

6. Sculpture was brought by the Greeks to as high perfectioi^ 
as architecture. The remains of Grecian sculpture are at thisi 
day the most perfect models of the art ; and the modern artist* 
have no means of attaining to excellence so certain, as tlie stuoy! 
os" those great master-pieces. \ 



48 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

7. The excellence of the Greeks in sculpture may perhaps be 
accounted for chiefly from their havings the human figure often 
before their eyes quite naked, and in all its various a.ttitudes, both 
in the palcEstra., and in the public g:ames. The antique statue* 
have therefore a grandeur united with perfect simplicity, because 
the attitude is not the result of an artificial disposition of the 
ilg^ure, as in the modern academies, but is nature unconstrained. 
Thus, in the Eying: Gladiator, when we observe the relaxation of 
the muscles, and the visible failure of strength and life, we can- 
not doubt that nature was the sculptor"'s immediate model of imi- 
tation.* 

8. Aprt this nature was in reality superior to what we now sec 
in the ordinary race of men. The constant practice of gymnas- 
tic exercises gave a finer conformation of body tlan what is now 
to be found in the vitiated pupils of modern efl'eminacy, the artif- 
cial children of modern fashion. 

9. A secondary cause of the eminence of the Greeks in the arts 
of design, was their theology, which furnished an ample exercise 
for the genius of the sculptor and painter. 

10. We vi\\\»i speak with more dilhdence of the ability of th« 
Greeks in paniLing, than vv^e do of their superiority in sculpture ; 
because the existing specimens of the former are extremely rare, 
and the pieces which are preserved are probably not the most ex- 
cellent. But in the want of actual evidence we have every pre- 
sumption that the Greeks bad attained to equal perfection in the 
art of painting and in sculpture ; for if we find the judgment 
given by ancient writers of their excctlence in sculpture confirmed 
by the universal assent of the best critics among the moderns, we 
have every reason to presume an equal rectitude in the judgment 
which the same ancient writers have pronounced upon thcii paint- 
ings. If Pliny is right in his opinion of the merits of those statue* 
which yet remain, the Venus of Praxiteles, and the Laocoon of 
Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus, we have no reason to 
suppose his taste to be less just when he celebrates the merits, 
and critically characterizes the difi'erent manners of Zeuxis, Apel- 
les, Parrhasius, Protogenes, and Timanthes, whose works have 
perished. 

11. The paintings found in Herculaneum, Pompeii, the Sepul- 
chrum Nasonianum at Rome, were probably the work of Greek 
artists ; for the Romans were never eminent in any of the arts de- 
pendent on design. These paintings exhibit great knowledge of 
proportions, and of the chiaro-oscuro ; but betray an ignorance of 
the rules of perspective. 

12. The music of the ancients appears to have been rery great- 
ly inferior to that of the moderns. 

13. The peculiar genius of the Greeks in tlie fine arts extended 
its eflects to the revolutions of their states, amd influenced their 
fate as a nation. 

* Cresiias vulnerahim defidenlem fecit, ex quo possii intelligi quaniujn 
r^'^Ut animi. Plin. lib. 36, Cresila* has represented a wounded man famt« 
iiig, from which we may perceive how much life still remains. 



4NCIE]?;r HISTORY. 49 



SECTION XXL 

OF THE GREEK POETS. 

-1. The Greeks were the first who reduced the athletic ixer- 
cises to a system, and considered them as an object of g-cneral at- 
tention and importance. The Panathensean, and afterwards the 
Olympic, the Pythian, Nemesan, and IstVimian games, were under 
the regulation of the laws. They contributed essentially to the 
improvement of the nation ; and, while they cherished martial 
ardour, and promoted hardiness and agility of body, they cultiva- 
ted likewise urbanity and politeness. 

2. The games of Greece were not confined to gymnastic or ath- 
letic exercises. They encouraged (competitions iu genius and 
learning. They were the resort of the poets, the historians, and 
the philosophers. 

S. In all nations, poetry is of greater antiquity than prose com- 
position. The earliest prose writers in Greece, Pherecydes of 
Scyros, and Cadmus of Miletus, were 350 years posterior to Ho- 
mer. Any remains of the more ancient poets, as Linus, Orpheus, 
&c., are extremely suspicious. Homer is generally supposed to 
have flourished about 907 A. C. ; to have followed the occupatioa 
of a wandering minstrel, and to have compoi?ed his poems in de- 
tached fragments, and separate ballads, and episodes. Pjsistra- 
tus, about 540 A. C, employed some learned men to collect and 
methodize these fragments ; and to this we owe the complete po- 
ems of the Iliad and Odyssey. The distinguishing merits of Horner 
are, his profound knowledge of human nature, his faithful and na- 
nute description of ancient manners, his genius for the sublime and 
beaatiful, and the harmony of his poetical numbers. His fidelity 
as a historian has been questioned; but the great outlines of his 
narrative are probably authentic. 

4. Hesiod was nearly contemporary with Homer ; a poet of 
whose merits we should be little sensible, if they were not seen 
through the medium of an immense antiquity. The poem of the 
Works and Days contains some judicious precepts of agriculture. 
The Theogony is an obscure history of the origin of the gods, and 
tlje formation of the universe. 

5. About two centuries after Homer and Hesiod, flouri;>hed 
Archilochas, the inventor of Iambic verse ; Terpandcr, equally 
eminent as a poet and a musician ; Sappho, of whose composition 
we have two exquisite odes ; Alc?eus and Simonidos, of whom 
there are some fine fragments ; and Pindar and Anacreon, who 
have left enough to allow an accurate estimate of their merits. 

6. Pindar was esteemed by the ancients the chief of the lyric 
poets. He possesses unbounsled fancy, and great subliniity rf im- 
agery ; but his digressions are so rapid and so frequeuL, that v^^e 
cannot discover the chain of thon-ht ; and his cxi:re^non is al- 
lowed, even by Longiuuo, to be olien obscure and uuiutelligible, 

5 



50 ANCIENT HISTORV. 

7. Anacreon is a great contrast to Pindar. His fancy sug-gests 
only familiar and luxurious pictures. He has no comprehension 
of the sublime, but contents himself with the easy, the graceful, 
and the wanton. His morality is loose, and his sentiments little 
else than the effusions of a voluptuary. 

8. The collection termed Anthologia^ which consists chiefly of 
ancient epigrams, contains many valuable specimens of the taste 
and poetical fancy of the Greeks, and contributes materially to the 
illustration of their manners. The best of the modern epigraras may 
be traced to this source. 

9. The sera of the origin of dramatic composition among the 
Greeks is about 590 A. C. Thespis was contemporary with Solon. 
"Within little more than a "century, the Greek drama was carried 
to its highest perfection, for ^Tschylus died 456 A. C. ^Eschylu* 
wrote sixty-six tragedies ; for thirteen of which he gained the first 
prize of dramatic poetry at the Olympic games. Like Shakspeare, 
his genius is sublime, and his imagination unbounded. He dis- 
dained regularity of plan, and all artiiicial restriction ; but unfor- 
tunately he disdained likewise the restraints of decency and of 
g-ood morals. 

10. Euripides and Sophocles flourished about fifty years after 
JT.schylus. Euripides is most masterly in painting the passion of 
love, both in its tenderest emotions and in its most violent parox- 
ysms : yet the characters of his women demonstrate that he had 
no great opinion cf the virtues of the sex. Lcnginus does not rate 
high his talent for the sublime. But he possessed a much superior 
excellence : his verses, with great eloquence and harmony, breathe 
the most admirable morality. There remain twenty tragedies of 
Euripides ; and of these the Medea is deemed the best. 

11. Sophocles shared with Euripides the palm of dramatic poet- 
ry ; and if> judged to have surpassed him in the grand and the sub- 
lime. Of 120 tragedies which he composed, only seven remain, 
■"i'hcy display great knowledge of the human heart, and a general 
chastity and simplicity of expression, ^hich gave the greater force 
to tl\e occasional strokes of the sublime. The Oedipus of Sophocles 
is esteemed the most perfect production of the Greek stage. 

1^2. The Greek comedy is divided into the ancient^ the middle^ 
and the new. The first was a licentious tatire and mimicry of real 
personages, exhibited by name upon the stage. The laws repres- 
sed this extreme license, and gave birth to the middle comedy, 
v/hich continued the satirical delineation of real persons, but under 
fictitious names. The last improvement consisted in banishing all 
personal satire, and confining comedy to a delineation of manners. 
This V. as the new comedy. Of the first species, the ancient, we 
have no remains. 7'he dramas of Aristophanes are an example 
ct the second or middle comedy. The grossness of his raillery, and 
the malevolence which frequently ijispired it, are a reproach to the 
morals of that people which could tolerate it. Yet his works have 
their value, as throwhig light upon ancifent manners. 

13. Of the new comedy, Menander v,^as the bright example ; 
possessing a vein of the most delicate wit, with the utmost purity 
oi moral sentiment. Unfortunately we have nothings of hinwe- 



ANCIENT HISTORY. SI 

urtainiii^ but a few fragments preserved by Athenfeus. We see a 
£;reat deal of his merits, however, in his copyist and translator, 
Terence. 

14. The actors, both in the Greek and Roman theatres, wore 
masks, of which tlie features were strong-ly painted, and the moutli 
so constructed as to increase the power of the voice. It is probable 
that the tragedy and comedy of the Greeks and Romans were sot 
to music, and sung, like the recitative in the Italian opera. iSome- 
tiuies one person was employed to recite or sing the part, and an- 
other to perform the corresponding action or gesticulation. 

15. Tho mimes were burlesque parodies on the seriows tragedy 
and comedy. The pantomimes consisted solely of gesticulation, 
and were carried to great perfection. 



SECTION XXII. 

OF THE GREEK HISTORIANS. 

1. Tlie most eminent of the Greek historians were contempo- 
raries. Herodotus died 413 A. C. ; Thucydides 391 A. C. ; and 
Xenophon was about twenty years younger than Thucydides. He- 
rodotus writes the joint history of the Greeks and Persians, from 
the time of Cyrus, to the battles of Plataea and Mycale. He treats 
incidentally likewise of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Medes and Lydi- 
ans. His veracity is to be depended on in all matters that fell 
iinder his own observation ; but he admits too easily the reports 
of others, and is in general fond of the marvellous. His style is 
pure, and he has a copious elocution. 

3. Thucydides, himself an able general, has written, with great 
ability, the history of the first twentv-one years of the Peloponne- 
sian war ; introducing it wilh a short narrative of the preceding 
periods of the history of Greece. He is justly esteemed for his 
fidelity and candour. His style is a contrast to the full and flowing 
period of Herodotus, possessing a sententious brevity, Avhich is at 
once lively and energetic. The history of the remaining six years 
of the war of Peloponnesus was written by Theopompus and 
Xenophon. 

3. Xenophon commanded the Greek army in the service of Cy- 
rus the younger, in his culpable enterprise against his brother 
Artaxerxes. (See Sect. XHI, { 6.) After the failure of this enter- 
prise, Xenophon directed that astonishing retreat from Babylon to 
the Euxine, of which he has given a splendid and faithful narra- 
tive. He wrote likewise the Cyropedia, or the history of the 
elder Cyrus, which is believed to be rather an imaginary delinea- 
tion of an accomplished prince than a real narration. He contin- 
ued the history of Thucydides, and has left two excellent political 
tracts on the constitutions of Lacedaemon and Athens. His style 
is simple and energetic ; but the brevity of his sentences sometimes 
obscures his meaning. 

4. Greece, in its decline, produced some historians of great 
eminence. Polybius, a native of Megalopolis, wrote forty books 



^ ANCIENT HISTORY* 

of the Roman and Greek history during his own a^e ; th&t is, lioia 
the beg-inning of the second Punic war to the reduction of Mace- 
donia i-.^.to a Roman province ; but of this great work, only the first 
five books are entire, with an epitome of the following twelve. He 
merits less the praise of eloquence than of authentic information, 
and most judicious reflection. 

5. Didorus Siculus flourished in the time of Augustus, and com- 
prised, in forty books, a general history of the world, under the 
title of Libiiotheca Historica. No more remain than fifteen books ; 
of which the first five treat of the fabulous periods, and the history 
of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, &c. prior to thf Tro- 
jan war. 1 he next five are wanting. The remainder brings dowa 
the history from the expedition of Xerxes into Greece till after the 
death of Alexander the great. He is taxed with chronological in- 
accuracy io. the earlier parts of his Avork ; but the authenticity and 
correctness of the later periods are unimpeached. 

6. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, eminent both as a historian and 
rhetorician, flourished in the age of Augustus. His Koman Anti- 
quities contain much valuable information, though his work is too 
much tinctured with the spirit of systematizing. 

7. Plutarch, a native of C'hcronea, in Bceotia, flourished in the 
reign of Ntro. His IJves of Illustrious Men is one of the most val- 
uable of the literary works of the ancients ; introducing us to an 
acquaintance with the private character and m.anners of those em- 
inent persons whose public achievements are recrrded by profes- 
fsed historians. His morality is excellent ; and his stylo, though 
unpolished, is clear and energetic. 

8. Arrian wrote, in the reign of Adrian, seven books of the warsr 
of Alexander, with great judgment and fidelity ; his narrative be- 
ing composed on the authority of Aristobulus and Ptolemy, tv/o of 
Alexander's principal ctfiGcrs. His style is unadorned, but chaste, 
j^^ers} icuous and manly. 



SECTION xxiri. 

OF THE GREEK PHILOSOPHERS. 

1. After the time of Homer and Hesiod, the inceasing reh'sh 
for poetical composition gave rise to a set of men termed rhapso- 
tUsts, whora employment was to recite at the games and festival* 
the compositions of the older poets, and to comment on their mer- 
its and exp]a,in their doctrines. Some of these, founding schools of 
instruction, were dignified by their pupils with the epithet of 
Sophists, ci teachers of wisdom. 

2. The most ancient school of philosophy was that founded by 
Thales, 640 A. C, and termed the Ionic. Thales is celebrated 
for his knowledge of geometry and astronomy. His metaphysical 
doctrines are imperfectly known. He taught the belief of a first 
cause, and an over-ruiing providence ; but supposed the Divinity 
to animate the universe, as the soul does the body. The moral 
dc ctrines of the Ionic school were pure and rational. The most 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 53 

-eminent of the disciples of Thales were Aaaxiinander and Anas- 
agoras. 

3. Soon after the Ionic, arose the Italian sect, founded by Py- 
thagoras, who was bom about 586 A. C. He is supposed to have 
derived much of his knowleda:e from Egypt ; and he had, like the 
Eg-yptian priests, a public doctrine for the people, and a private 
for his disciples ; the former a good system of morals, the latter- 
probably unintelli^-ible mystery. His notions of the Divinity were 
akin to those of Thales ; but he believed in the eternity of the 
-universe, and its co-existence with the Deity. He taug-lU the 
transmigration of the soul through difierent bodies. His disciples 
lived in common ; abstained rigorously from the ilesh of ariuials ; 
and held music in high estimation, as a corrective of tlio passions. 
Pythagoras believed the earth to be a sphere, the planets to be 
inhabited, and the fixed stars to be the suns and centres of other 
systems. His most eminent followers were Empedocles, Epichar- 
mus, Ocellus Lucanus, Timaeus, Archytas. 

4. The Eleatic sect was founded by Xenophanes, about 500 
A. C. Its chief supporters were Parmenides, Zeuo, and Leucippus, 
citizens of Flea. The metaphysical notions of this sect were ut- 
terly unintelligible. They maintained that things had neither be- 
ginning, end, nor any change ; and that all the changes we per- 
ceive are in our own senses. Yet Leucippus taught the doctrine 
of atoms, whence he supposed all material substances to be form- 
ed. Of this sect were Democritus and Heraciitus. 

5. The Socratic school arose from the Ionic. Socrates died 401 
A. C, the wisest, the most virtuous of the Greeks. He exploded 
the futile logic of the Sophists, which consisted of a set of general 
arguments, applicable to all manner of questions, and by which 
they could, with an ?4-»pearance of plausibility, maintain either side 
of any proposition. Socrates always brought his antagonist to par- 
ticulars ; beginning with a simple and undeniable position, which 
being granted, another followed equally undeniable, till the dis- 
putant was conducted step by step, by his own concessions, to that 
side of the question on wdiich lay the truth. His rivals lost all 
credit as philosophers, but had influence to procure the destruc- 
tion of the man who had exposed them. The doctrines of Socrates 
are to be learned from Plato and Xenophon. He taaglit tb'- belief 
of a first cause, whose beneficence is equal to his power, tlie Cre- 
ator and Ptuler of the universe. He inculcated the morai cti^exicy 
of man, the immortality of the soul, and a future state of reward 
and punishment. He exploded the polytheistic superstitions of 
his country, and thence became the victim of an accusation oi' im- 
piety. (See Section XUI, i 5.) 

6. The morality of Socrates was successfully cultivri'^ 1 I y the 
Cyrenaic sect, but was pushed to extravagance by ',]..■ ' yiics. 
Virtue, in their opinion, consisted in renouncing ail tbt c MVLj.ion- 
ces of life. They clothed themselves in rags, slept asid 'aXq i.i Llie 
streets, or wandered about the country with a stick :,. '\ a ':':ap- 
•sack. They condemned all knowledge as useless. TLy, . ..c-tted 
impudence with ignorance, and indulged themseivet in - :i.niiity 
and invective without restraint. 



^^ ANCIENT HISTORY. 

7. Tlie Me^arean sect was the happy inventor of logical syllo- 
gism, or the art of quibbling. 

0. Plato -^vas the founder of the Academic sect : a philosopher, 
v/hose doctrines have had a more extensive empire over the minds 
of mankind, than these of any other among the ancients. This is 
in part ov/ing to their intrinsic merit, and in part to the eloquence 
with y/hich they have been propounded. Plato had the most sub- 
lime ideas of the Divinity and his attributes. He taught that the 
hu;r<an soul was a portion of the Divinity, and that this alliance 
with the eternal miud might be improved into actual intercourse 
with the Supreme Being, by abstracting the soul from all the cor- 
ruptions which it derives from the body : a doctrine highly flatter- 
ing to the pride of man, and generating that mystical' enthusi- 
asm which has the most powerful empire over a warm imagina- 
tion. 

9. The Platonic philosophy found its chief opponents in four 
remarkable sects, the Peripatetic, the Sceptic, the Stoic, and the 
Epicurean. 

10. Aristotle, the founder of the Peripatetic sect, was the tutor 
of Alexander the great, and established his school in the Lyceum 
at Athens : a philosopher whose tenets have found more zealous 
rartizans and more rancorous opponents, than those of any other, 
■iis Metaphysics, from the sententious brevity of his expression, 
are extremely obscure, and have given rise to numberless com- 
mentaries. The best analysis of his doctrines is given by Dr. Reid, 
in Lord Karnes's Sketches of the History of Man. His physical 
Avorks are the r^.sult of great observation and acquaintance with 
jiatnre ; and his critical writings, as his Poetics and Art cf Rheto- 
ric., display both taste and judgment. The peculiar passion of 
Aristotle was that of classifying, arranging, and combining the ob- 
jects of his knowledge, so as to reduce ail to a few principles : a 
very dangerous propensity in philosophy, and repressive of im- 
provement in science. 

11. The Sceptical sect was fonnd'^d by Pyrrho. They formed 
no systems of their own, but endeavoured to weaken the founda- 
llons of those of all others. They inculcated universal doubt, as 
tl'.e orjly true v/isdom. There was, in their opinion, no essential 
tiiiT»^rence betvveen vice and virtue, further than as human com- 
T)act bad discriminated them. I'ranquillity of mind they supposed 
to be the state of the greatest happiness, and this was to be attain- 
ed by absolute indiiference to all dogmas or opinions. 

j,'j. The Stoics, proposing to themselves the same end, tran- 
quillity of mind, took a nobler path to arrive at it. They endea- 
voured to raise themselves above all the passions and feelings of 
humanit3^ They believed all nature, and God himself, the goul of 
the universe, to be regulated by fixed and immutable laws. The 
liuman soul being a portion of the Divinity, man cannot complain 
of being actuated by that necessity which actuates the Divinity 
himself. PJis pains and his pleasures are determined by the same 
lav^s which determine his existence, Virtue consists in accommo- 
dating the disposition of the mind to the immutable laws of na- 
ture ; vice ia cppcsing- those laws t rice therefore is folly, aad 



ANCIENT HiSTORt. 55 

■virtue the only true wisdom. A beautiful picture of the Stoical 
philosophy is found in the Meditations of M. Aurelius Antoninus. 
(See Madan's Translation.) 

13. Epicurus taug:ht that man's supreme happiness consisted 
in pleasure. He limited the term, so as to make it mean only the 
practice of virtue. But if pleasure is allowed to be the object, 
every man will draw it from those sources which he finds can best 
supply it. It might have been the pleasure of Epicurus to be 
chaste and temperate. We are told that it was so. But othert 
fmd their pleasure in intemperance and luxury, and such was the 
taste of bis principal followers. Epicurus held that the Deity was 
indiiferent to all the actions of man. His followers the>-efore had 
no other counsellor dian their own conscience, and no other guide 
(ban the instinctive desire of their own happiness. 

14. The Greek philosophy, on the whole, affords little more 
than a picture of the imbecility and caprice of the human mind. 
Its teachers, instead of experiment and observation, satisfied them- 
selves with constructing theories ; and these wanring fact for their 
ba.=is, have only served to perplex the understanding-, and retard 
equally the advancement of sound moVaiity and the prog^r^ss «rf 
useful knowled*-e. 



SECTION xxiy. 

THE HISTORY OF ROME. 

1. Tn the delineation of ancient history Rome, after the con- 
quest of Greece, becomes the leading- object of attention. The 
history of this empire, in its progress to universal dominion, and 
afterwards in its decline and fall, involves a collateral accoun* of 
:*.ll the other na.tions of antiquity^ which in those periods are de- 
serving: of our consideration. 

2. Thoug-h we cannot determine the sra when Italy was first 
peopled, yet we have every reason to believe ihat it was inhabit- 
ed by a refined and cultivated nation many ag-es before the Ro- 
man name was known. These v/ere the Etruscans, of whom thers 
exist at this day monuments in the fine aris, which prove them to 
have been a splendid, luxurious, and higfhly polished people. — 
I'heir alphabet, resembling; the Phoenician, disposes us to believe 
them of eastern origin. The Roman historians mention them ai 
a powerful and opulent nation long- before the orig-in of Rome ; 
and Dionysius of Harlicarnassus deduces most of the relig-lous 
rites of the Romans from Etruria. 

3. The rest of Italy was divided among a number of independ- 
ent tribes or nations, comparatively in a rude and uncultivated 
slate ; Umbrians, Ligurians, Sabines, Vcientes, I-atins, A^qui^ 
Volsci, (kc. Latium, a territory of fi-fty miles in length and six- 
teen in breadth, contained forty-seven independent cities or states. 

4. The origin of the city and state of Rome is involved in great 
uncertainty. Dionysius supposes two cities of that name to have 
existed, and to have perished fcsfore the feuadatioa of the city bttilt 



66 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

'by Romulus. The vulgar account of the latter is, that it was 
founded 752 A. C. by a troop of ghepherds or banditti, who peo- 
pled their new city by carrying off the wires and daughters of 
their neighbours, the Sabines. 

5. The great outlines of the first constitution of the Roraan 
gfovernment, though generally attributed to the political abilities 
of Romulus, seem to have a natural foundation in the usages of 
barbarous nations. Other institutions bear the traces of political 
•skill and positive enactment. 

6. Romulus is said to have divided his people into three tribes, 
and each tribe into ten curi(B. The lands he distributed into 
three portions ; one for the support of the government, another 
for the maintenance of religion, and the third for the use of the 
Roman citizens, v/hich he divided into equal portions cf two acres 
to each citizen. He instituted a senate of ICO members (after- 
wards increased to 200), who deliberated on and prepared all pub- 
lic measures fcr the assembly of the people, in whom was vested 
the right of determination. The partrician families were the de- 
scendants of those Centum paires {Jcundred fathers). 

7. The king had the nomination of the senators, the privilege 
of assembling the people, and a right of appeal in all questions 
of importance. He had the command of the army, and the office 
of pontifex maximus (Jiigh priest'). He had, as a guard, twelve 
lictors, and a troop of horsemen named celeres^ or cquites., after- 
wards the distinct order of Roman knights. These regulations 
are of positive institution : others arose naturally from the state 
of society. 

, 8. The patria pofestas {paternal ci.uthority) is of the latter na- 
ture, being common to all barbarous tribes. The limitation of all 
arts to the slaves arose from the constant employment of the citi- 
zens in warfare or in agriculture. 

9. The connection of patron and client was an admirable insti- 
tution, which at once united the citizens, and maintained a use- 
ful subordination, 

10. The Sabines were the most formidable enemy of the early 
Romans ; and a v/ise policy united for a while the tv/o nations in- 
to one state. A.fter the death of Romulus, who reigned tliirty- 
seven years, Numa, a Sabine, was elected king. His disposition 
was pious and pacific, and he endeavoured to give his people the 
same character. Ke pretended to divine inspiration, to give the 
greater authority to his laws, which in themselves were excellent. 
He multiplied the national gods, built temples, and instituted dif- 
ferent classes of priests, T^ammes, salii^ fee, and a variety of reli- 
gious ceremonies. The flamines officiated each in the service of 
a particular deity ; the salii guarded the sacred bucklers ; the 
vestals cherished the sacred fre ; the augurs and aruspices divin- 
ed future events from the flight of birds, and the entrails of vic- 
tims. The temple of Janus was open in war, and shut during 
peace. Numa reformed the calendar, regulating the year at 
twelve lunar months, and distinguished the days for civil occupa- 
tion {faati) from those dedicated to religious rest {nefasti). Ag- 



ANCIENT HISTORY. ot 

riculture was lawful on the latter, as a duty of religion, NmiMi 
reigned forty-three years. 

11. Tullus Hostilius, the third king- of Rome, of warlike dispo- 
sition, subdued the Albans, Fidenates, and other neighbouring 
states. The Sabines, now disunited from the Romans, were a- 
mong the most powerful of their enemies. Tullus reigned thirty- 
three years. 

12. Ancus Marticiis, the grandson of Numa, was elected kin* 
©n the death of Tullus. He inherited the piety and virtues of 
his grandfather, and joined to these the talents of a warrior. Ha 
increased the population of Rome, by naturalizing some of the 
conquered states ; enlarged and fortified ths city, and built the 
port of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber. He reigned gloriously 
twenty-four years. 

13. Tarquinius Priscus, a citizen of Corinth, popular from his 
wealth and liberality, was elected to the vacant throne. He en- 
larg'ed the senate by 100 new members from the plebeian families, 
paires 7ninorflm gentium (the fathers of the. lets families'). Thi« 
body consisted now of 300, at which number it remained for some 
centuries. Tarquin was victorious in his wars, and adorned and 
improved the city with works of utility and magnificence. Such 
were the circus or hippodrome, the walls of hevvrn stone; the cap- 
itol ; th? cloacsc, those immense common sewers, which lead to 
the belief that the new Rome had been built on the ruins of aa 
ancient city of greater mcignitude. Tarquinius was assassinated 
in the thirty-eighth year of his reign. 

14. Servius Tullilis, who had married the daughter of Tar- 
quinius, secured, by his own address and. the intrigues of his moth- 
er-in-law, his election to the vacant throne. He courted popu- 
larity by acts of munifice>ice ; discharging the debts of the poor, 
dividing among the citizens his patrimonial lands, improving the 
city with useful edifices, and extending its boundaries. The new 
arrangement vrhich he introduced in the division of the Romaa 
citizens is a proof of much political ability, and merits attention, 
as on it depended many of the revolutions of the republic. 

15. From the time that the Romans had admitted the Albans 
and Sabines to the rights of citizens, the urban and rustic tribes 
were composed of those three nations. Each tribe being divided 
into ten curice^ and every curia having an equal vote ia tlie ccmi- 
tia^ as each Individ usil had in his tribe, ail questions were decid- 
ed by the majority of suffrages. There was no pre-eminence be- 
tween the curi^r^ and the order in which they gave thsir votes wa^ 
determined by lot. This was a reasonable constitution, so long 
as the fortunes of the citizens were nea.rly on a par ; but, when 
riches came to be unequally divided, it was obvious that much in- 
convenience must have arisen from this equal partition of power, 
as the rich could easily, by bribery, comitiand tho suffrages of the 
poor. Besides, all the taxes had hitherto been levied by tho 
head, without any regard to the inequality of fortunes. These 
obvious defects furnished to Servius a jubt pretext for an entire 
change of system. His plan was, to remove the poorer citizens 
from all share of the government, while the burdens attending its 
support should fall solely on the rich. 



S3 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

16. All the citizens were required, under a heavy penalty, 1* 
declare upon oath their names, dwellings, niimber of their chil- 
dren, and amount of their fortune. After this numeration or C€7i- 
sns^ Servius divided the whole citizens, without distinction, int« 
four tribes, named, from the quarters where they dwelt, the Pala- 
tine^ Suhurran^ Collatine. and Esquiline. Beside this local divis- 
ion, Servius distributed the whole people into six classes, and 
each class into several centuries or portions of citizens so cal- 
led, not as actually consisting of a hundred, but as being obliged 
to furnish and maintain 100 men in time of war. In the first class, 
which consisted of the richest citizens, or those who were worth 
at least 100 raince. (about 3001. sterling), there were no less than 
ninety-eight centuries. In the second class (those worth 75 rtvi- 
nce) there were twenty-two centuries. In the third (those worth 
50 mince) were twenty centuries. In the fourth (those worth 25 
mince) twenty-two centuries. In the fifth (those v/orth 12 7nince) 
thirty centuries. The sixth, the most numerous of the whole, 
comprehending all the poorer citizens, furnished only one centu- 
ry. Thus the whole Roman people were divided into 193 centu- 
ries, or portions of citizens, so called, as favnishing each a hund- 
red soldiers. The sixth class was declared exempt from taxes. 
The other classes, according to the number of centuries of which 
they consisted, were rated for the public burdens at so-much for 
each century. 

17. The poor had no reason to complain cf this arrangement ; 
but something was wanting to compensate the rich for the bur- 
dens to which they were subjected. For this purpose Servius en- 
acted, that henceforth the coirdiia should give their votes liy cen- 
turies ; the first class, consisting cf ninety-eight centuries, ahvays 
voting first. - Thus, though the whole people M'^ere called to the 
coynliia^ and all seemed to have an equal suffrage, yet in reality 
the richer classes determined every question, the sinTra5:;e of the 
poor being merely nominal ; for as the whole people formed 193 
centuries, and the first and second classes contained 120 of these, 
if they were unanimous, which generally happened in questions 
of importance, a majority was secured. Ihus, in the comitia 
centuriata {a.ssttnhlies in which the people voted by rtnhirieft)^ in 
which the chief magistrates were elected, peace and war decreed, 
and all otl-.er important business discussed, the richer classes oi 
the citizens had the sole authority, the votes of the poor being of 
no avail. And such was the ingenuity cf this policy, that all 
were pleased with it : the rich paid their taxes with cheerfulness, 
as the price of their power ; and the poor gladly exchanged au- 
thority for immunities. The census, performed every five years, 
was closed by a lusirum^ or expiatory sacrifice ; and hence that 
period of time was called a lustrum. 

18. Servius was assassi^iated, after a reign of forty-four year,"?, 
by his infamous daughter Tulha-, married to Tarquinius, the 
gfrandscn of Priscus, who thus paved the way for }:is own eleva- 
tion to the throne. The government of Tarqi ii, surr3.med the 
proud, was systematically tyrannical. Ke ingratiated himseli 
with the lower orders, to abase by their means the power of the 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 59 

ligfher ; but, insolent, rapacious, and cruel, he finally disgusted 
ill ranks of his subjects. A rape committed by his son Sextus on 
Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, who, unable to survive her dis- 
lonour, stabbed herself in presence of her hueband and kindred, 
•oused their vengeance, and procured, by their influence with 
Lheir countrymen, the expulsion of the tyrant, and the utter aboli- 
tion of the regal dignity at Rome, 509 A. C. 

Rejlections on the Governmenl and Stale of Rome during the j»c- 
riod of the. Kings. 

19. The whole structure of the coiTstitution of the Romans un- 
der the monarclij has teen by most authors erroneously attributed 
exclusively to the abilities of Romulus, a youth of eighteen, the 
leader of atro("p of shepherds or banditLi. This chimerical idea 
we owe to Y'kr ysius of Kalicarnassus. The truth is, the Roman 
srovernment, like almost every other, v/as the gradual result of 
circumstauc<-'s ; the fruit of time, and of political emergency. 

20. The constitution uf the Roman senate has occasioned con- 
siderable research, and is not free from obscurity. It is probable 
that the kings had the sole right of naming the senators, that the 
consuls succeeded tiiem in ihis right, and afterwards, v/hen these 
magistrates found to. much occupation from the frequent wars in 
which the state was engaged, that privilege devolved on the cen- 
sors. The senators were at first always chosen from the body of 
the patricians, but afterv/ards the plebeians acquired an equal ti- 
tle to that dignity. In the early periods of the republic the peo- 
ple could not be assembled but by the senate's authority ; nOr 
were the plebiscifa {decrees of the people^ of any weight till con- 
firmed by their decree. Hence the early constitution of the re- 
public was rather aristocratical than democratical. From this 
extensive power of the senate the first diminution was made by 
the creation of the tribunes of the people ; and other retrench- 
ments successively took place, till the people acquired at length 
the predominant power in the state. Yet the senate, even after 
every usurpation on their authority, continued to have, in many 
points, a supremacy. They regulated all matters regarding reli- 
g-ion ; had the custody of the jjublic treasure ; superintended the 
conduct of all magistrates ; gave audience to ambassadors ; deci- 
ded on the fate of vanquished nations ; disposed of the govern- 
ments of the provinces ; and took cognizance, by appeal, in all 
crimes against the state. In great emergencies they appointed a 
dictator, with absolute authority. 

"21. At the period of the abolition of the regal government the 
territory of the Romans was extremely limited. The only use 
which they made of their victories was to naturalize the inhabit- 
ants of some of the conquered states, and so increase their popu- 
lation. Thus, their strength being always superior to their enter- 
prize, they laid a solid foundation for the future extension of their 
empire. 

!22. In the accounts given by kistorians of the strength of the 
armies, both of the Romans in those early times, and of the neigh- 
liouring states, their enemies, we have every reason to believe 



60 ANCI'ENT HISTORY. 

there IS much cxstg-g^eration. The territories from "vvhich thos« 
armies were furnished were incapable of supplying them. 

23. In the continual wars in which the republic was engaged 
the RcKnaas were most commonly the aggressors. The causes of 
this seem to have been the ambition of the consuls to distinguish 
their short administration by some splendid enterprize, and the 
wish of the senate to give the people occupation, to prevent iu- 
testine disquiets. 

24. I'he regal government subsisted 244 years, and in that time 
©nly seven kings reigned, several of whom died a violent death. 
Thesa circumstances throw doubt on the authenticity of this pe- 
riod of the B.oKian history. It is allowed that there were no his 
torians for the five first centuries after the building of Rome, 
The first is Fabius Pictor, who lived during the second Punic war. 
Li\ y says that almost all the ancient records were destroyed when 
Rome was taken by the Gauls. 



SECTION XXV. 

ROME UNDER THE CONSULS. 

1. The regal government being abolished, it was agreed to 
eommit the supreme authority to two magistrates, who should be 
annually elected by the people from the patrician order. To these 
they gave the names of'consules ; " a modest title, (says Vertot), 
•which gave to understand that that they were rather the counsel- 
lors of the republic than its sovereigns ; and that the only point 
which they ought to have in view was its preservation and glory.'' 
But, in fact, their authority diifered scarcely in any thing from that 
of the kings. 1 hey had the supreme administration of justice, the 
disposa^l of the public money, the power of convoking the senate 
and assembling the people, raising armies, naming all the officers, 
and the right of making peace and war. The only difference was, 
that their authority was limited to a year. 

2. The first consuls were Brutus and Collatinus (the husband of 
Lucretia). Tarquin was at this time in Etruria, wheie he got two 
•f the most powerful cities, Veii and Tarquinii, to espouse his 
cause. He had likewise his partisans at Rome, and a plot wa« 
formed to open the gates to receive him. It was detected, and 
Brutus had the mortification to find his two sons in the number of 
the conspirators. He condemned them to be beheaded in his 
presence. Exult patrem ut consulem ageret ; orhusqut vivere^ 
quam publicog vindict^ deesse inahiit. Val. Max. He ceased to be. 
a father.^ that he might execute the duties of a cansul ; and chvst to 
live childless rather than to neglect the public punishment of a 
erime. 

.3. The consul Valerius, successful in an engagement with the 
©xiied Tarquin, v/as tho f5rst Roman who enjoyed the splendid 
reward of a triumph. Arrogant from his recent honours, his pop-- 
ularity began to decline ; and, iu the view of recovering it, he 
proposed the law, termed from him the Valerian, which ''permit- 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 61 

ted any citizen who had been condemned to death by a magis- 
trate, or even to banishment or scourging-, to appeal to the people, 
and required their consent previously to the execution of the sen- 
tence.'" This law gave the first blow to the aristocracy in the 
constitution of the Roman republic. 

4. For thirteen years after the expulsion of Tarquin, the Romans 
were involved in continual wars on his account. Of these the most 
remarkable was the v/ar with the Etrurians, under Porsena ; a 
war fertile in exploits of romantic heroism. 

5. Soon after this period began those domestic disorders, which 
continued long to embroil the republic. Great complaints had 
arisen among the poorer classes of the citizens, both on account of 
the inequality of property, from the partial distribution of the con- 
quered lands, which the higher ranks generally contrived to en- 
gross to themselves, and from the harsh policy by which it was in 
the power of creditors to reduce to a state of slavery their insol- 
vent debtors. As there w^as no legal restraint on usury, the poor, 
when once reduced to tb^ neccssit^^ of contracting debts, were left 
entirely at the mercy oiilieir creditors. These grievances, felt in 
common by a large proportion of the citizens, excited mnc'i discon- 
tent, which, from complaints long disregarded, grew at length in- 
to a spirit of determined resistance. The v/ars required new levies, 
and the plebeians positively refused to enrol their names, unless 
the senate should put an end to their oppression, by decreeing at 
once an abolition of all the debts due by the poor to the rich. The 
emergency was critical, as the enemy was at the gates of Rome. 
The consids found their authority of no avail ; for the Valerian law 
had given any citizen condemned by them a rightof appeal to the 
people. An extraordinary measure was necessary, and a dictator 
was created for the first time ; a magistrate who, for the period of 
six months, was invested with absolute and unlimited authority. 
Lartius, nominated to this high office, armed the twenty-four lic- 
tors with axes, summoned the whole people to the comitia, and 
calling over the names, under the penalty of death to any citizen 
who should dare to murmur, enrolled all such as he judged most 
fit for the service of their country. This expedient became hence- 
forward a frequent and certain resource in all seasons of public 
danger. 

6. The death of Tarquin removed one check against the tyranny 
of the higher over the lower orders ; for the latter had hitherto kept 
alive a salutary apprehension, that, in case of extreme oppression, 
they would be under the necessity of calling back their king, Wher i 
this fear was at an end, the domineering spirit of the patrician'-*, 
exceeding every bound both of good policy and humanity, droV"e 
the people at length to deeds of mutiny and rebellion. An aJ "^^^ 
from the enemy gave full weight to iheir power, and mad- tae 
chief magistrates of the state solemnly engage their honour to pro- 
cure a redress of their r^rievances, as soon as the public dan;5er wai 
at an end. The promise, either from a failure of will or o^ power, 
was not fulfilled, and this violation of faith drove the people at 
length to extremities. Bound by their military oath nc- to desert 

6 /' 

/ 



62 ANCLENT HISTORY. 

their standards, they carried them along with them ; and the -whole 
army, in military array, withdrew from Rome, and deliberately 
encamped on the Ivlons Sacer, at three miles distance from the 
city; and here they were soon joined by the greater part of the peo- 
ple. This resolute procedure had its desired effect. The senate 
deputed ten persons, the most respectable of their order, with ple- 
nary powers ; and these, seeing no medium of compromise, granted 
to the people all their demands. The debts were solemnly abol- 
ished ; and, for the security of their privileges in future, they were 
allowed the right of choosing magistrates of their own order, who 
should have the power of opposing with effect every measure which 
tliey should judge prejudicial to their interests. These were the 
tribunes of the people, chosen annually ; at first five in number, 
and afterwards increased to ten. Without guards or tribunal, and 
having no seat in the senate-house, they had yet the power, by a 
single re/o, to stispend or annul the decrees of the senate and the 
sentences of the consuls. Their persons were declared sacred, but 
their authority Vvas confined to the limits of a mile from the city. 
The tribunes demanded and obtained two magistrates to assist 
them, who were termed adiles, from the charge committed to them 
of the buildings of the city. 

7. From this aera(260years from the foundation of Rome) we date 
the commencement of the popular constitution of the Roman re- 
public : a change operated by the unwise policy of the patricians 
themselves, who, by yielding to just complaints, and humanely re- 
dressing flagrant abuses, might have easily anticipated every 
ground of dissatisfaction. The first wish of the people was not 
power, bvit relief from tyranny and oppression ; and if this had 
been readily granted them by abolishing the debts, or at least by 
repressing enormous usury, and putting an end to the inhuman 
right of corporal punishment and the bondage of debtors, the peo- 
ple would have cheerfully returned to order and submission, and 
the Roman constitution would have long remained aristocratical, 
as we have seen it was at the commencement of the consular gov- 
ernment. But the plebeians having now obtained inagistrates of 
their own order with those high povv^ers, v/e shall see it become 
the object of those magistrates to increase their authority by con- 
tinual demands and bold encroachments. The people, regarding- 
them as the champions of their rights, are delighted to find them- 
selves gradually approaching to a level with the higher order ; 
and, no longer bounding their desires to ease and security, are 
soon equally influenced by ambition as their superiors. While 
this people, borne down by injustice, seek no more than the re- 
(dress of real grievances, we sympathize Avith their feelings, and 
applaud their spirited exertions. But v/hen they had at length 
";>nipassed the end which they wished, obtained ease and securi- ■ 
,.nay, power v/hich they had neither sought nor expected; 
■ x we see them, after this, increasing in their demands, assum- 
^NiVt arrogance which they justly blamed in their superiors, 
'''^ d. on by the ambition of their leaders to tyrannize in their 
ve viev/ v/ith proper discrimination the love of liberty and 
■■i-ae licentiousness; and treat with just detestation the 



m 
Coa 
turn' 
its ex 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 6x3 

LUtliors of those pernicious measures, which embroiled the state 
n endless faction, and paved the way for the total loss of that 
iberty, of Avhich this deluded people knew not the value when 
;hey actually possessed it. 



SECTION XXVI. 

THE LAW OF VOLERO. 

1. Thft disorders of the commonwealth, appeased by the crea- 
tion of the tribunes, were but for a time suspended. It was ne- 
cessary that the popular magistrates should make an experiment 
of their powers. In an assembly of the people one of the cou- 
5uls, interrupted by a tribune, rashly said, that if the tribunes 
had called that assembly, he would not have interrupted them. 
This was a concession on the part of the consuls, that the trib- 
unes had the power of assembling: the comitia, Avhich, from that 
moment, they assumed as their acknowledgfed rig-ht. It was a 
consequence of this right, that the afiairs of the commonwealth 
should be agitated in those meetings, equally as in the assemblies 
held in virtue of a consular summons, or senatorial decree, and 
thus there were, in a manner, two distinct legislative powers es- 
tablished in the republic. 

2. The trial of Coriolanus for inconsiderately proposing the 
abolition of the tribunate, an offence interpreted to be trea- 
son against the state, threw an additional weight into the scale 
of the people. The proposal of an agrarian law, for the divis- 
ion of the lands acquired by recent conquests, resumed at inter- 
vals, though never carried into execution, inliamed the passions 
of the rival orders. 

3. Publius Volero, formerly a centurion, and a mp^n distinguit^h- 
ed for his military services, had, in the new levies, been ranked 
as a common soldier. Complaining of tbis unmerited degrada- 
tion, he refused his services in that capacity; and the consuls 
having condemned him to corporal puni.^hment, he appealed from 
their sentence to the people. The contest lasted till the annual 
term of elections, when Volero himself was chosen a tribune of 
the people. He had an ample revenge, by procuring the enact- 
ment of a most important law. The comitia by centuries and by 
curiae could be called only in virtue of a decree of the senate, 
after consulting the auspices ; and in these comitia the tribunes 
had hitherto been elected, and the most important public affairs 
discussed. It Avas decreed by the law of Volero, that the elec- 
tion of the tribunes should be made, and the chief public bu.sin- 
ess henceforward discussed, in the comitia held by tribes, which 
were unfettered by any of those restraints. From this period the 
supreme authority in the Roman republic may be considered as 
having passed completely from the higher order into the hands ol 
the people. The Roman constitution was now plainly a demoe* 
racy, 471 A. C 



G4 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

SECTION XXVII. 

THE DEDEMVIRATE. 

1. The Komaas had, till this period, no body of civil laws. — 
Under the regal g'overnment the kings alone administered justice; 
the consuls succeeded them in this high prerogative, and thus 
possest^ed witliout coucroui the absolute command of the fortunes 
and civil rights of all the citizens. To remedy this great defect 
Terentiiius, a tribune, j;>roposed the nomination of ttn commis- 
sioners, to fi-ame and digest a code of laws for the explanation 
SLud security of the rights of all orders of the state, A measure 
■?o equitable ought to have met with no opposition. It was, how- 
ever, strenuously opposed by the patricians, v/ho, by a fruitless 
contest, only exposed Ihcir own weakness. The decemviri were 
fehosen ; but the election being made in the coinitia by centuries, 
the consul Appius Claudius, with his colleague, were at the head 
•f this important commission. The laws were framed, those cel- 
ebrated statutes known by the name of the Twelve Tables,v/hich 
are the basis of the great structure of the Roman jurisprudence, 
451 A. C. 

2. An acquaintance with these ancient laws is therefore of im- 
porfea.nce. Even in the most flourishing times of the republic 
they continued to be of the highest authority. They have the 
encomium of Cicero himself ; and we learn from him, that t» 
commit these laws to memory was an essential part of a liberal 
education. From the twelve tables the jurisconsulti composed a 
system of judicial forms, for the regulation of the different tribu- 
nals. The number of the laws was likewise from time to time 
increased by the setioAasconsulta and plebisciia. 

3. The decemvirs were invested with all the powers of gov- 
ernment, for the consulate had ceased on their creation. Each 
decemvir by turn presided for a day, and had the sovereign au- 
thority, with its insignia, the fasces. The nine others officiated 
solely as judges in the determination of lawsuits, and the correc- 
tion of abusers. An abuse, however, of the most flagrant nature, 
committed by the chief of their oAvn number, was destined spee- 
dily to bring their office to its termination. 

4. Appius Claudius, inflamed by lawless passion for the young 
Virginia, the betrothed spouse of Icilius, formerly a tribune of the 
people, employed a profligate dependant to claim the maiden as 
his own properly, on the false pretence of her being the daugh- 
ter of one of his female slaves. The claim was made to the de- 
cemvir himself in judgment, who pronounced an infamous decree, 
which tore from her family this helpless victim, and put her into 
the hands of his own minion. Her father, to save the honour of 
his child, plunged a dagger into her breast ; and the people, wit- 
nesses of this shocking scene, v-ould have massacred Appius on 
the spot, if he had not found means to escape amidst the tumult. 
Their veng-eance, however, was satiated by the instant abolition 
of this hated madstracy, and by the dqath of Appius, who Qhcs^ 



ANCIENT HISTORY. ^5 

by his own hand to prevent the stroke of the executioner. The 
decemvirate had subsisted for three years. The consuls were 
now restored, together with the tribunes of the people, 449 A. €. 



SECTION XXVIII. 

INCREASE OF THE POPULAH POWER. 

1. The scale of the people was daily acquiring wcig^ht, at the 
expence of that of the highest order. Two barriers, however, 
,^till separated the patricians and plebeians : one, a law whicli 
prevented their intermarriage, and the other, the constitutional 
Hmitation of all the higher offices to the order of the patricians. 
!t was only necessary to remove these restrictions, and the patricians 
and plebeians were on a footing of perfect equality. The first, 
a.fter a long but fruitless contest, %vas at length agreed to by the 
senate ; and this concession had its usual effect of stimulating the 
people to inflexible perseverance in their struggle for the latter. 
On an emergence of war the customary device was practised, ot 
refusing to enter the rolls, unless upon the immediate enactment 
i){ a law, which should admit their capacity of holding all the of- 
fices of the republic. The senate sought a palliative, by the cre- 
ation of six military tribunes in lieu of the consuls, three of 
whom should be patricians, and three plebeians. This measure 
satisfied the people for a time : the consuls, however, were soon 
removed. 

2. The disorders of the republic, and frequent wars, had inter- 
rupted the regular survey of the citizens. This was remedied by 
the creation of a new magistracy. Two officers, under the title 
of censors, were appointed (437 A. C), whose duty was not only 
to make the ctnsus every five years, but to inspect the morals, 
and regulate the duties of all the citizens : an office of dignity 
equal to its importance, exercised, in the latter times of the re- 
public, only by consular persons, and afterwards annexed to the 
supreme functions of the emperors. 

3. The dissensions between the orders continued, with little 
variation either in their causes or effects. The people generally, 
as the last resource, refused to enrol themselves, till overawed by 
the supreme authority of a dictator. To obviate the frequent ne- 
cessity of this measure, which enforced at best an unwilling and 
compelled obedience, the senate had recourse to a wise expedient : 
this v/as, to give a regular pay to the troops. To defray this ex- 
pence a moderate tax was imposed in proportion to the fortunes 
of the citizens. From this period the Roman system of war as- 
sumed a new aspect. The senate always found soldiers at com- 
inand ; the army was under its controul ; the enterprises of the 
republic were more extensive, and its successes more signal and 
important. Veii, the proud rival of Rome, and its equal in ex- 
tent and population, was taken by Camillus, after a siege often 
years, A. U. C. 396. The art of war was improved, as it now 
became a profession, instead of an occasional, occupation. The 

6* 



66 ANCIENT HISTORY. . 

Romans were, from this circumstance, an overmatch for all the ii 
iieighbov.rs. Their dominion, hitherto confined to the territory of 
a few miles, was now rapidly extended. It was impossible but 
that the detached states of Italy must have given way before a 
people who were always in arms, and, by a perseverance alike 
resolute and judicious, were equal to every attempt in which they 
engaged. 

4. The taking of Veii was succeeded by a war with the Gaul?. 
This people, a branch of the great nation of the Celtae, had open- 
ed to themselves a passage through the Alps at four different pe- 
riods, and were at this time established in the country between 
those mountains and the Appeninee. Under the command of 
Brenuus they laid siege t@ the Etruscan Clusium ; and the peo- 
ple, of no warlike turn themselves, solicited the aid of the Bo- 
mans. The circumstances recorded of this war with the Gaul« 
throw over it a cloud of fable and romance. The formidable 
power of Rome is said to have been, in a single campaign, so ut- 
terly exhausted, that the Gauls entered the city without resist- 
ance, and burnt it to the ground, 385 A. C. Though thus over- 
powered the Romans, in a single engagement, retrieve all their 
losses, and in one day's time there is not a Gaul left remaining 
within the Roman territory. 

To the burning of the city by the Gauls, the Roman wTiters 
attribute the loss of all the records and monuments of their early 
history. 

5. It is singular, that most of the Roman revolutions should 
laave owed tb.eir origin to women. From this cause we have s^en 
spring the abolition of the regal office and the decemvirate. From 
this cause arose the change of the constitution, by which the 
plebeians became capable of holding the highest offices of the 
commonwealth. The younger daughter of Fabius Ambustus, 
married to a plebeian, envious of the honours of her elder sister, 
the wife of a patrician, stimulated her father to rouse the lower 
•rder to a resolute purpose of asserting their equal right with the 
patricians to all the offices and dignities of the state. After much 
turbulence and contest the final issue was the admission of the 
plebeians, first to the consulate, and afterwards to the censorship, 
the praitorship, and priesthood ( A. U. C. 454, and A. C. 300) : 
a change beneficial in the main, as consolidating the sti'ength of 
the republic, and cutting off the principal source of intestine dis- 
order. The factions of the state had hitherto confined the growth 
of its power, its splendour, and prosperity ; for no state can at 
once be prosperous and anarchical. We shall now mark the rap-> 
id elevation of the Roman name and empire. 



SECTION XXIX. 

CONQUEST OF ITALY BY THE ROMANS. 

1. The war with the Samnites now began, and was of longcon- 
tmusmce ; but its successful tenainatiou was speedily followed by 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 67 

the redaction of all the states of Italy. In the course of this im- 
portant war the Tarentines, the allies of the Samnites, sought the 
aid of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, one of the greatest generals of hie 
age. Pyrrhus landed in Italy with 30000 men and a train of ele- 
phants, 280 A. C. He was at first successful, but no longer so 
than till a short experience reconciled the Romans to a new 
mode of v/ar. Sensible at length of the difficulties of his enter- 
prise, and dreading a fatal issue, he embraced an invitation from 
the Sicilians to aid them in a war with Carthage. On this pre- 
text, which at least Avas not dishonourable, Pyrrhus withdrew his 
troops from Ital)'-. In this iutervy-l the Romans reduced to ex- 
tremity the Samnites, the Tarentines, and the other allied states. 
Pyrrhus returned, and made a last effort near Beneventum. He 
was totally defeated, lost 26000 men, and abandoning at once all 
further views to Italy returned with precipitation to his own do- 
minions, 274 A. C. The hostile states submitted to the victori- 
ous power ; and Rome, 480 years from the foundation of the city, 
was now mistress of all Italy. 

2. The policy observed by the Romans, with respect to the con- 
quered nations, v/as wise and judicious. They removed to Rome 
all the leading men of the principal conquered cities, admitting 
them into the ancient urban and rustic tribes, and thus soothing 
the pride of the vanquished, by giving them an apparent share in 
their own domestic government ; while, in arranging the consti- 
tution of the cities, they filled their magistracies with illustrious 
Romans, whoge abilities and influence were fitted to maintain 
those new provinces in allegiance to the Roman government. 

3. Sicily had long been considered the granary of Ita,ly. The 
Carthaginians at this time possessed considera-ble settlements in 
the island, aad were ambitious of acquiring its entire dominion. 
An obvious policy led the Ptomans to dispute with them this im- 
portant acquisition, and gave rise to the Punic wars. This leads, 
by a natural connection, to a short view of the history of Car- 
tilage and of Sicily. 



SECTION XXX. 

HISTORY OF CARTHAGE. 

1. Carthage, according to the most probable accounts, was 
founded by a colony of Tyrians, about seventy years before the 
building of Rome. The colony had the same language, the same 
or nearly similar laws and constitution, the same national charac- 
ter, with the parent state. The city of Carthage was, at the pe- 
riod of the Punic wars, one of tlie most splendid in the world, 
and had under its dominion 300 of the smaller cities of Africa 
bordering on the Mediterranean sea. 

2. The constitution of the republic is celebrated by Aristotle 
as one of the most perfect of the governments of antiquity ; but 
we know little more than its general i^ature from anci-ut writers. 
Two iaag^istrates, named suffatts^ auaually chosen, seem to have 



t)8 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

possessed po'A'ers akin to those of the Roman consuls ; and th<? 
Carthaginian senate to those of the senate of Rome ; with this 
remarkable difference, that, in the former, unanimity of opinion 
was requisite in ail measures of importance. A divided senate 
transmitted the business to the assembly of the people. A tribu- 
nal of 104 judges took cog-nizance of military operations, and ot 
the conduct of their generals. A superior ceuncii of five s€ems 
to have controlled the decisions of the larger tribunal. Two pe- 
culiarites of the Carthaginian policy have been censured by Aris- 
totle. One peculiarity was, that the same person might hold sev- 
eral employments or offices in the state ; the other that the poor 
wore debarred from all offices of trust or importance. But the 
former of these is frequently both expedient and necessary, and 
the latter ^eems agreeable to the soundest policy ; for in offices 
of trust poverty offers to® powerful an incitement to deviation 
from duty. 

3. The first settlements made by the Carthaginians were en- 
tirely in the way of commerce. Trading to the coast of Spain for 
gold, they built Carthagena and Gades: and coasting along the 
western shore of Africa, they had establishments for the same 
purpose as far as the 25th degree of north latitude. The Ptripla^ 
of Hanno affords a proof of ardent enterprize and policy. Desi- 
rous of extending a limited territory they armed against the Mau- 
ritanians, Numidians, and all the neighbouring naticiis ; employ- 
ing mercenary troops, which they levied, not only in Africa, but 
in Spain, the two Gauls, and Greece. 

4. The annals of the Carthaginian state are little known till 
their wars v^ith the Romans. The first of their wars mentioned 
in history is that with the Greek colonies of Sicily. Darius 
courted their alliance when he meditated the conquest of Greece ; 
and Xerxes reuev/ed that treaty when he followed out the designs 
of his father. 



SECTION XXXI. 

HISTORY OF SICILY. 

1. The early periods of the history of Sicily are as little knowu 
as those of Carthage. The Phoenicians had sent colonies to Sicily 
before the Trojan war. The Greeks, in after times, made con- 
siderable settlements in the island. The Corinthians founded Sy- 
racuse, which became the most illustrious of the Greek cities of 
Sicily ; and from Syracuse arose afterwards Agrigentum, Acra, 
Casmene, Camarene, and several other Sicilian towns. 

2. The government of Syracuse was monarchical, and might 
have long remained so, if all its sovereigns had inherited the abil- 
ities and virtues of Gelon. But his successors, exercising the 
worst of tyranny, compelled their subjects at length to abolish the 
regal government ; and their example was speedily followed by 
all the Greciaa states of Sicily. 



A^■C1ENT HiSTOHY, 69 

3. Tlie inonarcLiy of Syracilse, however, was revived about 
ptxty years after in the person of Dionysius, a man of obscure ori- 
gin, but of sig-nal ability. Twice expelled for a tyrannical exer- 
cise of dominion, he as often found means to overpower his ene- 
mies, and re-establish himself in the throne. At his death the 
crown passed, without opposition, to his son, Dionysius the yoiing-- 
cr, a weak and capricious tyrant, whom his subjects judging un- 
worthy to reign, dethroned and banished, 357 A. C. The crown 
was conferred on Dion, hie brother-in-law, whose amiable charac- 
ter rendered him the delight of his people. But after a short 
reign this prince fell a victim to treason. Aided by the distrac- 
tions of Syracuse consequent on this event Dionysius remounted 
the throne ten years after his expulsion ; but his tyrannical dispo- 
sition, heightened by his misfortunes, became at length so intole- 
rable, that he was expelled a second time, and banished to Co- 
rinth, where he ended his days in poverty and obscurity. The 
author of this revolution was the illustrious Timoleon, to whose 
abilities and virtues his country owed equally its liberty aud it« 
subsequent happiness and prosperity, 343 A. C 

The signal opposition of national character between the Ro- 
mans and the Carthaginians may be easily explained, when we 
attend to the effects of a commercial life on the genius and man- 
ners of a nation. The vices of a commercial people are selfish- 
ness, cunning, avarice, with an absence of every heroic and patri- 
otic virtue. The favourable effects of commerce are industry, 
frugality, general courtesy of manners, improvement in the useful 
arts. Attending to these consequences of the prevalence of thri 
commercial spirit, we shall see the principal features of the Css- 
tliaginian chara.cter opposed to the Roman. 



SECTION XXXIi. 

THE PUNIC WARS. 

1. The triumph which the Romans had obtained over Pyrrhus 
»eemed to give assurance of succets in any enterprize in which 
they should engage. The Mamertines, a people of Campania, 
obtained aid from the Romans in an unjustifiable attempt which 
they made to seize Messina, a Sicilian town allied to Syracuse. 
The Syracusans, at first assisted by the Carthaginians, opposed 
this invasion ; but the former, more alarmed by the ambitious en- 
croachments of the Carthaginians on Sicily, soon repented of this 
rash alliance, and joined the Romans in the piarpose of expelling 
the Carthaginians entirely from the island. In fact the Sicilians 
seem to have had only the desperate choice of final submission 
either to Rome or Carthage. They chose the former, as the al- 
ternative least dishonourable. The Romans had ever been their 
friends, the Carthaginians their enemies. 

2. Agrigentum, possessed by the Carthaginians, was taken, 
^vfcer a lonj siege, by the joint forces of Rpme aad Syracuse. A 



70 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Roman fleet, the fa-st v/hich the}' ever had, was equipped in a 
few weeks, and gained a complete victory over that of Carthage, 
at this time the greatest maritime power in the world, 260 A. C. 
These successes vv^ere followed by the reduction of Corsica and 
Sardinia. In a second naval eng;ag-ement the Romans took fr^^ni 
the Carthag-inians sixty of their ships of war, and now resolutely 
prepared for the invasion of Africa. 1 he consul Reg^ulus com- 
manded the expedition. He advanced to the g'ates of Carthage ; 
and such was the general consternation that the enemy proposed 
a capitulation. Inspirited, however, hy a timely aid of Greek 
troops under Xantippus, the Carthag-inians made a desperate ef- 
fort, and, defeating the Roman army, made Regulus their pris- 
oner. But, repeatedly defeated in Sicily, they \rere at length 
seriously desirous of a peace ; and the Roman general was sent 
with their ambassadors to Rome to aid the negociation, under a 
solemn oath to return to Carthage as a prisoner,, if the treaty 
should fail. It was rejected at the urgent desire of Regulus, who 
thus sacrificed his life to what he judged the interest of his 
country. 

3. Lilyboeum, the strongest of the Sicilian towns belonging to 
Carthage, was taken after a siege of nine years. After some al- 
ternate successes two naval battles won by the Romans termina- 
ted the war, and Carthage at last obtained a peace on tlie humili- 
ating terms of abandoning to the Romans all her possessions in 
Sicily, the payment of 3200 talents of silver, the restitution of all 
prisoners without ransom, and a solenni engagement never to 
make war against Syracuse or her allies. Tlie island of Sicily 
was now declared a Roman province, though Syracuse maintain- 
ed its independent government, A. U. C. 511, and A. C. 241. 

4. The peace betvveen R.ome and Carthage was of twenty- 
three years' duration. 'J ho latter power v/as recruiting its strength, 
and meditated to revenge its losses and disgrace. The second 
Punic war began on the part of the Carthaginians, who besieged 
Saguntuni, a ci^y of Spain in alliance with the Romans. Ihe 
young Kannibal took Saguntuni after a siege of seven months ; 
the desperate inhabitants setting fire to the town, and perishiiig 
amidst the flames. Hannibal now formed the bold design of car- 
rying the war into Italy. Ke provided against every difficulty, 
gained to his interest a part of the G'allic tribes, passed the Py- 
renees, and finally the Alps,* in a toilsome march of five months 
and a half from his leaving Carthagena ; and arrived in Italy with 
20,000 foot and 6000 horse. 

5. In the first engagement the Romans were defeated. They 
also lost two other important battles at Trebia, and the lake 
Thrasymenus. In the latter of these the consul Flaminius was 
killed, and his army cut to pieces. liaunibal advanced to Cannse 

* The passage of Hannibal over the Alps has been lately illustrated in 
a noost learned aod ingenious essay, by Mr. Whitaker (the "celebrated hls- 
toriati of Manchester, and vindicator of Qiieen I\lary\ who has. with great 
acuteness, traced every step of the Carlhuglniaa geiicial, from his crOi^ing 
ths Rhone to his final an-iv:-;! ir; Italy. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 71 

in Apulia, ^vhere the Romans opposed him wi'Ji their whole force. 
A nieniorabie tieteat eiisaed, in which 4i)^0,i)0 ilomaiis were loft 
dead upon the nekl, aud among :hese the consul A^miiias, ai.d al-. 
most the whole bouy oi ihe kuighcs. If Hannibai had talven ad- 
va.itagp of this gr^at victory, Ly instantly attar t'ir.o- [lome, the 
fate of the republic was inevitable ; but he deiiberated, and the 
occasion was iosl. I'he llomarit coucentrattc al. Liicir stre^ gfii. 
Even the slaves aiiued in the common ca^ase, and victory -iic^ 
more attended tlic standards of the republic. Thiiip, Vang; uf 
IViacedon, joined his forces to the Carthaginians, but, defeated l.y 
Levinus, speedily withdrew his assistauce. Hannibal retreal.^.d 
bet. .re the brave Marceilus. l^yracuse had now fiaken part wi.h 
Carthage, and thus paved the way for the h>sg ci its own libeity. 
Karcclius besieged the city, Vvhicbt was long rlefeaded by the in- 
ventive genias of -Archimedes ; but was taken in tho tliird year 
by esGalade in the night, 'ihis event put an end to the kingdom 
cf Syracuse, which now became a part of the Roman province of 
Sicily, A. U. C. 542, A. C. 212. 

6. While the war in Italy was prosperously conducted by the 
great T^abius, who, by constantly avoiding a general engagement, 
found the true method of weakening his enemy, the younger Pci- 
pio accomplished the e-.tire reduction of Spain. Asdrubal was 
sent into Italy to the aid of his brother Hannibal, but was defeat- 
ed by the consul Claudius, and slain in battle. Scipio, trium- 
phant in Spain, passed over into Africa, and carried havoc and 
devastation to the gates of Carthage, /ilarmed for the fate of 
their empire the Carthaginians hastily recalled Hannibal from 
Italy. The battle of Zarna decided the fate of the war, by the 
ntttr defeat of the Carthaginians. They entreated a peace, wdiich 
the Romans gave on these conditions : that the Carthaginians 
should abandon Spain, Sicily, and all the inlands ; surrender all 
their prisoners, give up the whole of their fleet except ten gallies, 
pay 10,000 talents, a;.d, in future, undertalce no v, ar without con- 
sent of the Romans, A. U. C. 562, A. C. 20^. 

7. Every thiiig now concurred to swell the pride of the con- 
querors, and to extend their dominicn. A v/ar with Philip of 
Macedon Avas termiijated by his deft at ; and his son iJemetrius 
was sent to Rome as a hostage for the payment of a heuv^y tribute 
in:posed on the vanquished. A v/ar with Antiochus, king of Syria, 
ended in his ceding to the Romans the whole of the Lesser Asia. 
But these splendid conquests, while tiKy enlarged the empire, 
wore fatal to its virtues, and subversive of the p-.uc aiul venc.able 
shnplicity of ancient tiuies. 

8. The third Puijic war began A. U. C. G05, A. C. ll'l, and 
ended in the ruivi, of v,arihagc. An unsaccer-siul w^r v, ilb ihe 
Kuraidians had reduced the Carthaginians to great weiviaiess, and 
the Romans meanly laid hold of t\:fit opportunity to iuvade .-JVi- 
ca. Conscious ot their utter inability to msist this formidable 
power, the Cartl)?2:iniai-.s cflercd ^ very ? iLb'uihfiir^i!, a:Md coni^Gnted 
even to acknowledge themselves ibe ?ui j^cls of iloine. 'Ibe Ro- 
mans dema.)ided 300 hostvages, i-r the slrict pGrflu-monce of e\ery 
cmidition that thould be enjoined by L'.;e senaLe. The hostages 



72 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

•were given, and the condition required was, that Carthage itseii 
should be razed to its foundation. Despair gai'e courag'e to this 
miserable people, and they determined to die in the defence of 
their native city. But the noble effort was in vain. Carthage 
•was taken by storm, its inhabitants massacred, and the city burnt 
to the ground, A. U. C. 607, A. C. 146. 

9. The same year ^vas signalized by the entire reduction of 
Greece under the doDiinion of the Romans. This "v^-as the aera 
of the datvn of luxury and taste at Rome, the natural fruit of for- 
eign v/ealth, a.nd an acquaintance with foreign manners. In the 
unequal distribution of this imported ■wealth, the vices to which 
it gave rise, the corruption and venality of which it becam.e the 
Jnslrui?i.jnt, we see the remoter causes of those fatal disorders to 
which the republic owed its dissolution. 



SECTION XXXIII. 

THE GRACCHI, AND THE CORRUPTION OF THE COM- 
MONWEALTH, 

1. At this period arose Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, two no- 
ble youths, v/hosa z^ al to reform the growing corruptions of the 
state precipitated them at leng<^h into measures destructive of all 
government ar^d social order. Tiberius, the elder of the brothers, 
urged the people to assert by force the revival of an ancient law, 
i'or limiting property in land, and thus abridging the overgrown 
estates of the patricians. A tumult was the consequence, iu 
which Tiberius, with 300 of his friends, were killed in tbe forum. 
This fatal example did not deter his brother, Caius Gracchus, 
from pursuing a similar career of zeal or of ambition. After some 
successful experiments of his power, while in the office of tri- 
bune, he directed his scrutiny into the corruptions of the senate, 
and prevailed in depriving tliat body of its constitutional control 
over all the inferior magistrates of the state. Employing, like 
his brother, the dangerous engine of tumultuary force, he fell a 
victim to it himself, with 3000 of his partizans, who were slaugh- 
tered in the streets of B-,ome. The tumults attending the sedi- 
tion of the Gracchi -w^ere the prelude to those civil disorders 
which now followed in quick succession to the end of the com- 
monwealth. 

2. The circumstances attending the war with Jugurtha gave 
decisive proof of the corruption of the Roman manners. Jugur- 
tha, grandson of Masinissa, sought to usurp the crown of Numi- 
dia by destroying his couaius, Hiempsal and Adherbal, the sons 
of the last king. He murdvred the elder of the brothers ; and 
the younger applying for aid to Rome, Jugurtha bz'ibed the sen- 
ate, who declared him innocent of all culpable act or design, and 
decreed to hhn the sovercigiity of half the kingdom. This ope- 
rated only as an incentive to his criminal ambition. He declared 
open war against his cousin, besieged him in his ca.pital of Cirta, 
aaid finally put hirn to death. To avert a threatcnt;cl war Jugur- 



AIvClEI^T aisTOHY. SO 

tha went in person to Rome, pleaded his own cause in the senate, 
and once more by bribery secured his acquittal from all charg'e oi' 
criminality. A perseverance, however, in a similar train of con- 
duct finally drew on him the vengeance of the Romans ; and be- 
ing betrayed into their hands by his ov/n father-in-law, he was 
brought in chains to Rome, to gra^e the triumph of the consul 
Marius, confnied to a dungeon, and starved to death, A. U. C, 
651, A. C. 103. 

3. The ambition of the allied states of Italy to attain the rights 
of citizenship produced the social war, which ended in a conces- 
sion of those rights to such of the confederates- as should return 
peaceably to their allegiance. This war with the allies was a 
preiude to that which follov/ed between Rome and her own citi- 
zens. Sylla and Mariiis, rivals, and thence enemies, were at this 
time the leaders of the republic. Sylla, commanding in a war 
against Mithridates, was superseded, and recalled from Asia. 
He refused to obey the mandate, and found his army well dispos- 
ed to support hivn. " l>et us march to Rome," said they, with 
one voice ; "" lead us on to avenge the cause of oppressed liberty.'" 
Sjdla accordingly led them on, and they entered Rome sword in 
hand. Marius and his partizans fled with precipitation from the 
city, and Sylla ruled for a Vv^hile triumphant. But the faction of 
his rival soon recovered strength. Marius returning to Italy, and 
joining his forces to those of 'Jinna, his zealous partizan, laid siege 
to Rome, and, while Sylla was engaged in the Mithridatic war^ 
compelled the city to absolute submission. After a horrible mas- 
sacre of all whom they esteemed their enemies, Marius and Cinna 
proclaimed themselves consuls, without the formality of an elec- 
tion ; but Marius died a few days after in a fit of debauch. 

4. After a victorious campaign in Asia, Sylla returned to Italy, 
and, joined by Cethegus, \ erres, and the young Pompey, gave 
battle to the party of his enemies, and entirely defeated them. 
His entry into Rome was signalized by a dreadful massacre, and 
•a proscription, which had for its object the extermination of every 
enemy whom he had in Italy. Elected dictator for an unlimted 
period he was now without a rival in authority, and absolute mas- 
ter of the government, which, of course, was no longer a republic. 
In the exercise of his dominion he deserved more praise than in 
the means of acquiring it. lie restored the senate to its judicial 
authority, regulated the election to all the important offices of 
state, and enacted many excellent laws against oppression and 
the abuse of power. Finally, he gave demonstration, if not of a 
pure conscience, at least of a magnanimous intrepidity of charac- 
ter, by voluntarily resigning all command, retiring to the condi- 
tion of a private citizen, and offering publicly to give an account 
of his conduct. He died within a short time after his resignation. 
He was certainly a man of great strength of mind, and had some 
of the qualities of a heroic character ; but he lived in evil times, 
when it was impossible at once to be great and to be virtuous. 

5. The death of Sylla renewed the civil wa,r. Lepidus, a man 
of no abilities, aspirjd to succeed him in power; and Fompey, 

7 



^74 AHCIENT HISTORIT. 

With superior talents, cheiished the same ambition. While the 
latter was employed in the reduction cl the revolted proviiices of 
Asia, the conspiracy of Cataline threatened the entire destri-ction 
of Rome. It was extingaiished by the provident zeal and active 
patriotism of the consul Cicero. Cataline and his chief acccm- 
plices were attacked in the field, and defeated by Antonius. The 
traitor made a desperate defence, and died a better death than 
his crimes had merited. 

6. Julius Csesar now rose into public notice. Sylla dreaded his 
abilities and ambition, and had numbered him among- the proscri- 
bed. " There is many a Marias," said he, '' in the person of that 
young man." He had learned prudence from the danger of his 
situation, and tacitly courted popularity, without that show of 
enterprize which gives alarm to a rival. While Pompey and 
Graf sus contended for the command of the republic, Csesar, who 
knew that, by attaching himself to either rival, he infallibly made 
the other his enemy, showed the reach of his talents by reconcil- 
ing them, and thus acquiring the friendship of both. F rom fa- 
vour to their mutual friend they agreed to a partition of power; 
and thus v/as formed the first triumviiate. Caesar was elected 
consul. He incroastd his popularity by a division of lands among 
the poorer citizens, and strengthened his interest with Pompey by 
giving him his daughter in marriage. He had the command of 
four legions, and the government of transalpine Gaul and Illyria. 

7. I'he military gloiy of the republic, and the reputation of 
Csesar, v/ere nobly sustained in Gaul. In the first year of his 
government he subdued the Helvetii, who, leaving their own 
country, had attempted to settle themselves in the better regions 
of the Roman province. He totally defeated the Germans under 
Ariovistus, who had atteirpted a similar invasion. 'J he Belgae, 
the iNervii, the Celtic Gauls, the Suevi, Mcnapii, and other war- 
like nations, were all successively brought under subjection. In 
the fourth year of his government he transported his army int© 
Britain. Landing at Deal, he was opposed by the natives with 
equal courage and military skill. He gained, however, several 
advantages, and, binding the Britons to submission, withdrew in- 
to Gaul on the approach of winter. He returned in the follow- 
ing summer with a greater force, and, prosecuting his victories,, 
reduced a considerable portion of the island under the Roman 
dominion, A. C. 54. But the pressure of affairs in Italy suspend- 
ed for a time the progress of the Roman arms in Britain. 

8. Csesar dreaded the abilities of Cicero, who had opposed him 
in his views of ambition. By the machinations of his partizans, 
while he was absent in Gaul, he procured the banishment of 
Cicero, and the confiscation of his estates, on the pretence of ille- 
gal measures pursued in the suppression of the conspiracy of Cat- 
aline. During an exile of sixteen months in Greece, Cicero gave 
Avay to a despondency of mind utterly unworthy of the philoso- 
pher. Pompey had abandoned him, and this ungrateful desertion 
bore most heavily upon his mind. In the wane of his reputation 
Pompey soon became desirous to prop his own sinking fortunes by 
4'he abilities of Cicero, and eagerly promoted his recal from exile. 



Ancient history. i-5 

The death of Crassus, in an expedition againt the Parthians, now i 
dissolved the triumvirate ; and Csesar and Pompey, whose union, 
had no other bond than interest, began each to conceive separate- 
ly the view of undivided dominion. 



SECTION xxxiy. 

PROGRESS OF THE CIVIL WARS. SECOND TRIUMVIR^ 
ATE. FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 

1. The ambition of Csesar and of Pompey had nov/ evidently 
ihe same object ; and it seemed to be the only question, in those 
degenerate times, to which of these aspiring leaders the republic 
should surrender its liberties. The term of Caesar's government 
was near expiring. To secure himself against a deprivation of 
pov^-er, he procured a proposal to be made in the senate by one of 
his partizans, which wore the appearance of great moderation, 
namely, that Csesar and Pompey should either both continue i 
their governments, or both be deprived of them, as they were 
equally capable of endangering the public liberty by an abuse of 
power. The motion passed, and Caesar immediately offered to 
resign, on condition that his rival should do so ; but Pompey re- 
jected the accommodation. The term of his government had yet 
several years' duration, and he suspected the proposal to be a 
snare laid for him by Csssar. He resolved to maintain his right 
hj force of arnis, and a civil war was the necessary consequence. 
The consuls and a great part of the senate were the friends of 
Pompey. Csesar had on his side a victorious army, consisting cf 
ten legions, and the body of the Roman citizens, whom he had 
won by his liberality. Mark Antony and Cassius, at that time 
tribunes of the people, left Rome, and repaired to Cfesar's camp. 

2. The senate, apprehensive of his designs, pronounced a de- 
Ci'ee, branding with the crime of parricide any commander who 
should dare to pass the Rubicon (the boundary between Italy and 
the Gauls) with a single cohort, without their permission. Cae- 
sar infringed the prohibition, and marched straight to Piome. — ■ 
Pompey, to whom the senate committed the defence of the state, 
had no army. He quitted Rome, followed by the consuls and a 
part of the senate, and endeavoured hastily to levy troops over 
all Italy and Greece ; while Csesar triumphantly entered the city 
amidst the acclamations of the people, seized. the public treasury, 
and possessed hisnself of the supreme autkority without opposi- 
tion. Having secured the capital of the empire, he set out to 
take the field against her enemies. The lieutenants of Pompey 
had possession of Spain. Csesar marched thither, and subdued 
the whole country in the space of forty days. He returned vic- 
torious to Rome, where, in his absence, he had been nominated 
dictator. In the succeeding election of magistrates he was chos^ 
en consul, and was thus invested, by a double title, with the 
right of acting in the name of the republic. Pompey had by thi* 
time raised a numeroup army, and Caesar was auixious to birins: 



76 iNOlENT HISTORY. 

him fo a decisive png'ag-ement. The two armies met in lilyria, 
and the first conflict was of doubtful issue. Cassar led his army 
into ?»iacedonia, where he found a large reinforcement. He gave 
hattle to Pompey in the field of Pharsalia, and entirely defeated 
him. Fifteen thousand of Pompey's army were slain, and 24,000 
surrendered themselves prisoners to the victor, A. U. C. 705, A. 
C. 49. 

3. The fate of Pompey was miserable in the extreme. With 
his wife Cornelia, the companion of his misfortunes, he fled to 
Egypt in a single ship, trusting to the protection of Ptolemy, 
v.'hose father had owed to him his settlement on the throne. But 
the ministers of this young prince, dreading the pewer of Caesar, 
basely courted his favour by the murder of his rival. Pompey 
svas brought ashore in a small boat by the guards of the king ; 
and a Roman centurion, who had fought under his banners, stab- 
bed him, even in the sight of Cornelia, and cutting off his head, 
threw the body naked on the sands. Ca?sar pursued Pompey to 
Alexandria, v/here the head of that unhappy man, presented as a 
f^ateful offering, gave him the first intelligence of his fate. He 
wept, and turned with horror flora the sight. He caused every 
honour to be paid to his memory, and from that time showed the 
utmost beneficence to the partisans of his unfortunate rival. 

4. The sovereignty of i-gypt was in dispute between Ptolemy 
and his sister Cleopatra. Ihe latter, though married to her bro- 
tlier, and joint heir by her father"'s will, was ambitious of undivi- 
ded authority ; and Caesar, captivated by her charms, decided the 
'jontest in favour of the beauteous queen. A war ensued, iu 
which Ptolemy was killed, and Egypt subdued by the Roman arms. 
In this war the famous library of Alexandria was burnt to ashes, 
A. C. 48. A revolt of the Asiatic provinces, under Pharnaces, 
the son of ?t1ithridates, was signally chastised ; and the report was 
conveyed by Casar to the Roman senate in three words, Veni^ vidi^ 
vici. The conqueror returned to Pcome, which needed his pres- 
ence ; for Italy was divided, and the partisans of Pompey were 
yet extremely formidable. His two sons, with Cato and Scipio, 
were in arms iu Africa. Csesar pursued them thither, and proceed- 
ing with caution till secure of his advantage, defeated them in a 
decisive engagement at Thapsus. Scipio perished in his passage 
to Spam. Cato, shutting himself up in Utica, meditated a brave 
resista.nce ; but seeing no hope of success, he finally determined 
not to survive the liberties of his country, and fell deliberately by 
his own hand. Mauritania w^as now added to the number of the 
Roman provinces j and Csesar returned to Rome, absolute master 
of the empire. 

5. From that moment his attention was directed solely to the 
prosperity and happiness of the Roman people. He remembered 
no longer that there had been opposite parties ; beneficent alike to 
the friends of Pompey as to his own. He laboured to reform every 
species of abuse or grievance. He introduced order into every de- 
partment of the state, defining the separate rights of all its magis- 
trates, and extending his care to the regulation of its most distant 
provinces. The reformation of the kalendar, the draining of the 



ANCIENT HISTORT. IT' 

iaarsheg of Italy, the navie;ation of the Tiber, the embellishment: 
of Rome, the complete survey aud delineation of the empire, al- 
ternately employed his liberal and capacious mind. Returning^ 
from the final overthrow of Porapey's party in Spain, he was hail- 
ed the father of his country, was created consul for ten years, and 
perpetual dictator. His person was declared sacred, his title 
henceforth imperator^ A. U. C. 709, A. C. 45. 

6. The Roman republic had thus finally resigned its liberties, 
by its own acts They were not extinguished, as Montesquieu has 
well remarked, by the ambition of a Pompey or of a Cassar. If 
the sentiments of Caesar aud Pompey had been the same with those 
of Cato, others would have had the same ambitious thoughts ; and, 
since the commonwealth was fated to fall, tJiere never would have 
been wanting a hand to drag it to destruction. Yet Caesar had by 
force subdued his country ; a.nd therefore was a usurper. If it had 
been possible to restore the liberties of the republic, and with these 
its happiness, by the suppression of his usurpation, the attempt 
Would have merited the praise at least of good design. Perhaps so 
thought his murderers ; and tlius, however weak their policy, how- 
ever base and treaeherous their act, they will ever find apologists. 
They expected an impossible issue, as the event demonstrated. 

7. A conspiracy was formed by sixty of the senators, at the head 
0f whom were Brutus and Cassius ; the former a man beloved of 
Caesar, who had saved his life, and heaped upon him numberless 
benefits. It was rumoured that the dictator wished to add to his 
nmnerous titles that of king, and that the ides of March was fixed 
on for investing him with the diadem. On that day, when taking 
his seat in the senate-bouse, he was suddenly assailed by the con- 
spirators. He defended himself for some time against their daggers, 
till, seeing Brutus among the number, he faintly exclaimed, '' And 
you, too, my son !" and covering his face with his robe, resigned 
himself to his fate. He fell, pierced by twenty-three v/ounds, A. 
U. C. 711, and A. C. 43. 

8. The Roman people were struck with horror at the deed. 
They loved Ca:'sar, master as he was of their lives and liberties, 
Mark Antony aud Lepidus, ambitious of succeeding to th^- power 
of the dictator, resolved to pave the way by avenging his death, 
Caesar, by his testament, had bequeathed a great part of his fortune 
to the people ; and they were penetrated with gratitude to his 
memory. A public harangu.e by Antony over the bleeding body, 
exposed in the forum, inflamed them with the utmost indignation 
against his murderers, who must have met with instant destritC' 
tion if they had not escaped with precipitation from the city. An- 
tony profited by these dispositions ; and the avenger of Caesar, of 
course the favourite of the people, was in the immedia.te prospect 
©f attaining a similar height of dominion. In this, however, he 
found a formidable competitor in Octavii\s, the grand-nephew 
and the adopted heir of Caesar, who, at this critical moment, ar- 
rived in Rome. Availing himself of these titles, Ocfcavius 'gained 
the senate to his interest, and divided with Antony the favour of 
the people. The rivals soon perceived that it was their wisest 
Iplan to unite theii' iuterests ; and they admitted Lepidus iuto tbeiy 

T 



78 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

association, whose power, as g-overnor of Gaul, and Inimeuse rich- 
es, g-ave him a title to a share of authority. Thus was formed the 
second tiinmvirate, the effects of whose union were beyond meas- 
ure dreadful to the republic. The triumviri divided among them- 
selves the provinces, and cemented their union by a deliberate 
saciifice made by each of his best friends to the vengeance of his 
associates. Antony consigned to death his uncle Lucius ; Lepidua 
his brother Paulus ; and Octaviushis guardian Toranius and his 
friend Cicero. In this horrible proscription 300 senators and 300O 
knig-lits were put to death. 

9. Octavius and Antony now marched against the conspirators, 
who had a formidable army in the field in Thrace, commanded by 
Brutus and Cassius. An engagement ensued at Philippi, which 
decided the fate of the empire. Antony obtained the victory, for 
Octavius had no military talents. He was destitute even of per- 
sonal bravery, and his conduct after the victory was stained with 
that cruelty which is ever the attendant of cowardice. Brutus and 
Cassius escaped the vengeance of their enemies by a voluntary 
death. Antony now sought a recompense for his troops by the 
plunder of the east. While in Cilicia, he summoned Cleopatra t« 
answer for her conduct in dethroning- an infant brother, and in 
openly favouring- the party of Brutus and Cassius. The queea 
came to Tarsus, and made a complete conquest of the triumvir., 
immersed in luxury and intoxicated with love, he forgot g-lory, 
Mmbifion, fame, and every thing, for Cleopatra. Octavius saw 
4:his phrensy with delight, as the preparative of his rival's ruin, 
lie had nothing to dread from Lopidus, whose insignificant char- 
acter first drev/ on hiin the contempt of his partisans ; and whosq 
folly, in attempting an invasion of the province of his colleague^ 
was punished by his deposition and banishment. 

10. Antony had in his madness lavished the provinces of the 
empire in g:ifts to his paramour and her children. The lloman peo 
pie v/ere justly indignant at these enormities ; and the divorce of 
his v.'ife Octavia, the sister of his colleague, was at length the si^- 
::ial of declared hostility between them. An immense armament, 
<hicfiy naval, came at length to a decisive conflict near Actiiim, 
on the coast of Epirus. Cleopatra, who attended her lover, de- 
serted him v/ith her galleys in the heat of the engagement ; and 
puch was the infatuation of Antony, that he abandoned his fleet, 
and followed her. After a contest of some hours, they yielded to 
the squadron of Octavius, A. U. C. 723, A. C. 31. The victor pur- 
'S«ed the fug-itives to Egypt ; and the base Cleopatra proffered 
terms to Octavius, including the surrender of her kingdom, and the 
aVjandonment of Antony. After an unsuccessful attempt at re> 
sistance, Antony anticipated liis fate by falling- on his sword. Cle- 
<>patra soon after, either from remorse, or more probably from mor- 
tified ambition, as she found it was Octavius"'9 desig-n to lead her 
in chains to Rome to grace his triumph, had courage to follow the 
example of her lover, and put herself to death by the poison of an, 
■^sp. Octavius returned to Rome eole. master of the R»m?ji em*' 
pire A. U. C. 727, A. C. 27, 



ANCIENT history! 79 



SECTION XXXV. 

CONSIDFRATIONS OF SUCH PARTICULARS AS MARK' 
THE GENIUS AND NATIONAL CHARACTER OF THE^ 
ROMANS. 

SYSTEM OF ROMAN EDUCATION", 

1. A virtuous but ri^id severity of manners was the character-- 
istic of the Romans under their kings, and in the first ages of the- 
repuhlic. The private life of the citizens, frugal, temperate, and 
laborious, had its indueoce on their public character. The {pa- 
iria potestas) paternal authority gave to every head of a family a 
sovereign authority over all the members that composed it ; and 
this pov/er, felt as a right of nature, was never abused. Plutarch 
has leinarked, as a defect in the Roman laws, that they did not 
prescribe, as those of Lacedtemon, a system and rules for the edu-- 
cation of youth. But the truth is, the manners of the people sup- 
plied this want. The utmost attention was bestowed in the early 
formation of the miad and character. The excellent author of 
tlie dialogue De Oratoribus (^concerning orators) presents a valua» 
ble picture of the Roman education in the early ages of the com- 
moiiv/ealth, contrasted with the less virtuous practice oi the more 
refined ages. The Roman matrons did not abandon their infanta 
to mercenary nurses. They regarded the careful nurture of their 
olfspring, the rudiments of their education, and the necessary oc- 
cupations of their household, as the hi.-hest points of female merit. 
Next to the care bestowed in the instilment of virtuous morals, et 
remarkable degi ee of attention seems to have been given to the 
lasiguage of children, and to the attainment of a correctness and 
purity of expression. Cicero informs us that the Gracchi^ the sons 
of Cornelia, were educated, non taniingrcemie quam in scrmon,& 
rnalris^ in ike speech more than in the hosom of their mother. That 
urbanity which characterized the Roman citizens showed itself 
particularly in their speech and gesture. 

2. Tlic attention to the language of the youth had another 
wurce. It -was by eloquence, rnore than by any other talent, that 
t.lic vouug Roinan could rise to the highest oflices and dignities cf 
tlii? ^lale. The stadia forensia (forensic studies) v/ere, therefore, 
a principal object of the Roman education. Plutarch informs us, 
that among the sports of the childi-en at Rome, one was pleading 
causes before a mock tribunal, and accusing and defending a crim- 
inal in the usual forms of judicial procedure. 

3. The exercises of the body were likev/ise particularly attend* 
ed in • whatever might iiarden the temperament, and confer 
strength and agility. I'hese exercises were daily practised by the 
youth, under the eye of their elders, in the Campus Martins. 

4. At seventeen the youth assumed the manly robe. He wai 
consigned to the care of a master of rhetoric, whom he attended 
constantly to the forum, or to the courts of justice ; for, to be an 
aecoflapli^^iied gentleiisian, it was necessary for a ^oman to be an 



80 ANCIENT HISTORY, 

accomplished orator".' The pains l-'sstowed on the attainment of 
tkis character, and the best instructions for its acquisition, W€ 
learn from the writings of Cicero, Quintilian, and the younger 
Pliny. 

SECTION XXXVI. 

OF THE PROGRESS OF LITERATURE AMONG THE RO- 
MANS. 

1. Before the intercourse with Greece, which took place after 
the Punic wars, the Roman people was utterly rude and illiterate^ 
As among all nations the first appearance of the literary spirit i*. 
shown in poetical compositif-^u, the Roman warrior had probably, 
like the Indian or the Celtic, his war songs, which celebrated his 
triumphs in battle. Religion likewise employs the earliest poetry 
of most nations ; and if a people subsist by agriculture, a plentiful 
harvest is celebrated in the rustic song^ of the husbandman. The 
versus fescennini (fescennine verses)^ mentioned by Livy, were 
■probably of the nature of a poetical dialogue, or alternate versed- 
sung by the labourers, in a strain of coarse merriment and raillery. 
This shows a dawning of the drama. 

2. About the 390th year of Rome, on occasion of a pestilence, 
(udiones (drolls or stage dancers) were brought from Etruria, qui 
ad tihicinis modos salfanies^ liaud ivdecoros motus more Tuaco da- 
bant ; who danced to the tunes of a musician^ and^ in the Tuscan 
fashion^ exhibited motions that u-tre not ungraceful, lavy tells us 
that the Roman youth imitated these performances, and added to 
them rude and jocula.r verses, probably the fescennine dialogues. 
The regular drama was introduced at Rome from Greece by Livius- 
Androuicus, A. U. C. 514. 'J he earliest Roman plays were there- 
fore, we may presume, translations from the Greek. 

Et post punir'8 t>el!a quietus qu^rere c.oepit, 

Quid Sophocles, et Thejipis, et iEschylus utile ferrent. 

Hor. Epist. Lib. II, u 

And beinsf at peace after the Punic wats, the P.omans began to inqniVc 
what ftdvantafjes might be deriveil from the writings of Sophocles, Thespi^, 
and ^sch^'lus. 

3. Of the early Roman drama, Ennius was a great ornament, 
and from his time the art made rapid advancement. The comediee 
of Plautus, the contemporary of Lnnius, with great strength and 
spirit of dialogue, display a considerable knowledge of human na- 
ture, and are read at this day with pleasure. 

4. Csecilius improved so much on the comedy of Plautus, that 
he is mentioned by Cicero as perhaps the best of the Roman comic 
•writers. Of his compositions we have no remains. His patronage 
fostered the rising genius of Terence, whose tirst comedy, the ^dn^ 
tfr/o, was performed A. U. C 587. Ihe merit of the comedies of 
Terence lies in that nature and simplicity v/hich are observable ijj 
tlie structure of his fables, and m the delineation oi his charactey?^ 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 81 

Thf,y are deficient, liowever, in comic energy ; and are not calcu- 
lated to excite ludicrous emotions. They are chiefly borrowed 
from the Greek of Menander and Apollodoriis. 

5. The Roman comedy was of four different species : the come- 
dia togaia or practexkita^ the comedia labernaria^ the attellance^ 
and the niimi. The first admitted serious scenes and personag'es, 
and was of the nature of the modern sentiinental comedy. The 
second was a representation of ordinary life and manners. The af- 
iellamE were pieces where the dialogue was not committed to 
v/riting, but the subject of the scene was prescribed, and the dia- 
logue filled up by the talents of the actors. I'he viinii were pieces 
of comedy of the lowest species ; farces, or entertainments of buf- 
foonery ; though sometimes admitting the serious, and even the 
pathetic. 

6. The Roman tragedy kept pace in Its advance^ient with the 
comedy. The best of the Roman tragic poets were Actius and 
Pacuvius, of whom we have no remains. The tragedies published 
under the name of Seneca are generally esteemed the work of dif- 
ferent hands. They are none of them of superlative merit. 

7. Velleius Paterculus remarks, that the sera of the perfection 
of Roman literature was the age of Cicero, comprehending all the 
literary men of the preceding times whom Cicero might have seen, 
and all those of the succeeding who might have seen him. Cicero, 
Quintilian, and Pliny celebrate, in high terms, the writings of the 
elder Cato, whose principal works were historical, and have en- 
tirely perished. Vve have his fragments, de Re Rustica {on agri- 
culture)^ in which he was imitated by Varro, one of the earliest of 
the good v,'riters among the Romans, and a man of universal eru- 
dition. Of the variety of his talents we may judge, not only from 
the splendid eulogium of Cicero, but from the circumstance of 
Pliny having recourse to his authority in every book of his JS'atural 
History. 

8. &"allust, in order of time, comes next to Varro. This writet 
introduced an important improvement on history, as treated by the 
Greek historians, by applying (as Dionysius of Halicarnassus says) 
the science of philosophy to the study of facts. Sallust is therefore 
to be considered as the father of philosophic history ; a species of 
writing which has been so successfully cultivated in modern times. 
He is an admirable writer for the matter of his compositions, which 
evince great judgment and knowledge of human nature, but by 
no means commendable for his style and manner of writing. He- 
affects singularity of expression, aa antiquated phraseology, and 
a petulant brevity and senteutiousness, M^hich has nothing of tho 
dignity of the historical style. 

9. Caesar has much more purity of style, and more correctneaSr 
and simplicity of expression ; but his Commentaries, wanting that 
amplitude of diction and fulness of illustration which is essential to 
history, are rather of the nature of annals. 

10. In all the requisites of a historian, Livy stands unrivalled 
among the Romans ; possessing consummate judgment in the se- 
lection of facts, perspicuity of arrangement, sagacious reflection, 
soujid views of policy, with the mogt copious, pure, and eWquesl 



8S ANCIEKT HISTORY, 

expression. It has been objected, that his speeches deroo^aie frcir 
the truth of history : but this was a prevalent taste with the 
ancient writers ; and as those speeches are always known to he 
the composition of the historian, the reader is not misled. As to 
the style of Livy, though in general excellent, we sometimes per 
ceive in it, and most commonly in the speeches, an affectation of 
the pointed sentences (the tnbrantes sentevJiolce^ and obscurity of 
the declaimers, which evinces the pernicious influence acquired by 
those teachers at Rome since the time of Cicero and Sallust. 

11. In the decline of Roman literature Tacitus is a historian of 
no common merit. He successfully cultivated the m_ethod pointed 
out by Sallust, of applying: philosophy to history. In this he dis- 
plays great knowledge of human nature, and penetrates, with sin- 
gular acuteness, into the secret springs of policy, and the motives 
of actions. But his fault it, that he is too much of a politician, 
drawing his characters after the model of his own mind ; ever as- 
signing actions and events to preconceived scheme and design, and 
allowing too little for the operation of accidental causes, v.hich 
often have the greatest influence on human affairs. Tacitus, in 
his style, professedly imitated that of Sallust ; adopting all the 
ancient phraseology, as well as the new idioms introduced into the 
Roman language by that writer. To his brevity and abruptness 
he added most of the faults of the declaiming school. Mis expres- 
sion, therefore, though extremely forcible, is often enigmatically 
©bscure ; the worst property that style can possess. 

12. Among the eminent Roman poets (after the dramatic) Lu- 
©retius deserves first to be noticed. He has great inequality, be- 
ing at some times verbose, rugged, and perplexed, and at others 
displaying all the elegance as v/ell as the fire of poetry. This may 
be in great part attributed to his subject. Philosophical disquisi- 
sition is unsuitable to poetry. It demands a dry precision of thought 
and expression, rejecting all excursive fancy and ornament of dic- 
tion. That luxuriance of imagery, which is the soul of poetry, i-s 
raving and impertinence when applied to philosophy. 

13. Catullus, the contemporary of Lucretiu?, is the earliest of 
the Roman lyric poets. His Epigrams are pointed and satirical, 
but too licentious ; his Idylla tender, natural and picturesque. He 
flourished in the age of Julius Ceesar. 

14. In the succeeding age of Augustus poetry attained to iis 
highest elevation among the Romans. Viro^il, Horace, Ovid, and 
Tibullus, were all contemporaries, Virgil is allowed the same 
rank among the Roman poets, as Homer among the Greek. If 
Homer excel Virgil in the sublime, the latter surpasses the former 
in the tender and elegant. '1 he transcendent merits of Homer are 
sullied by occasicnal defects. Virgil is the model of a correct 
taste. Ihe diii'erence of manner in the Bucolics, the Georgics, 
and the Aneid, shows that V irgil was capable of excelling in va- 
rious departments of poetry; and such is the opinion of Isiartial. 
who affirms that he could have surpassed Horace in lyric poetry, 
and Varius in tragedy. 

15. Horace excels as a lyric poet, a satirist, and a critic. In 
»us odes, there iaoiore variety than in those of either AnacreOn oi 



ANCIENT HISTORY, 83 

PiHclar. He can alternately display the sublimity of the latter, 
Stud the jocose vein of the fo;nier. His Satires have that charac- 
teristic slyness and obliquity of censure, associated with humour 
and pleasantry, which strongly disting-uish the:afroai the stern and 
cutting- sarcasm of Juvenal. As a critic, his rules are taken chiefly 
from Aristotle ; but they contain the ele uents of a just taste in po- 
etical composition, and therefore do not admit of variation. The 
Satires of Juvenal, co:npared with those of Horace, are deficient in 
fac«tiousness and urbanity ; but thpy are superior in acuteness of 
thought, and in mauiy vigor of sentiment. 

16. In va'-icty of talent, Avithout supreme excellence, and ia 
ease and elegance of numbers, no Roman poet has exceeded 
Ovid, io his Metamorphoses, particularly, with great fancy, we 
have speci.nens of (.he pathetic, the descriptive, the eloquent, and 
oven the sublime, iiis ii^legies have more of nature and of real 
passion, than those of either libullus or Pi'opertius. His amatory 
verses liave much tenderness, but are too frcqueatly loose, and 
even grossly licentious. 

17. Ihere is nothinjr more elegant than the compositions of Ti- 
bullus, nothing more cfeiicate than the turn of his expression ; but 
it is not the laug^'age of passion. The sentiments are tender, but 
their power of atiecting the heart is weakened by the visible care 
and solicitude of the poet for refined phraseology and polished 
numbers ; nor is there 'uthcr much fancy or variety of thought. A 
single elegy exhibits tiie sentiments of the whole. 

IB. ivlartiai is the laat of the ixoman poets who can be mention- 
ed with high approbati sa. His '.pigrams, independent of their art 
and iitgenuity, are valuable, as throwing light upon the Roman 
manners. Hcpossrises, above every other poet, a nau'e/e of ex- 
pression, which is chie/Iy observable in his serious epigrams. He 
is well characterized by the younger Fiiny. Ingeniosus^ accr, et 
qui in scnbtnio et salts habeitt et ftUis^ nf.c candoris minus. Epist. 
3. 21. His writings are ingenious and acute ; they possess humour 
and satire^ and no less candour. 

19. Luxuria.nce of ornament, ad the fondness for points, and 
brilliancy of thought and expression, are certain indications of the 
decline of good taste. These characters strongly mark the Latin 
poets of the succeeding ages. Lucan has some scattered examples 
of genuine poetic imagery, and Persius some happy strokes of an- 
imated satire ; but they scarcely compensate the affected obscuri- 
ty of one, and the bombast of the other. The succeeding poets, 
Statins, Siiius Italicus, and Valerius 1 laccus, in their attempts at 
the most diflicult of all species of poetry, the epic, have only more 
signally displayed the inferiority of their genius, and the manifest 
decay of the art. 

SECTION XXXVII. 

STATE OF PHILOSOFHY AMONG THE ROMANS. 

1. The Romans, in the earlier periods of the republic, had little 
!ej5Uire tobe-stow on the cultivation of 



84 ANCIENT HISTORY". 

idea of philosophical speculatioD. It was n©t till the end of tht 
sixth century from the building of the city, and in the interval be- 
tween the war with Perseus and the third Punic war, that philos- 
ophy made its first appearance at Rome. A few learned Achsean?, 
banished fvom their country, had settled in various parts of Italy, 
and applyirg themseh'cs to the cultivation of literature and the 
education of youth, diffused a taste for those studies hitherto un- 
knov/n to the Romans. The elder citizens regarded those pursuits 
with an UL^favourable eye. Jealous of the introduction of foreitrn 
in?ainerswith foreign studies, the senate banished the Greek phi- 
losophrrs from Rome. But an Athenian embassy, arriving soon 
•after, brought thithor Carneades and Critoiaus, who revived the 
taf I e for !;]ie Oreek philosophy, and left behind them many able 
cliici, Ics, v/ho publicly tauuht their doctiines. 

2. It was natural that these systems should be most generally 
adopted which were most suitable to the national character. 
V^ hile the mannevs of the Romans had a tincture of ancient sever- 
ity, the stoical system prevailed. !?cipio, Lselius, and the younger 
Cato rank arxiong its chiel' pat tifans. 

3. The philosophy of Aristotle was little known in Rome till the 
age of Cicero. At that time Cratippus and Tyrannion taught 
his system with gr( at reputation. Yet Cicero complains that the 
peripatetic philosophy was little understood at Rome ; and there- 
fore, he sent his son to study its doctrines in the schools of Athens. 

4. Lucullus, whose stay in Greece gave him an opportunity of 
bei'^.g acquainted v/ith all the different sects, disseminated, on his 
retium to Home, a very general taste for philosophy. His patron- 
age of learned men, and his liberality in allowing his library to be 
open for the public use, contributed greatly to the promotion of 
literature. 

5. The Old and New Academy had each its partisans. Of the 
former, which may be termed the Stoico-Platonic, the most illus- 
trious disciples were Marcus Biutus and Terentius Varro. To the 
philosophical talen«^s of Brutus, and the universal erudition of Var- 
ro, the writings of Cicero bear ample testimony. Cicero himself 
must be deemed the most eminent of all the Roman philosophers. 
He is classed among the principal suijporters of the New Academy ; 
though it seems to have been his ptupuse to elucidate the Greek 
phDosophy in general, rather than to rank himself among the disci- 
ples of any particular sect. 

6. The cultnaiion of physics, or natural philosophy, seems to 
ha\e been little amended to either by the Greeks or Romans. Un- 
less agriculture should be classed luider this description, we know 
of no i^oraan authors, except Varro and the elder Pliny, who seem 
to have bestoi^ed much attention on the operations of nature. The 
works of Varro have perished, except a few fragments. 'J he Nat- 
xiral History of Pliny is a aiost valuable store-house of the know- 
ledge of the ancients in physics, economics, and Ihe arts and sci- 
ences. It is to be regi-etted that the style is unsuitable to the mat- 
ter, being too frequently florid, declarratory, and obscure. 

7. The philosophy of Epicurus was unknown in the early ages 
of the Roman commonwealth. It was introduced with luxurj* , ami 



ANCIENT HISTORT. 85 

kept pace in ifa advancement with the corrnption ©f manner?. 
Cinneas having discoursed on the tenets of Epicurus at the ta- 
ble of Pyrrhus, Fabricius exclaimed, '' May the enemies of Rome 
ever entertain such principles !" Ytt these principles were, in a 
short time from that period, too current among the citizens of 
Rome. 

SECTION XXXVIII. 

OF THE PUBLIC AND PRIVATE MANNERS OF THE 
ROMANS. 

1. The manners of the Romans in the early ages of the republic 
were so different from those of the latter times, that one should be 
led to suppose some very extraordinary canses to have co-operated 
to produce so remarkable a change ; yet the transition is easy to 
be accounted for. A spirit of temperance, of frugality, and probi- 
ty, is the characteristic of every infant establishment. A virtuous 
simplicity of manners, aud a rigour of military discipline, paved 
the way for the extension of the Roman arms, and for their prodi- 
gious conquests. These conquests introduced wealth, luxury, and 
Bomiption. 

2. In the early times of the republic the patricians, when in the 
Gouutry, forgot the distinction of ranks, and laboured in the culti- 
vation of their fields, like the meanest plebeians. We have the 
examples of Cincinnatus, Curius, the elder Catn, and Scipio Afri- 
canus. The town was visited only every ninth day, which was 
the market day. In those times of virtuous simplicity, says Sal- 
lust, Donii niiliticeque boni mores colebantur. JJiiabus artibus^ au" 
dacia in bello, ubi fax evenerat^ cpquilate^ seque remque publicavxr 
turabant. Good manners ivere cultivated both in peace and war. 
By two means^ valour in ivar^ and equity in peace^ they supported 
them^selves arid tJte commonwealth. But when the Romans had ex- 
tended their dominion, in consequence of this very discipline and 
these manners, they imported with tiie weal:n of the conquereot 
nations their tastes, their manners, and their vices. 

3. The Romans had no natural taste in the fine arts. On the 
conquest of Greece an immense field opened at once to their eyes, 
and the mast-^r-pieces of art poured in upon them in abundance. 
But they could not appreciate their excellences. Ihe Roman lux- 
ury, as far as the arts were concerned, was in g-cneral displayed 
in an awkward, heavy, and tasteless magnificence. 

4. The public and private life of the Romans v/ill be best eluci" 
dated by a short account of the manner in which the day was pas- 
sed at Ron:e, both by the higher and lower ranks of the people. 
By a part of the citizens the moraing hours were spent in visiting 
the temples, by others in attending^ the levees of the great. The 
dientes (clients) waited on ih-QiT patroni (patrons) ; the patricians' 
Tisited one another, or paid their coiTipliroents to the leaders of the 
republic. Popularity was always the first object of ambition at 
Rome, as paving- the way to all advancement. From the leve«e 

8 



36 ANClSNT HISTORY. 

they proceeded to tlie forum, either to assist in the puHic "busines*, 
or for amuseinent. There the time was spent till lioon, which was 
the hour of dinner among the Bomans. This was chiefly a very 
ligfht repast, of winch it was not customary to invite any g:uest5 
to partake, j^ftcr r'innerthe yoi'th repaired to the Campus Mar- 
tiuf, where they occupied themsi Ives in athletic exercises and 
spelts till sunset, 'ihe elder class retired for an hour to repose, 
a,"id then passed the afternoon in their porticoes, galleries or lihra- 
laes, where the)' eisjoycd the conAersation of their friends, or heard 
recitations of literary works ; others repaired to the theatres, or to 
the shows of the circus and amphitheatre. 

6. Comlats cf gladiators were introduced for the first time 
ahout the 400th year of the city. 1 hese and combats with wild 
fceasts soon lecame a most favourite amusement among- the Ro- 
mans. The spirit of luxury, which in g^ereral is not unfavourable 
to humanity, showed its prog-ress among; the Romans by an in- 
ereasing ferocity aud inhumanity of the public spectacles. 1 he- 
atrical entertain ments were in high request. (Sect. XXXVl, } 2, 
J3, 4, 5, 6.) 1 he taste for pantomime came to such a height, that 
the art was tanght in public schools, and the nobility and people 
%vere divided into parties in favour of the rival periorn ers ; an 
».buse which called at leng-th for the inteiposition of the laws. 

6. From the porticoes, or from the theatre and amphitheatre, 
it was customary to go to the baths, of which there were n.any 
for the use of the public. The rich had baths in their own houses, 
vying: with each ether in this as in every other article of luxury 
or magnificence, from the bath they went in nudiately to si p- 
per, generally al out the ninth or tenth hour, countii.g from sun- 
rise. At table they reclined on cot ches. '^1 he luxury of the Ro- 
man suppers far exceeded every thii.g- known among the moderns. 
Av: anttcamium of pickles and spices was preser.ted to prepare 
and sharpen the appetite. Cookery became a science. 'Ihe 
number ai;d costliness oi the dishes were incredible. Ihe enter- 
tainment -was heightened by every thii g: gratilying to tie senses ; 
by r.ale and fem.alo danceis, musiciaiis, pantomimes, and even 
shows of gladiators. 

7. In the end of the republic pleasure and amusement were the 
darling objects of all ranks of the citizcrs: tbey sought no more 
than jiantnt et circtnsts {brtud and garnts in the circus). 



SECTION XXXIX. 

OF THE ART OF WAR AMOKG THE ROMANS. 

1. From, the prodigious succest vhicb attended the arms of the 
Ponars, and the drminicn which they acquired over the greater 
part of the Lrc wn v.xrld, it seems a natural h;feierce tha.t they 
a.ust have excelled all the cotempcrary nations in the mili- 
tary art. Vcgetiuft expressly assigrs their extensive conquests to 
that cause alcne. it is the ditcij iite cf an am y that mal.es a 
-multituue act as one Hian. it iiVt ise increases the c&urage &f 



ANCIENT HISTORY, 8? 

fcroops ; for each individual confides in the steady co-operation o$ 
his fellows. 

2. Fro-n the constant practice of athletic exorcises the Ro-nants 
were inured from infancy to hardiness and fatigue, and bred to 
that species of iile which a soldier leads in the most active cain- 
paig-n in the field. 

3. The levies were made annually, by the tribes called out, 
and divided into their respective number of centuries ; each cen- 
tury presenting by rotation as many soldiers as there were legions 
intended to be raised ; and the tribunes of the several legions 
taking their turn by rotation in the selection of the men presented 
by the centuries. (Sect. XXIV, ^ 16.) The number of soldiers 
in the legion was vari^ius at diifereut periods, from 3000 to 10,000 
and 11,000. 

4. Among the ancient nations there were usually two different 
arrangements of the troops in order of battle. One the phalanx, 
or close arrangement in a rectangular form, intersected only by 
l^reat divisions ; a disposition commonly used by the Grreeks, and 
by most of the barba,rous nations. The other the quincunx, or 
chequer, consisting of small co npan.ies or platoons, disposed in 
three straight lines, with alternate spaces between the companies 
equal to the space occupied by each compa:iy. In the first line 
■were the hastuti^ in the second the pdncipts. and in the third the 
triarii. On tho flanks of the first line wer? the cavalry, in de- 
tached companies ; and in front of the liae were the vel/tes., or 
light-armed troops, who us.:ally began with a skirmishing attack, 
and then were withdrawn t> jnake way for the main body to c->'ne 
into action. 'J'ha advantages of thi.< arra ng.vment were, that t i.c 
line of battle could be three times formed v/ith fresh troops, and 
that it was more adapted than any other for rapid changes of 
movemetit. in the tloaian legion the arms of the hsUai and 
prlncipts Avere the pilum or heavy javelin, and the svvoid and 
buckler ; and of the triarii^ the long spear, with the sword and 
buclcler. 

5. Notwithstanding th^-^se a ivantages the qu^ncun.v we'it into 
<iisuse toward tiie end of the republic, and Jrom that time various 
arrai'^ements of the !e ,ion were used accoidLiig t'< citcamslances. 
The Koman tactics are supposed to have btco at their greatest 
pitch of excellence during the Punic wars. Hannibal was a gr?at 
master of the science of tactics ; and tno ]lomans prciited by the 
experience of his abiii':y. The batiie of C'ann^e, a» described by 
Poty'>ius, atibrds signal evidence of the great talents of the -. ar- 
thaginian general. ihe description of that battle has been mis- 
represented by i olard ; but it is accurately explained in the JIe~ 
moircs MlUtaires of M. Guischardt. If the quincunx disposition 
had been kept by the Roman army in that engagement, the event 
might have been very different ; for it would have disappointed 
the effect of an artlul manoeuvre planned by Hannibal, on observ- 
ing his enemy's army arranged in the unusual order of the pha- 
lanx. 

6. The art of intrenchment was carried to perfection by the 
Komaas, particularly by Julius Ceesar, ^^ ith 60,000 men he ie- 



S8 ANOlEx^T mSTORY. 

tended himself in his intrenchments before Alexia, "^vhile the llne^ 
of circumvallation were attacked by 240,000 Gauls, and the liner; 
of countervallation by 80,000, without effect. These intrench- 
meijts con&isted of a ditch from nine to fifteen feet in depth and 
width, fenced on the inside by the mound of excavated earth, and 
0n the outside by strong* stakes with pointed bra'aches. 

7. In besieging- a town several camps were formed round the 
place, joined to one another by lines of circumvallation and coun- 
tei'vallation.. A mound of cavth {as;ger) was raised, heginn'vr.'^ 
by a gfentle slope from one of the camps, and gradually rising- io 
elevation as it approached the city. The front, where the worl: 
:men were employed, was defended by a curtain of hides fixed c : 
sfroris" posts. On this mound the eng-ines of attack, catapultm 
•and f.v. /..'■/■'", were advaiiced, till they played on the very ?pot 
which the besiegers wished to assail. The catapiiUce discharg^ed 
heavy stones, the baUs-tcc arrov/s. The same machines were used 
fey the besiegad for annoying the enemy. Vvhen the engines on 
the terrace had driven the besieged from the walls, the battering- 
ram (aries) was then brought up under a pent-house Qestado} ; 
and, if it once reached the wall, was g-enerally decisive of the 
fate of the town. The main object of the besieged was therefore 
%o prevent its approach by every power of annoyance. Stones, 
darts, and combustible matters were continually launched upon 
Che assailants ; and sometimes a mine was dug from the city to 
scoop away the terra.ce and all its eng-ines. These arts of attack 
and defence of fortified places were in general use among- the na- 
tions of antiqiuty, and continued down to modern times, till the 
invention of g-unpowder. 

8. Ihe naval military art was utterly unknown among the Ro- 
mans till the first Punic war. A Carthaginian galley was the 
first model of a vessel of war. In the space of two manths they 
equipped a fleet of 100 g-alleys of five banks of oars, and 20 of 
three banks. I'he structure of those gallies, and the mode of ar- 
ranging the rowers, may be learned from the ancient sculptures 
and medals. The combatants at sea assailed at a dista^ ce with 
javelins, missile combustibles, and sometimes with cafapuliae and 
balistiz ; but the serious attack was made in boarding, when the 
vessels were grappled by means of a crane let down from the 
prow. 

9. In the times of the empire the Romans maintained their dis- 
tant conquests, not only by their armies, but by their fleets. i he 
ships were moored in the large rivers and bays ; and both the ie,° 
g;ions and the fleets generally preserved a fixed station. 



SECTION XL. 

REFLECTIONS ARISING FROM A VIEW OF THE ROMAN 
HISTORY DURING THE COMMONWEALTH. 

1. The history of all nations evinces, that there is an insep ara- 
l»iti ccojaection between the morals of a people juid their politic&I.. 



ANCIENT HISTORY, 89 

prosperity. But we have no strong'er demonstration of this truth 
than the annals, of the Roman commonwealth. To limit to re'* 
publics alone the necessity of virtue as a principle, is a chimerical 
notion, fraught with dangerous consequences, ^uid leges sine, 
moribus ranee prqficiunf ? {laws ivithout morals avail nothing) is 
a sentiment equally applicable to all governments ; and no politi- 
cal system, however excellent its fabric, can possess any measure, 
of duration, without that pov/erful cement, virtue, in the princi- 
ples and manners of the people. (Sect. XIX, i 4 ) 

2. The love of our country, and the desire for its rational liber-, 
ty, are noble and virtuous feelings ; and their prevalence is ever 
a test of the integrity of the national morals. But no term has 
been more prostituted than the word liberty. In a corrupted 
people the cry for liberty is heard the loudest among the most 
profligate of the community. With these its meaning has no re- 
lation to patriotism ; it imports no more than the aversion to re- 
straint ; and the personal character of tlie demagogue, and the 
private morals of his disciples, are alvvay? sufficient to vmmask 
the counterfeit. The spirit of patriotism and a general corrup- 
tion of manners cannot possibly be coexistent in the same age and 
nation. 

3. On the other hand, while the morals of a people are pure, 
no public misfortune is irretrievable, nor any political situation so 
desperate, that hope may not remain of a favourable change. In 
such situations the spirit of patriotism pervading all ranks of the 
state will soon recover the national prosperity. The history of 
the Roman people, and that o[ the Grecian states, in various cri- 
ses, both of honour and of disgrace, afibrds proofs alike of this 
position and of its converse. 

4. The national character of the R-omans seems to have under- 
gone its most remarkable change for the worse from the time of 
the destruction of their rival, Carthage. Sallust assigns the 

cause. Ante Cktrthagineni dtletam^ mttus hoslilis in bonis ar- 

iibus civiiatem retinebat. Sed uhi ilia formido meniibus decessif^ 
scilicet ea quce secundce. res amant^ lascivia afque superbia inra- 

sere. Before the destruction of Carthage^ the fear of their 

enemy kept the people in the practice of virtue ; but when the re- 
straint of fear ceased to influence tJieir conduct^ they abandoned 
themselves to projligacy and arrogance^ the usual cone o'init ants of 
prosperity. 

5. In the last ages of the commonwealth avarice and ambition, 
unrestrained by moral principle, were the chief motives of the 
Roman conquests. It was sufficient reason for going to v/ar, that 
9. country offered a tempting object to the ra-pai^ity and ambition 
of the military leaders. The conquest of Italy paved the way 
for the reduction of foreign nations. Hence the Romans import- 
ed, with their v/ealth, the m.tnners, the luxuries, and the vices of 
the nations v/hich they subdued. The generals returned not as 
formerly, after a successful war, to the labours of the field, and to 
a life of temperance and industry. They were now the govern- 
dm, of Ui»gdoi}is and provinces ; and at the period of their com- 

8* 



^0 ANCIENT HIST0R7. 

naand abri^ad, disdaining- the restraints of a subject, they cowld he 
satisfied with nothino: less than sovereignty at borne. The ar- 
mies, debauched by the plunder of ki:jo-doms, were complerely 
disposed to support them in all their schemes of ambition ; and 
the populace, won by corruption, always took part with the chief 
who best could pay for their favour and support. F orce or bri- 
bery oveiTuled every election ; and the inhabitants of distant 
states, now holding the right of citizens, were brought to Rome^ 
at the command of the demagogue, to influence any popular con- 
test, and turn the scale in his favour. In a government thus irre~ 
frievably destroyed by the decay of those springs which support- 
ed it, it was of little consequence by what particular tyrant, usur» 
per, or demagogue its ruin was fmally accomplished. 

6. i rom a consideration of the rise and fall of the principal 
states of antiquity, it has been a commonly received opinion, that 
the constitution of empires has, like the human body, a period of 
gTov/th, maturity, decline, and extinction. But arguments from 
analogy are extremely deceitful, and particularly so when the 
o.nalogy is from physical to moral truths. 1 he human body is, 
iVorn its fabiic, naturally sn^ject to decay, and is perpetually un- 
dergoing a c]iange from time. Its organs, at first weak, attai* 
^ladually their perfect strength, and thence, by a similar grada- 
tion, proceed to decay and dissolution. This is an immutable law 
of its nature. But the springs of the body politic do not necessa- 
rily undergo a perpetual change from time. It is not regularly 
progressive from weakness to strength, and thence to decay and 
dissolution ; nor is it under the influence of any principle of cor- 
ruption which may not be checked, and even eradicated, by whole- 
some laws. Ihus the beginning of the corruption of Sparta ie 
attributed to Lysander's breach of the institutions of Lycurgus, 
in introducing gold into the treasury of the state instead ol' it-s 
ii'on money. But was this a necessary, or an unavoidable mca- 
!^ure ? Perhaps a single vote in the senate decreed its adoption,. 
-.v'jd therefore another suffrage might have prevented, or long post- 
poned, the downfal of the eammonweaith. llie Roman republic 
owed its dissolution to the extension of its dominions. If it had 
b'-en a capital crime for any Roman citizen to-have proposed to 
Garry the arms of the republic beyond the limits of Italy, its con- 
stitution might have been preserved for many ages beyond the 
period of its actual duration. ^*' Accustom your mind,'' said Iho- 
aion to Ari^tias, " to discern, in the fate of nations, that recom- 
pence -v^liich thie great Author of nature has annexed to the prac- 
tice of virtue. Ko state ever ceased to be prosperous, but in con* 
s^equenee of having departed from those institutiuns to which she 
owed her prosperity/'' Kistory indeed has shown that all staler 
and empires have had their period of duration; but history, in- 
gtructing us in the causes which havo produced their decline and' 
fail, inculcates also this salutary lesson, that nations are in gene- 
ral the masters of theu- own destiny, and that they may, and most 
©ertainly ought to aspire a.t immortality^ 

'7. It was a great dtsidtraium in as cient politics, that a govern*- 
ssLeat giiutud possess witbiu itseii" tiie ^ower of j^eriodicsa fd^j^.- 



mation ; a capacity of checking: any over^ro-'.vth of authority iia 
ai y of its bra?;ches, and of wLndiiig; up the machine, or bring-in^ 
back the constitution to its first prii ciples. To the want of such 
a power in the states of antiquity (Avhich they ineffectually en- 
deavoured to supply by such partial contrivances as the ostracism 
and petalism) we may certainly ascribe, in no small deg^ree, the 
decay of those states ; for in their governments, whfn the balance 
was once destroyed, the evil grew worse from day to day, and ad- 
mitted no remedy iDut a revolution, or entire cha ige of the sys- 
tem. The British constitution possesses this inestunable advan- 
tano-e overall the governments both of ancient and modern times, 
v/ith the single exception of the government of the United States 
of America. Besides the perpetual power of reform vested ia 
parliament, the constitution may be purified of every abuse, and 
brought back to its first principles, at the commencement of every 
itiigii. But of this we shall afterwards treat in Us proper place j 



SECTION XLI. 

ROME UNDER THE EMPERORS. 

1. The battle o-f Actium decided the fate of the commonwealth 
■and Octavius, now named Augustus, was master of the Roinaa 
Ci?ipire. He pessessed completely the sagacity of discerai)}g 
what character was best fitted for gaining the aff^ctions of the 
people whom he governed, and the versatility of temper and gen- 
ius to assume^ it. His virtues, though the result of policy, not of 
nature, were certainly favourable to the happiness, and even t» 
the liberties of his subjects. The fate of Caesar warned him of 
the insecurity of a' usurped dominion; and therefore, while he 
^:tudiously imitated the engaging manners and clemency of his 
great predecessor, he afiected a much higher degree of modera' 
lion, and respect for the rights of the people. 

2. The temple of Janus was shut, v/hich had been open for 18$ 
years, since the beginning of the second Punic war ; an event 
prodMctive of universal joy. "" The Romans (says Condillac) 
now believed themselves a free people, since they had no longer 
to fight fr their liberty.*''' l"he sovereign kept up this delusion, 
by maintaining the ancient forms of the republican constitution, 
in the election of magistrates, &c., though they were nothing 
more than forms. He even pretended to consider his own func- 
tion as merely a temporary administration for the public benefit. 
Invested with the consulate and censorship, he went through the 
regular forms of periodical election to those olRces, and at the 
end of the seventh year of his government actually announced to 
the senate his resignation of all authority. The consequence was 
a general supplication of the senate and people, that he would, 
not abandon the republic, which he had saved from destruction. 
*' Since it must be so,^' said he, '■'" i accept the empire for ten 
years, unless the public tranquillity shall, before the expiration of 
"lilsit tiiue, £'ei;«iit me ti? enjoy retijemtiitj whicii \ passionately 



92 AJfClENT HISTOHY. 

lonj^ for/' He repeated the same mockery five times In the course 
©f hi? g-overnment, accepting- the administration sometimes for ten, 
and sometimes only for five years. 

3. It Avas much to the credit of Augustvis, that in the grovern- 
ment of the empire he reposed unlimited confidence in Mecsenas, 
a most able minister, who had sincerely at heart the interest and 
happiness of the people. By his excellent counsels all public af- 
fairs were conducted, and the most salutary laws enacted for the 
remedy of public grievances, and even the correction of the mor- 
als of the people. To his patronage literature and the arts owed 
their encouragement and advancement. By his influence and 
■wise instructions Augustus assumed those virtues to which his 
heart was a stranger, and which, in their tendency to the happi- 
ness of his subjects, were equally effectual as if they had been the 
genuine fruits of his nature. 

4. On the death of Marcellus, the nephew and son-in-law of 
Augustus, and a prince of great hopes, 23, A. C, the emperor be- 
stowed his chief favour on .Marcus Agrippa, giving hira his daugh- 
ter Julia, the widow of Marcellus, in marriage. Agrippa had 
considerable military talents, and was successful iu accomplishing 
the reduction of Spain, and subduing the revolted provinces of 
Asia. Augustus associated Agrippa '.vith himself in the ofiice of 
censor, and would probably have given him a share of the empire, 
if his death had not occasioned a new arra?:gement. Julia now 
took for her third husband Tiberius, who became the son-in-law 
of the emperor by a double tie, for Augustus had previeusly mar- 
ried his mother Livia. This artful woman, removing all of the 
imperial famiJy who stood betwixt her and the object of her am-- 
bition, thus made room for the succession of her son Tiberius, 
who, on his part, bent all his attention to gain the favour and con- 
fidence of Augustus. On the return of Til^erius from a success- 
ful campaign against the Germans, the people were made to soli- 
cit the emperor to confer on him the government oi the provinces 
.and the command of the armies. Augustus now gradually with- 
drew himself fi-om the cares of empire. He died soon after at 
Nola, in Campania, in the 76th year of his age, and the 44th of 
his imperial reign, A. U. C. 767, and A. 1;. 14. 

5. A considerable part of the lustre thrown on the reign of 
Augustus is ov/ing to the splendid colouring bestowed^ on his 
character by the poets and other authors v/ho adorned his court, 
and repaid his favours by their adulation. Other sovereigns of 
much higher m.erits have b&en less fortunate in obtaining the ag- 
l^lause of posterity. 



-liiacrvmabiles 



Urguentur, ignotique, longa 
J>octe, carent quia vate sacro. 

HoR. Car. Lib. IV, 9. 

Uniamented and unknown they sink into obliviOn, because ihey have ne 
inspired bard to celebrate their praise,- 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 95 

One great etent disting^uished the reign of Augustus, the birtk 
of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, which, according to the- 
best authorities, happened A. U. C. 754, and four years before 
the viilg-ar date of the christian asra.* 

5. Augustus had named i'iberius his heir, together -with hi« 
mother Livia ; and had substituted to them Drusus, the son of 
Tiberius, and Germanicus. I'lberius was vicious, debauched^^i 
and cruel ; yet the very dread of his character operated in secu- 
ring an easy succession to the empire. An embassy from the sen- 
ate entreated iiiin to accept the government, which lie modestly 
affected to decline, but suffered himself to be won by their suppli- 
cations. Notv/ithstauding these symptoms of moderation, it soon 
appeared that the power enjoyed by his predecessor was too lim- 
ited for the ambition of Tiberius. It was not enough that the 
substance of the republic was gone ; the very appearance of it 
was now to be demolished. The people were no longer assem- 
bled, and the magistrates of the state were supplied by the impe- 
rial will. 

6. Germanicus, the nephew of Tiberius, became the object of 
liis jealousy, from the glory which he had acquired by his jnilila- 
ry exploits in Germany, and the high favour in which he stood 
with the lioman people. He was recalled in the midst of his suc- 
cesses, and dispatched to the oriental provinces, where he s&on 
after died ; and it was generally believed that he was poisoned 
by the emperor's command. 

7. iElius Sejanus, prefect of the praetorian guards, the favour- 
ite counsellor of Tiberius, and the obsequious minister of his ty- 
ranny and crimes, conceived the daring project of a revolution, 
which should place himself on the throne, by the extermination 
of the whole iaiperial family. Drusus, the son of the emperor, 
^vas destroyed by poison. Agrippina, the widow of Germanicus, 
with her elder son, were banished ; aad the younger son was con- 
fined in prison. Tiberius was persuaded by Sejanus, under the 
pretencfi of the discovery of plots for his assassination, to retire 
iroiu Home to the isle of (Japreae, aad devolve the government 
upon his faithful miaister. but while Sejanus, thus far success- 
ful, meditated the last step to the accomplishment of his wishes, 
by the murder of bis sovereign, his treason was detected ; and the 
emperor dispatched his mandate to the senate, which was followed 
by his imiiicdiate sentence and execution. Ihe public indigna- 
tion was not satislied with kis death ; the populace tore his body 
to pieces, and iiung it into the i iber. 

ii. iiberius now became utterly negligent of the cares of go- 
vernment, and the imperial power was displayed only in public ex- 
€cutions,coniiscatijns,and scenes of cruelty and rapine. At ieagth 
the tyrant failing sictc v^as strangled in his bed by Aiacro, the pr«* 
feet of the praetorian guards, in the 7l>tli year of his age, and the 
2od of his reign. 

* "^ee Dr. Fiayfair's System of Chronology, p. 49. 50, a work of gre^l 
'^seartb auU actmaey, and by iai" the cest on thad. subject^: 



94 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

9. In the 18th year of Tiberius our Lord and ?faviour Jesuj 
Christ, the divine author of our rclio-ion, suffered death upon the 
cross, a sacrifice and propitiation for the sins of mankind, A. D. 
23. 

10. Tiberius had nominated for his heir, Caligula the son of 
Germanicus, his grandson i-y adopt>n ; and had joined with hira 
Tiberius the son of Drusus, his grandson by blood. The former 
enjoyed, on his father's account, the favour of the people ; and tiie 
senate, to gratify them, set aside the right of his colleague, and 
conferred on him the empire undivided. The commencement of 
his reign was signalized by a few acts of clemency, as^d even good, 
policy. He restored the privileges of the comitia, and abolished 
arbitrary prosecutions for crimes of state. But, tyrannical and 
cruel by nature, he substit'iled military execution for le^al pun* 
ishment. The provinces were loaded with the most oppressive 
taxes, and daily confiscations filled the imperial coffers. The fol- 
lies and absurdities of C-aiigula were equal to his vices, and it is 
hard to say whether he was most the object of hatred or of con- 
tempt to his subjects, xie perished by assassination in the fourth 
year of his reign, the twenty-ninth of his age, A. U. C. 794, A. 
D.42. 

11. Claudius, the uncle of Caligula, was saluted emperor by the 
praetorian gua?ds,who had been the murderers of his nephew. He 
was the son of Octavia, the sister of Augustus ; a man of weai in- 
tellects, and of no education, iiis short rtign was marked by an 
enterprize of importance. He undertook the reduction of Uritain, 
and after visiting the islamd in person, left his geucrals, f iautius 
and Vespasian, to prosecute a war which was cairied on for seve- 
ral years with various suxcess. The bilures or inliabitaats of South 
V.'aies, under their king Caractacus (Oaradoc), made a brave re- 
sistaiice, but were iinaiiy defoa.ted ; and Caractacus was Ud cap- 
tive to Rome, where the magnanimity of his demeanour proourcd 
him respect and admiration. 

12. ihe civil administration of Claudius was weak and con- 
temptible, lie was the slave even of his domestics, and the dupe 
of his infamous wives Messalina and Agrippina. The foi'mer, a- 
bandoned to the most shameful profligacy, was at length put to 
death on suspicion of treasonable designs. I'he latter, who was 
the daughter of Germanicus, bent her utmost endeavours to se- 
cure the succession to the empire to her son Domitius Oenobar- 
dus,and employed every engine of vice and inhumanity to remove 
the obstacles to the accomplishment of her wishes. Having at 
length prevailed on Claudius to adopt her son, and confer on him 
the title of Caesar, to the exclusion of his own son Britannicus,sh0 
now made room for the immediate elevation of Domitius, by poir- 
soningher husband. Claudius was put t» dsatk m ths l^tli yeaT 
of his rei§^n, and the 63d of his ag^e. 



Alf STENT mSTORT. 9^ 

SECTION XLIL 



1. The son of Agrippina asstimed the title of N^ro Clauduif, • 
He had enjoyed the benefit of a good cducati in under the philos- 
opher Seneca, but reaped from his iastruction? no other fruit than 
a pedantic affectation of taste aud learning-, with no real preten- 
sion to either. V\ hile contronled by his tutor Seneca, and by 
Bjrrhus, captain of the praetorian gfuards, a nian of worth and 
ability, Nero maintained for a short ♦ime a decency of public con- 
duct ; but the restraint was intolerable, and natMre soon broke 
out. His real character 'vvas a compound of ev^ry thing- that is 
"base and inhuman, in the murder of his m'^'b^T A^'ii pi' a he 
reveiig'ed the crime which she hadcommitld iu iHising- hi.'i to 
the throne ; he rewarded the fidelity of Bunhus, by poisoning- 
him ; and as a last kindness to his tutor Seneca, he allowed him 
to chuse the mode of his death, it was his darling- amusement 
to exhibit on the sta":e and amphitheatre as an actor, musician, 
or g-ladiator. At leng-th, become the object of universal hatred 
and coivtempt, a rebellion of his subjects, headed by \ index, an 
illustrious Gaul, hurled tliis monster from the throne. He had 
not courage to attempt resistance • and a slave, at his own re- 
quest, dispatched him with a da;2;-g-er. JNero perished in the 30th 
year of his age, after a reign of fourteen years, 4 . D. 69. 

2. Galba, the successor of Nero, was of an ancient and illus- 
trious family. He was in the 73d year of his age when the sen- 
ate, ratifying the choice ^f the praetorian bands, proclaimed him 
emperor. But an impolitic rigour of discipline soon disgusted the 
army ; the avarice of his disposition, grudging the popidaco their 
favourite jiames and spectacles, deprived him of their aftecti(ms ; 
and some iniquitous prosecutions and confiscati'^ns excited gene- 
ral discontent and mutiny. Galba, adopted and designed fr r bis 
successor the able and virtuous Piso ; a measure which excited 
the jeaJousy of Otho, his former favourite, and led him to form 
the daring plan of raising himself to the throne by the destri-.c- 
tion ef both. He found the prectcrians apt to his purpose. J hey 
proclaimed him emrcror, and presented him, as a grateful offer- 
ing, the heads of Gal; a and Tiso, who were slain in quelling the 
insurrection. Galba had reigned seven months. Major pritato 
visus^ dwn pritafusfuii^ et oniniuin consensu capax iriperi^ nisi 
imperaiset. lacitus. He appeared to he gnuter than a j:ri:iaie 
y?um, n-}iile he iras in a private station ; and by the consent of all 
Wits capable of governing^ if he had not toverned. 

3. Otho had a formidable rival in Vitellius, who had been pro- 
claimed emperor by his army in German)^ It is hard to say 
which cf the competitors was, in point of abilities, tiie more des- 
picable, or in chaiacter the more infamous. A decisive battle 
was fought at JBedriacum, near Iv^autua, where Otho was defeat- 
ed, and in a fit of despair ended his life by his own hand, after a 
.ieisrn of tkree mouths, A. D. 70. 



SG A!^«IENT HlSTORir. 

4. The rci^n of Vitellius was of eight months' duration. H« 
is said to have proposed Nero for his model, and it was just that 
he should resemble him in hi? fate. Vespasian had obtained 
from Nero the charge of the war against the Jews, which he had 
conducted with ability and success, and was proclaimed emperor 
Tdj his troops in the east. A great part of Italy submitted to Ves- 
pasian^s jo-enerals ; a.nd Vitellius meanly capitulated to save his 
life, by a resignation of the empire. The people, indignant at 
his dastardly spirit, compelled him to an effort of resistance ; but 
the attempt was fruitless. Priscus, one of the generals of Ves- 
pasiai, took possession of P.ome ; and Vitellius was massacred,- 
and his body flung- iiito the Tiber. 

5. Vespasian, though of mean descent, was worthy of the em- 
pire, and reigned with high populaj'ity for ten years. He posses- 
sed great clemency of disposition. His manners were affable and 
engagirf;;, and his mode of life v(-as characterized by simplicity 
and frugality. Ke respected the ancient forms of the constitu- 
tion, restorec' the senate to its deliberative rights, and acted by its 
avtbority in the administration of all public affairs. The only 
bletTijsh in his character was a tincture of avarice, and even that 
is greatly extenuated by ihe laudable and patriotic use which he 
maoe of his revenues. Urder his reign, and by the arms of his 
son Titus, was terminated the war against the Jews. 1 hey had 
been broijght under the yoke of Kome by Pompey, who took Je- 
rusalem. They were governed for some time fey Herod, as vice- 
roy under Augustus. The tyranny of his son Archelaus was the 
cause of his banishment, and of the reduction of Judaea into the 
©rdirary condition of a Roman province. The Jews rebelled on 
every slight occa'^im, and Nero had sent Vespasian to reduce 
thf^m to order. He had just prepared for the siege of Jerusalem, 
when he was called to Rome to assume the government of the 
empire. 1 itus wished to spar© the city, and tried every means 
to prevail on the Jews to surrender ; but in vain. 1 heir ruin wa» 
decreed by Heaven. After an obstinate blockade of six months 
Jerusalem was taken by storm, the temple burnt to ashes, and the 
city buried in ruins. The I»oman empire was now in profound 
peace. Vespasian associated Titus in the imperial dignity, and 
soon after died, universally lamented, at, the age of sixty-nine, 
A. D. 79. 

6. The character of Titus was humane, munificent, dignified, 
and splendid. His short reign was a period of great happiness 
and prosperity to the empire, ar.d his government a constant ex- 
ample of virtue, justice, and beneficence. In his time, happened 
that dreadful eruption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed the cit- 
ies of Herculaneum and Pompeii. The public losses from these 
calamities he repaired by the sacrifice of his fortune and reven- 
ues. He died in the third year of his reign, and fortieth of his 
age ; ever to be remembered by that most exalted epithet, delicice 
humani gtneris Qhe delight of mankiiid). 

7. Lomitian, the brother of Titus, was suspected of murdering 
kim by poison, and succeed to the empire, A. D. 81. He was a 
vicious and inhuHiaa tyraiito A rebellion in Germany gave him 



ANCIEKT KISTOilY. ^i 

occasion to signalize the barbarity of his (hsposiiiou ; and its con- 
sequences were long felt in the sanguinary pani^hments inflieted 
under the pretence of justice. The prodigal and voluptuous spir- 
it of this reign was a singular contrast to its tyranny/ and inhuman- 
ity. The people were loaded with insupportable taxes to furnish 
spectacles and games for their amusement. The successes of Ag- 
ricola in Britain threw a lustre on the Eoman arms, no part of 
which reflected on the emperor, for he treated this eminent com- 
ma.nder with the basest ingratitude. After fifteen tedious years 
this monster fell at last the victim of assassination, the empress 
herself conducting the plot for his murder, A. D, 90. 

8. Cocceius Ncrva, a Cretan by birth, was chosen emperor by 
the senate, from respect to the probity and virtues of his character. 
He was too old for the burden of government, and of a temper too 
placid for the restraint of rooted corruptions and enormities. His 
reign v/as weak, inefficient, and contemptible. His only act of real 
merit as a sovereign, was the adoption of the virtuous Trajan as his 
successor. Nerva died after a reign of sixteen months, A. D. 98. 

9. Ulpius Trajanus possessed every talent and every virtue that 
can adorn a sovereign. Of great military abilities, and an inde- 
fatigable spirit of enterprize, he raised the Roman arms to their 
anctent splendour, and greatly enlarged the boundaries of the em- 
pire. He subdued the Dacians, conquered the Partliians, and 
brought under subjection Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia Fe- 
lix. Nor v/as he less eminent in promoting the happiness of his 
subjects, and the internal prosperity of the empire. His largesses 
were humane and munificent. He was the friend and support of 
the virtuous indigent, and the liberal patron of every useful art 
and talent. His bounties were supplied by well judged economy 
in his private fortune, and a wise administration of the public fi- 
nances. In his own life he was a man of simple manners, modesty 
affable, fond of the familiar intercourse of his friends, and sensible 
to all the social and benevolent affections. He merited the sur- 
name universally bestowed on him, Trajanus Opfmius. He died 
at the age of sixty-three, after a glorious reign of nineteen years, 
A. D. 118. 

10. jElius Adrianus, nephew of Trajan, and worthy to fill his 
place, was chosen emperor by the army in the east, and his title 
was acknowledged by all orders of the state. He adopted a po- 
licy different from that of his predecessor. Judging the limits of 
the empire too extensive he abandoned all the conquests of Trajan 
bounding the eastern provinces by the Euphrates. He visited in 
person all the provinces of the empire, reforming in his progress 
all abuses, relieving his subjects of every oppressive burden, re- 
building the ruined cities, and establishing every v/here a regular 
and mild administration, under magistrates of approved probity 
and humanity. He gave a discharge to the indigent debtors of 
the state, and appointed liberal institutions for the education of i]:e 
children of the poor. To thi talents of an able politician he join- 
ed an excellert *^asie in the liberal arts. His reign, wbich was 
of twenty-two years' duration, was fin cera both Oi public happi- 

9 



98 ^ ANCIENT HISTORY. 

ness and splendour. In tbe last year of his life he bequeathed to 
the empire a double legacy, in adopting- for his immediate success- 
or Titus Aurelius Antoninu?, and substituting- Anninus Verus to suc- 
ceed upon his death. These were the Antonines, who during" for- 
ty years ruled the Roman empire with consummate wisdom, abili- 
ty, and virtue. Adrian died A. D. 138, at the age of sixty-two. 



SECTION XLIII. 

AGE OF THE ANTONINES, &c. 

1. The happiest reigns furnish the fewest events for the pen of 
history. Antoninus was the father of his people. He preferred 
peace to the ambition of conquest ; yet in every necessary war 
the Roman arms had their wonted renown. The British province 
was eiilarged'by the conquests of Urbicus, and some formidable 
rebellions w^erc subdued in Germany, Dacia, and the east. The 
domestic administration of the sovereign was dignified, splendid, 
and humane. With all the virtues of Numa, his love of /religion, 
peaee,and justice,hc had the superior advantage of diffusing these 
blessings over a great portion of the world. He died at the age of 
^^venty-four, after a reign of twenty-tWo years, A. D. 161. 

2. Annius Verus assumed, at his accession, the name of Mar- 
cus Aurelius Antoninus, and bestowed on his brother Lucius Ve- 
rus a joint administration of the empire. 1 he former was as emi- 
nent for the worth and virtues of his character, as the latter was 
remarkable for profligacy, meanness, and vice. Marcus Aurelius 
was attached both by nature and education to the Stoical philoso- 
phy, which he has admirably taught and illustrated in his Medita- 
tions. His own life was the best commentary on his precepts. 
The Parthians were repulsed in an attack upon the empire, and a 
rebellion of the Germans was subdiied. In these wars the mean 
and worthless Vferus brought disgrace upon the R.oman name in 
every region where he commanded ; but fortunately relieved the 
empire of its fears by an early death. The residue of the reign 
of Marcus Aurelius was a continued blessing to his subjects. He 
reformed the internal policy of the state, regulated the govern- 
ment of the provinces, and A-isited himself, for the purposes of 
bcnefxence, the most distant quarters of his dominions. " He 
appeared," says an ancient author, ''like some benevolent deity, 
diffusing around him universal peace and happiness." He died 
in Pannonia, in the 59th year of his age, and 19th of his reign, 
A. D. 180. 

3. Commodus, his most unworthy son, succeeded to the em- 
pire on his death. He resembled in character his mother Faus- 
tina, a woman infamous for all manner of vice. Her profligacy 
w-as known to all but her husband Marcus, by whom she was re- 
garded as a paragon of virtue. Commodus had an aversion to 
every rational and liberal pursuit, and a fond attacjnnent to the 
sports of the circus and amphitheatre, the hunting of wii< beasts, 
and the combats of boxers and gladiators. The measures ©f tbfe 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 99 

reign were as uuimportant as the character of the sovereign was 
contemptible. His concubine and some of his chief officers pre- 
vented their own destruction by assassinating- the tyrant, in the 
32d year of his as^e, and l3th of his reign, A. D. 193. 

4. The praetorian guards gave the empire to Publius Ilelviiu? 
Pcrtinax, a man of mean birth, who had risen to esteem by his 
virtues and raihtary talents. He applied himself with zeal to the 
correction of abuses; but the austerity of his governmevit de- 
prived him of the afl'ections of a corrupted people. He had dis- 
appointed the army of a promised reward, and, after a reign of 
eighty-six days, was murdered in the ijnpcrial palace by the same 
hands which had placed him on the throne. 

5. The empire was now put up to auction by the prx;torian?, 
and v/as purchased by Didius Julianus ; while Pescenius JNiger 
in Asia, Clodius Albinu? in Britain, and Septimius Severus in 
Illyria, were each chosen emperor by the troops which they com- 
manded, Severus marched to Rome, and, on his approach, the 
praetpriaiis abandoned Didius, who had failed to pay the stipula- 
ted price far his elevation *, and the senate formally deposed to put 
him to death. Severus beiisg now master of Jlome, prepared to 
reduce the provinces v/hich had acknowledged the sovereignty cf 
^"iger and Albiuus. These two rivals were successively subdued. 
Niger was slain in battle, and Albinus fell by his ov/n hands. 
The admiiiisaation of Severus v/as wise and equitable, but ti^c- 
trred with despotic rigour. It v/as his purpose to erect the fa*bric 
of absolute monarchy, and all his institutions operated with able 
policy to that end. lie possessed .eminent military talents. He 
gloriously boasted, that, having received the empire oppressed 
with foreign and domestic wars, he left it in profound, universal, 
and honourable peace. He carried with him into Britain his two 
sons, Caracalla and Geta, whose unpromising dispositions clouded 
his latter days. In this war the Caledonians under Fingal are 
said to have defeated, on the- l)anks of the Carron, Caracal^ the 
son of the king of iho vv^orld. Severus died at York, in the tj6tji 
year of his age, after a reign of eighteen years, A. D. 'Ml. 

G. The mutual hatred of Caracalla and Geta was increased by 
their association iii the empire ; and the former, Avilh brutal inhu- 
manity, caused his brother to be openly murdered in the arms of 
his mother. His reign, which was of six years' duration, and one 
continued series of atrocities, was at length terminated by ^^ia-:- 
sination, A. 1). 217. 

7. Those disorders in the empire v/hich began with Commo- 
dus continued for about a century, till the accession of Diocle* 
tian. That interveJ was filled l)y the reigns of Heliogabalus, Al- 
exander Severus, Maximin, Gordian, Decius, Gallus, V aJerianus, 
Gailienus, Claudius, Aurelianus, Tacitus, Frobus, and Cams ; a 
period of which the annals furnish neither amiise^ient nor useful 
information. The single exception is the reign of Alexander Se- 
verus, a mild, beneficent, and enlightened prince, whose charac- 
ter shines the more from the contrast of those' who preceded and 
folio v/ed him> 



100 AKGILI^'T inSTORV. 

y. Dioclctiaii Lcgaii his reign A. D. 284, and iiitrodaced a new 
♦>ystem of administration, dividing the empire into four g-overn- 
xaents^ under as many princes. Maximian shared with him the 
fitle cf Augustus, and Galerius and Coustantius were declared 
Caesarp. Each had his separate department or province, all nomi- 
-ually supreme, but ia reality under the direction of the superior 
T.alerits and authority cf Diocletian : an unwise policy, which de- 
^^ended for its eiScncy on individual ability alone. Diocletian and 
Maximian, trusting to the continuance of that order in the em- 
pire which their vigour had established, retired from sovereignty, 
and iei't the government in the hands of the Caesars ; but Constan- 
tino died pcon after in Brltai)i, and his son Constantius was pro- 
i;laimed eiiiperor at York, thov;gh Gaieiius did not acknowledge 
his title. iViaximian, however, having once more resumed the 
purple, bc£tov/ed on Ccusiantine his daugliter in marriage, and 
thus invested him with a double title to empire. On the death of 
Mtiximian and Galeriiis, Constantine had no other competitor but 
Maxeutius, the son of the foniier, and the contest between them 
was decided by the sword. Maxentius fell in battle, and Con- 
:-fantine remaiued sole master of the empire. 

9. The administration of Constantine was, in the beginning of 
his reign, mild, equitable, a.nd politic. Though zealously attach- 
ed to the christian faith, he made no violent innovations on the 
r(jligion of the state. Pie introduced order and economy into the 
clyil gcrernnient, and repressed every species of oppression and 
corrupiion. Eni his na.tural temper was severe and cruel, and the 
latter part of his reign was as much deformed by intolerant zeal 
and sa!5guinary rigour, as the former had been remarkable for 
equity and benignity. From this unfavourable change of charac- 
ter }ic lost the aliections of his subjects ; and, from a feeling pro- 
bably of reciprocal disgust, he removed the seat of the Roman 
empire to Byzantium, nowf termed Constantinople. Ihe court 
followed the sovereign ; the opulent proprietors were attended by 
their slaves and retainers. Rome was in a few years greatly de- 
populated, and the new capital swelled at once to enormous mag- 
nitude. It was characterized by eastern splendour, luxury, and 
voluptuousness ; and the cities of Greece were despoiled for its 
embellishments. Of the internal policy of the empire we shall 
treat iii the next section. In an expedition against the Persians 
Constantine died at Nicomedia, in the 30th year of his reign, and 
C3d of hi<5 age, A. D. 357. In the time of Constantine the Goths 
had made several irruptions on the empire, and, though repulsed 
and beatei:, began gradually to encroach on the provinces. 



SECTION XLIV. 

STiTE OV THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT THE TIME OF CON- 
STANTINE. HIS SUCCESSORS. 

1. In lieu of the ancient republican distinctions, which were 
founded chiefly on personal merit, a rigid subordination of raai; 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 101 

and office now went through all the orders of the state. The 
magistrates were divided into three classes, di^tinsfoi^hed by the. 
unmeaning titles of, 1, the illustrious ; 2, the respectable ; 3, the 
clarissimi. The epithet of illustrious was bestowed on, 1, the 
consuls and patricians; 2, the prsetoriau praefects of Rome and 
Constantinople ; 3, the masters-g-eneral of the cavalry and infan- 
try, 4, the seven ministers of the palace. The consuls were 
created by the sole authority of the emperor : their dignity was 
inefficient ; they had no appropriate function in the state, and 
their names served only to give the legal date to the year. The 
dignity of patrician was not, as in ancient times, a hereditary dis- 
tinction, but was bestowed, as a title of honour, by the emperor 
#n his favourites. From the time of the abolition of the praeto- 
rian bands by Constantine, the dignity of prtetorian praefect v/as 
conferred on the civil governors of the four departments of the 
empire. These were, the East, Illyria, Italy, -and the Gauls. 
They had the supreme administration of justice and of the finan» 
ces, the power of supplying all the inferior magistracies in their 
district, and an appellative jurisdiction from all its tribunals. In- 
dependent of their authority, Rome and Constantinople had each 
its own prefect, who was the chief magistrate of the city. In 
the second class, the respectable, were the proconsuls oi' Asia, 
Achaia, and Africa, and the military comites and ducts^ generals 
of the imperial armies. The third class, clarissimi^ comprehend- 
ed the inferior governors and magistrates of the provinces, respon- 
sible to the praefects and their deputies. 

2. The intercourse between the court and provinces was main- 
tained by the construction of roads, and the institution of regular 
posts or couriers ; under which denomination were ranked the 
numberless spies of government, whose duty was to convey all 
sort of intelligence from the remotest quarter of the empire to 
its chief seat. Every institution was calculated to support the 
fabrie of despotism. Torture was employed for the discovery of 
crimes. Taxes and impositions of every nature were prescribed 
and levied by the sole authority of the emperor. The quantity 
and rate was fixed by a census made over all the provinces, and 
pa,rt was generally paid in money, part in the produce of the 
lands ; a burden frequently found so grievous as to prompt to the 
neglect of agriculture. Every object of merchandize and manu- 
facture was likewise highly taxed. Subsidies, moreover, were 
exacted from all the cities, under the name of free gifts, on vari- 
ous occasions of public concerns ; as the accession of an emperor, 
bis consulate, the birth of a prince, a victory over the barbarians, 
or any other event of similar importance. 

3. An impolitic distinction was m^e between the troops sta- 
tioned in the distant provinces and those in the heart of the em- 
pire. The latter, termed palatines^ enjoyed a higher pay and 
more peculiar favour, and, having less employment, spent their 
time in idleness and luxury ; -ivhile the former, termed the border- 
ers^ who, iu fact, had the care of the empire, and were exposed to 
perpetual hard service, had, with au iiiit;;ior rcwardj the mortifi- 



102 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



cation of fcGling themselves regarded as of meaner rank than t^ eir 
fellow-soldier?. Constantine likewise, from a timid policy of 
guarding against mutinies of the troops, reduced the legion from 
ks ancient compliment of 5G0O, 6000, 7000, and 8000, to 1000 or 
1500 ; and debased the body of the army by the intermixture of 
Scythians, Goths^ and Germans. 

4. This immense mass of heterogeneous parts, which inter- 
nally laboured with the seeds of dissolution and corruption, was 
kept together for some time by the vigorous exertion of despotic 
authority. The fabric was splendid and august ; but it v/anted 
both that energy of constitution and that real dignity, which, in 
former times, it derived from the exercise of heroic and patriotic 
virtues. 

5. Constantine, with a destructive policy, had divided the em- 
pire among five princes, three of them his sons, and two nephews ; 
but Constantius, the youngest of the sons, finally got rid of all his 
competitors, and ruled the empire alone with a weak and impo- 
tent sceptre. A variety of domestic broils, and mutinies of the 
troops against their generals, had left the western frontier to the 
mercy of the barbarian natiois. The Franks, Saxons, Alemianni, 
and Sarmatians, laid waste all the fine countries watered by the 
Bhine, and the Persians made dreadful incursions on the provin- 
ces of the east. Constantius indolently wasted his time in theolo- 
gical controversies, but was prevailed on to adopt one prudent 
measure, the appointment of his cousin Julian to the dignity of 
Casar. 

6. Julian possessed many heroic qualities, and his mind was 
formed by nature for the sovereignty of a great people ; but, edu- 
cated at Athens, in the schools of the Platonic philosophy, he 
had inifortunately conceived a rooted antipathy to the doctrines 
of Christianity. With every talent of a general, and possessing 
the confidence and affection of his troops, he once more restofed 
the glory of the Roman arms, and successfully repressed the inva- 
sions of the barbarians. His victories excited the jealousy of 
Constantius, who meanly resolved to remove from his comnmnd 
the better part of his troops. 1 he consequence was a declaration 
of the army, that it was their choice that Julian should be their 
emperor. Constantius escaped the ignominy that awaited him 
by dying at this critical jnncturc, and Julian was immediately ac- 
knowledged sovereign of the Roman empire. 

7. The refortnation of civil abuses formed the first object of his 
attention, which he next turned to the reformation, as he thought, 
of religion, by the suppression of Christianity. He began by re- 
formii.g the pagan theology, and sought to raise the character of 
its priests, by inculcating purity of life and sanctity of morals ; 
-thus btariug involuntary testimony to the superior excellence, 
in those respects, of that religion which he laboured to abolish. 
Without persecuting.he attacked the christians by the more dan- 
gerous policy of treating them with contempt, and removing them, 
as visionaries, from all employments of public trust. He refused 
them the benefit of the laws to decide their differences, because 
their religioa forbade ^\l ftissensious > aud they wei'e debaireci tii© 



ANCIENT HTSTORr. i03 

stuf^ies of literature and philosophy, which they could not learn 
but from pagan authors. He was himself, as a pagan, the slave 
of the most bigoted superstition, believing in omens and auguries, 
and fancying himself favoured with an actual intercourse with the 
g=>ds and goddesses. To avenge the injuries which the empire 
had sustained from the Persians, Julian marched into the heart of 
Asia, and was for some time in the train of conquest, when, in a 
fatal engagement, though crowned with victory, he M'as slain, at 
the age of thirty-one, after a reign e{ three years, A. D. 363. 

0. The Roman army was dispirited by the death of its com- 
mander. They chose for their emperor Jovian, a captain of the 
domestic guards, and purchased a free retreat from the dominions 
of Persia by the ignominious surrender of five provinces, which 
had been ceded by a former sovereign to GaUrius. The short 
reign of Jovian, a period of seven months, was mild and equita- 
ble. He favoured Christianity, and restored its votaries to all 
their privileges as subjects. He died suddenly at the age of thir- 
ty-threo. 

0. Valentinian was chosen emperor by the army on the death 
of Jovian ; a man of obscure birth and severe manners, but of 
considerable military talents. He associated with himself in the 
empire his brother Valens, to whom he gave the dominion of the 
eastern provinces, reserving to himself the w^estern. 'Ihe Per- 
sians, under Sapor, were making inroads on the former, and the 
latter was subject to continual invasion from the northern barba- 
rians. They were successfully repelled by Valentinian in many 
battles ; and his domestic administration was wise, equitable, and 
politic. The christian religion was favoured by the emperor, 
though not promoted by the persecution of its adversaries ; a con- 
trast to the conduct of his brother Valens, who, iutemperately sup- 
porting the Arian heresy, set the whole provinces in a flame, 
and drew a swarm of invaders upon the empire in the guise of 
frijnds and allies, who in the end entirely subverted it. Ihese 
woie the Goths, who, migrating from Scandinavia, had, in the 
second century, settled on the banks of the Palus jYloeotis, and 
tlience gradually extended their territory. In the reign of Va- 
lens they took possession of Dacia, and were known by the dis- 
tiiict appellation of Ostrogoths and Visigoths, or eastern and west- 
ern Goths ; a remarkable people, whose manners, customs, gov- 
ernment, and laws, a"e afterwards to be particularly noted. 

10. Valentinian died on an expedition against the Alcmanni, 
and vv^as succeeded in the empire of the west by Gratian, his eld- 
est son, a boy of .sixteen years of age, A. D. 367. t'alens, in the 
east, was the scourge of his people. 1 he Huns, a new race of 
barL-arians, of Tartar or Siberian origin, now poured down on the 
provinces both of the v/est and east.' The Goths, comparatively 
a civilized people, tied before them. The Visigoths, who were 
fiist attacked, requested protection from the empire, and V^alens 
imprudently gave them a settlement in Thrace. The Ostrogoths 
made the same request, and, on refusal, forced, their Vv-ay into the 
saiue proviuce, Yaieas gave ih^m be.ttie at Adrianople, Hia 



104 ANCIENT KlSTORt". 

army Was defeated, and he was slain in the engagement. The 
Goths, vinresisted, ravaged Achaia and Pannonia. 

11. Gratian, a youth of great worth, but of little energy of cha- 
racter, assumed 1 heodosius as his colleague. On the early death 
of Gratian, and the minority of his son Valentinian II, Theodo- 
sius governed, with great ability, both the eastern and western 
empire. The character of Theodosius, deservedly surnamed the 
greats was worthy of the best ages of the Roman state. He suc- 
cessfully repelled the encroachments of the barbarians, and secur- 
ed, by wholesome laws, the prosperity of his people. He died, 
after a reign of eighteen years, assignhig to his sons, Arcadius and 
Honorius, the separate sovereignties of east and west, A. D. 395. 



SECTION XLV. 

!»ROGRESS OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION, FROM ITS 
INSTITUTION TO THE EXTINCTION OF PAGANISM IN 
THE REIGN OF THEODOSIUS. 

1. The reign of Theodosius was signalized by the downfal of 
the pagan superstition, and the full establishment of the christian 
religion in the Roman empire. This great revolution of opinions 
is highly worthy of attention, and naturally induces a retrospect 
to the condition of the christian church from its institution down 
to this period. 

It has been frequently remarked (because it is an obvious truth), 
that at the time of our Saviour's birth a divine revelation seemed 
to be more peculiarly needed ; and that, from a concurrence of 
circumstances, the state of the world was then tmcommonly fa- 
vourable for the extensive dissemination of the doctrines Avhich it 
conveyed. The union of so many nations under one power, and 
the extension of civilization, were favourable to the progress of a 
Teiigion which prescribed universal charity and benevolence. 
Ihe gross superstitions of paganism, and its tendency to corrupt 
instead of purifying the morals, contributed to explode its influ- 
ence with every thinking mind. Even the prevalent philosophy 
©f the times, epicurism, more easily understood than the refine- 
ments of the Flatonists, and more grateful than the severities of 
the Stoics, tended to degrade human nature to the level of the 
brute creation. The christian religion, thus necessary for the re- 
formation of the world, found its chief partizans in those who 
were the friends of virtue, and its enemies among the votaries of 
Tice. 

2. The persecution which the christians suffered from the Ro' 
xnans has been deemed an exception to that spirit of toleration 
wiiich they showed to the religions of other nations ; but they 
were tolerant only to those whose theologies were not hostile to 
their own. Ihe religion of the Romans was interwoven witk 
their political constitution. 1 he zeal of the christians, aiming at 
the suppression of all idolatry, was naturally regarded as danger- 
«U£ to the state 9 dud h«ace tbey were tJie Qbj^gt e( b&tied an^l 



ANCIENT HISTORY* 105 

persecution. In the first century the christian church sufiered 
deeply under Nero and Domitian ; yet those persecution? had no 
tendency to check the prog^ress of its doctrines. 

3. It is matter of question what was the form of the primitive 
church, and the nature of its government ; and on this head much 
difference of opinion obtains, not only between the catholics and 
protestants, but between the different classes of the latter, as the 
Lutherans and Calvinists. It is moreover an opinion, that our 
Saviour and his apostles, confining their precepts to the pure doc- 
trines of religion, have left all christian societies to reg^ulate their 
frame and government in the manner best suited to the civil con- 
stitutions of the countries in which they are established. 

4. In the second century the books of the New Testament were 
collected into a volume by the elder fathers of the church, and 
received as a canon of faith. The Old Testament had been trans- 
lated from the Hebrew into Greek, by order of Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus, 284 years before Christ. The early church suffered much 
from an absurd endeavour of the more learned of its votaries to 
reconcile its doctrines to the tenets of the pagan philosophers : 
hence the sects of the Gnostics and Ammoniaus, and the Platoni- 
sing- christians. In the second century the Greek churches be- 
gan to form provincial associations, and to establish general rules 
of gove^'araent and discipline. Assemblies were held, termed ^^- 
nodoi and concilia^ over which a metropolitan presided. A short 
time after arose the superior order of patriarch, presiding over a 
large district of the christian world ; and a subordination taking 
place even among these, the bishop of Rome was acknowledged 
the chief of the patriarchs. Persecution still attended the early 
church, even under those excellent princes, Trajan, Adrian, and 
the Antonines ; and, in the reign of Severus, the whole provinces 
of the empire v/ere stained with the blood of the martyrs. 

5. The third century was more favourable to the progress of 
Christianity and the tranquillity of its disciples. In those times it 
suffered less from the civil arjn than from the pens of the pagan 
philosophers. Porphyry, Phiiostratus, k.c. ; but these attacks call- 
ed forth the zeal and talents of many able defenders, as Origen, 
Dionysius, and Cyprian. A part of the Gauls, Germany, and 
Britain, received the light of the gospel in. this century. 

6. In the fourth century the christian church was alternately 
persecuted and cherished by the Roman emperors. Among its 
oppressors we rank Diocletian, Galerius, and Julian ; among its 
favourers, Constantino and his sons, Valentinian, \ alens, Gratian, 
and the excellent Theodosius, in whose reign the pagan supersti- 
tion came to its final period. 

7. From the age of Numa to the reign of Gratian the Pi,omans 
preserved the regular succession of the several sacerdotal colleges, 
the pontiffs, augurs, vestals, Jlamines^ salii, &;c., whose authority, 
though weakened in the latter ages, was still protected by the 
laws. Even the christian emperors held, like their pagan prede- 
cessors, the office of pontifex maximus. Gratian was the first 
\yho refused that ancient dignity as a profanation. In the time 
ci' Theodosius the cause of Christianity aud of paganism wa^ 



lOG ANCIENT h;Storv. 

solemnly deba,tcd in the Roman senate between Ambrose, arch'bi- 
shop of Milan, the champion of the former, and Symmachus, the 
defender of the latter. The cause of Christianity was triamphanl, 
and the senate issued its decree for the abolition of pag'anisjn, 
whose downfal in the capital was soon followed by its extinction 
in the provinces. Theodosius, with able policy, permitted no pev- 
secutioa of the ancient relig-ion, which perished with more rapidi- 
ty, because its fall was gentle and u.. resisted. 

8. But the christian church exhibited a superstition in some 
respects little less irrational than polytheism, in the worship of 
saints and relics ; and many novel tenets, unfounded in the pre- 
cepts of our Saviour and hi? apostle?, v/ere manifestly borrowed 
from the pagan schools. Ihe doctrii'.es of the Platonic philsso- 
phy seem to have led to the notions of an intermediate btate of 
purification, celibacy of the priests, ascetic mortiiicatious, penau- 



SECTION XLVI. 

EXTINCTION OF THE ROMAN EMPIllE IN TIIE -WEST. 

1. In the reig-ns of Arcadius and Honorius, the sons and suc- 
cessors of Thecdosiu?, the barbarian nations established them- 
selves in the frontier provinces both of the east aad west. 'I'ho 
odosius had committed the g-overnment to Pt.uf!nus and Stilicho 
during the nonage of his sons ; and their fatal disscntions gave 
every advantage to the enemies of the empire. The Huns, actu- 
ally invited by Ruilnus, overspread Armenia, Cappadocia, and 
Syria. The Goths, under Alaiic, ravaged to the borders of Italy, 
and laid waste Achaia to the Peloponnesus, b'tilicho, an able 
general, made a noble stand against these invaders ; but his plans 
were frustrated by the machinations of his rivals, and the weak- 
ness of Arcadius, who purchased an ig-nominious peace, by ced- 
ing to Alaric the whole of Greece. 

2. Alaric, now styled king of the Vigisoth?, prepared to add 
Italy to his new dominions. He passed the Alp?, and was carry- 
ing all before him, when, amused by the politic Stilicho wilh the 
prospect of a new cession of territory, he was attacked unaware?, 
and defeated by that general, then commanding the armies of 
Hcnorius. 'ihe emperor triumphantly celebrated, on that occa- 
sion, the eternal defeat of the Gothic nation ; an eternity bounded 
by the lapse o* a feAv months. In this interval, a torrent of the 
Goths breaking down upon Germany forced the nations whom 
they dispossessed, the Suevi, Alani, and \ andals, to precipitate 
theinselves upon Italy. They joined their arms to those of Aiaric, 
who, thus reinforced, determined to overwhelm Rome. Ihe poli- 
cy of btilicho made him change his purpose, on the promise oi 
4000 pounds weight of gold ; a promise repeatedly broken by Hc- 
norius, and its violation finally revenged by Alaric, by the sack 
and plunder of the city, A. D. 410. VV^ith generous niagnanimity 
he spared the lives of the vanquished, and, wilh singular liberal- 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 107 

iiy of spirii:, was anxious to preserve every a\iclent edifice from 
destruction. 

3. Alavic, preparing- pov/ for the conquest of Sicily and Africa, 
^ied at this aera of his hi^fhcst 2:lory ; and Honorius, instead of 
profiting by this event to recover his lost provinces, made a treaty 
with his successor Ataulfus, c,ave him in marriag-e his sister Pla- 
cidia, and secured his friendship by ceding- to him a portion of 
Fpain, while a great ^>art of what remained had before been oc- 
cupied by the Vandals. le allowed soon" after to th« Burgundi- 
ans a just title to their conquests in Gaul. Thus the western, 
empire was passing by degrees from the dominion of its ancient, 
masters. 

4. The mean and dissolute Arcadius died In the year 408, leav- 
ing the eastern empire to his infant son Theedosius II. Theodo- 
sius M-as a w^ak prince, and his sister Pulcheria governed the 
empire, with prudence and ability, for the space of forty years. 
Honorius died in the year 423. The laws of Arcadius and Ho- 
norius are, with a few exceptions, remarkable for their v/isdom 
and equity ; wdiich is a singular circumstance, considering the 
personal character of those princes, and evinces at least that they 
employed some able ministers. 

5. 1"he Vandals, under Genseric, subdued the Roman province 
iU Africa. The Huns, in the east, extended their conquests from 
the borders of Chiiia to the Baltic sea. Under Attila they laid 
waste Moasia and Thrace ; and Theodosins, after a mean attempt 
to murder the barbarian general, ingloriously submitted to pay 
him an annual tribute. It was in this crisis of universal decay 
that the Britons imphred the Romans to defend them against the 
Picts and Scots, but received for answer, that they had nothing to 
bestow on them but compassion. 1 he Britons, in despair, sought 
aid from the Saxons and Angles, who seized, as their property, 
the country which they were invited to protect, and founded, in 
the fifth and sixth centuries, the kingdoms of the Saxon heptar- 
chy. (See Part II, Sect. XII, J 5.) 

6. Attila, with an army of 500,000 men, threatened the total 
destruction of the empire. He was ably opposed by iEtius, gen- 
eral of Valentinian III, now emperor of the west. Valentinian 
was shut up in E-ome by the arms of the barbarian, and at length 
compelled to purchase a peace. On the dfath of Attila his do- 
minions w^re dismembered by his sons, whose dissensions gave 
temporary relief to the falling empire of Rome. 

7. After \'a]entinian III. we have in the west a succession of 
princes, cv rather names, for the events of their reigns merit no 
detail. In the reign of ilomulus, surnamed Augustulus, the son 
of Orestes, the empire of the w^est came to a final period. Odo- 
r:.cer, prince of the Heruli. subdued Italy, and spared the life of 
Augustulus, on condition of his resigning the throne, A. D. 476. 
From the building of Rome to the extinction of the western em- 
pire, A. D. 4*: 6, is a period of 1224 years. 

8. V\'e may reduce to one ultimate cause the various circum- 
stances that produced the decline and fall of this once magnificent 
fabric. I'he ruin of the Roman empire was the inevitable couse- 



108 Ar;ciENT history. 

quence of its greatness. The extension of its dominion relaxed 
the vig-our of its frame ; the vices of the conquered nations in- 
fected the victorious legions, and foreign luxuries corrupted their 
commanders ; selfish interest supplanted the patriotic affection ; 
the martial spirit was purposely debased by the emperors, who 
dreaded its effects on their ov»ai power ; and the whole mass, thus 
weakened and enervated, fell an easy prey to the torrent of bar- 
barians which overwhelmed it. 

9. The Herulian dominion in Italy v/as of short duration, 
TheodorJc, prince of the Ostrogoths (afterwards deservedly sur- 
named ihe greai)^ obtained permission of Zeno, emperor of the 
east, to attempt the recovery of Italy, and a promise of its sove- 
reignty as the reward of his success. The whole nation of the 
Ostrogoths attended the standard of Theodoric, who was victori- 
ous in repeated engagements, and at length compelled Odoacer 
to surrender all Italy to the conqueror. The Romans had tasted 
happiness under the government of Odoacer ; but their happiness 
was increased under the dominion of Theodoric, who possessed 
every talent and virtue of a sove^-eign. His equity and clemen- 
cy rendered him a blessing to his subjects. He allied himself 
with all the surrounding nations, the T'ranks, Visigoths, Eurgun- 
dians, and Vandals. He left a peaceable sceptre to his grandson 
Athalaric, during whose infancy his mother Amalasonte govern- 
ed with such admirable wisdom and moderation, as left her sub- 
jects no real cause of regret for the loss of her father. 

10. While such was the state of Gothic Italy, the empire of 
the east was under the government of Justinian, a prince of mean 
ability, vain, capricious, and tyrannical. Yet the Roman name 
rose for a while from its abasement by the merit of his generals. 
Belisarius was the support of his throne ; yet Justinian treated 
him with the most shocking ingratitude. The Persians were at 
this time the most formidable enemies of the empire, under their 
sovereigns Cabades and Cosrhoes ; and from the latter, a most 
able prince, Justinian meanly purchased a peace, by a cession of 
territory, and an enormous tribute in gold. The civil factions 
of Constantinople, arising from the most contemptible of causes, 
the disputes of the performers in the circus and amphitheatre, 
threatened to hurl Justinian from the throne, but were fortunate- 
ly composed by the arms and the policy of Belisarius. This great 
general overwhelm.ed the Vandal sovereignty of Africa, and re- 
covered that province to the empire. He wrested Italy from its 
Gothic sovereign, and once more ri-stored.it for a short time to the 
dominion of its ancient masters. 

11. Italy was recovered to the Gotbs by the heroic Totila, who 
besieged and took the city of Rome, but forebore to destroy it at 
the request of Belisarius. The fortunes of Belisarius were now 
in the v/ane. He was compelled to evacuate Italy, and, on his 
return to Constantinople, his long services v.ere repaid with dis- 
grace. He was superseded in the com.mand of the arm.ies by the 
eunuch Narses, who defeated Totila in a decisive engagement, in 
which the Gotiiic prince v/as slain. Narses governed Italy with 
great ability for thirteen years, when he was ujsgratefully recalled 



ANCIENT HISTORY* lOS 

by JuEtin II, the successor of Justinian. He invited the Lom- 
bards to aveng^e his injuries ; and this new tribe of invaders over<= 
ran and conquered the country, A. D.i568. 



SECTION XLVIL 

OF THE ORIGIN, MANNERS, AND CHARACTER OF THE 
GOTHIC NATIONS, BEFORE THEIR ESTABLISHMENT 
IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

1. The history and manners of the Gothic nations are curious 
©bjects of inquiry, from their influence on the constitutions and 
national character of most of the modern kingfdoms of Europe. 
As the presei^t inhabitants of these king-doms are a mixed race, 
compounded of the Goths and of the nations whom they subdued, 
the laws, manners, and institutions of the modern kingdoms are 
the result of this conjunction ; and in so far as these are different 
from the usages prevalent before this intermixture, they are, in 
all probability, to be traced from the ancient manners and institu- 
tions of those northern tribes. We purpose to consider the ori- 
g^inal character of the Gothic nations, and the change of their 
manners on their establishment in the Roman empire. 

2. The Scandinavian chronicles attribute to the ancient inhabi- 
tants of that country an Asiatic origin, and inform us that the 
Goths were a colony of Scythians, who migrated thither from the 
banks of the Black se!L awd the Caspian : but these chronicles do 
not fix the period of this migration, which some later writers sup- 
pose to have been 1000 years, and others only 70, before the 
christian sera. Odin, the chief deity of the Scandinavians, was 
the god of the Scythians. Sigga, a Scythian prince, is said to 
have undertaken a distant expedition, and, after he had subdued 
several of the Sarmatian tribes, to have penetrated into the north- 
ern parts of Germany, and thence into Scandinavia. He assum- 
ed the honours of divinity, and the title of Odin, his national god. 
He conquered Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, and gave wise 
and salutary laws to the nations which he had subdued by his 
arms. 

3. The agreement in manners between the Scythians and the 
ancient Scandinavian nations corroborates the accounts given ia 
the northern chronicles of the identity of their origin. The de- 
scription of the manners of the Germans by Tacitus (though this 
people was probably not of Scythian, but of Celtic origin) may, 
in many particulars, be applied to the ancient nations of Scandi- 
navia ; and the sai7ie description coincides remarkably with the 
account given by Herodotus of the manners of the Scythians. 
Their life was spent in hunting, pasturage, and predatory war. 
Their dress, their weapons, their food, their respect for their wo- 
men, their religious worship, were the same. They despised 
learning, and had no other records for many ages than the songs 
^i their bards. 

10 



no ANGIENT HISTOEY. 

4. The theolog-y of the Scandinavians was mest intimately cmi* 
nected with their manners. They held three great pr'ncij:les or 
fundamental doctrines of religion : " To serve the Suj^rime Being 
with prayer and sacrifice ; to do no wrong or unjust aeticr ; and 
to be intrepid in fight. *" These principles are the key to the Ed- 
da^ or sacred book of the Scandinavians, which, though it con- 
tains the substance of a very ancient religion, is not a work ' f 
high antiquity, being compiled in the thirteenth century by Snorro 
Stiirleson, supreme judge of Iceland. Odin, characte)ized as the 
terrible and severe god, the father of carnage, the avenger, is the 
principal deity of the Scandinavians ; ficni whose union with 
Frea, the heavenly mother, sprur^g various subordinate divinities ; 
as Ihor, who perpetually wars against loke and his evil giants, 
who envy the power of Odin, and seek to destroy his works. 
Among the inferior deities are the virgins of the Valhalla, whose 
office is to minister to the heroes in paradise. The favourites of 
Odin are all who die in battle, cr, what is equally meritorious, 
by their own hand. Ihe timid wretch, who allows himself to 
perish by disease or age, is unworthy of the joys of paradise. 
These joys are, fightirg, ceaseless slaughter, and drinkiig beer 
out of the skulls of their enemies, with a renovation of life, to 
furnish a perpetuity of the same pleasures. 

5. As the Scandinavians believed this world to be the work of 
some superior intelligences, so they held all nature to be constant- 
ly undei' the regulation of an almighty will and power, ar d sub- 
ject to a fixed and uralterable destiny. 1 hese notions had a won- 
derful efiect on the national m.anners, and on the conduct of indi- 
viduals. Ihe Scandinavian placed his sole^delight in war: he 
entertained an absolute contempt of danger and of death, and his 
glory was estimated by the number which he had slain in battle. 
The death-song of Regner Lodbrok^ who comforts himself in his 
last agonies by recounting all the acts of carnage which he had 
committed in his lifetime, is a faithful picture of the Scandinavian 
character. 

6. We have remarked the great similarity of the manners of 
the Scandinavia) s and the ancient Germans. These nations seem, 
however, to have had a difierent origin. The Germans, as well 
as the Gauls, were branches of that great original nation termed 
CeZ/rf, who inhabited most of the countries of Europe south of the 
Baltic, before they were invaded by the northern tribes from Scan- 
dinavia. 7 he Celtae were all of the druidical religion, a system 
different from the belief and Avorship of the Scandinavians, but 
founded nearly on the same principles ; and the Goths, in their 
progress, intermixing with the Gern.ans, could not tail to adopt, 
in part, the notions of a kindred religion. Lrviidism acknowledg- 
ed a god who delighted in bloodshed, taught the immortality of 
the soul, and inculcated the ccntempt of danger and of death. 
1 acitus remarks that the ancient Germans had neither temiplc^ nor 
idols. The open air was the temple of the divinity, and a conse- 
crated grove the appropriated place for prayer and sacrJl'ce, 
which none but the priests were allowed to enter. The chief sa- 
crifices were human victims, most probably the prisoners taken in 



ANCIENT HISTORY. Ill 

war. The druids heightened the sanctity of their character by 
concealinj^ the mysteries of their worship. They had the highest 
influence over the minds of tlie people, and thus found it easy to 
conjoin a civil authority with the sacerdotal ; a policy which in 
the end led to the destruction of the druidical system ; for the 
Romans found no other way of securing their conquests over any 
©f the Celtic nations but by exterminatnig' the druids. 

7. Whatever difference of manners there may have been among 
the various nations or tribes of Gothic origin, the great features 
of their character appear to have been the same. Nature, educa- 
tion, and prevailing habits, all concurred to form them for an in- 
trepid and conquering people. Their bodily frame was invigo- 
rated by the climate which they inhabited ; they were inured to 
danger and fatigue ; war was their habitual occupation ; they be- 
lieved in an unutterable destiny, and were taught by their leli- 
gion that a heroic sacrifice of life gave certain assurance of eter- 
nal happiness. How could a race of men so characterized fail to 
be the conquerors of the world ? 



SECTION XLVIIl. 

OF THE MANNERS, LAWS, AND GOVERNMENT OF TFIE 
GOTHIC NATIONS, AFTER THEIR ESTABLISHMENT IN 
THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

1. It has been erroneously supposed that the same ferocity of 
manners, which distinguished the Goths in their original seats, at- 
tended their successors in their new establishments in the provin- 
ces of the Roman empire. Modern authors have given a curren- 
cy to this false supposition. Voltaire, in describing the middle 
ages, paints the Goths in all the characters of horror ; as '' a troop 
of hungry wolves, foxes, and tigers, drivijig before them the scat- 
tered timid herds, and involving all in ruin and desolation." 'i'he 
accounts of historians most worthy of credit will dissipate this in- 
jurious preju:iice, and show those northern nations in a more fa- 
vourable point of view, as not unworthy to be the successors oi 
the Romans. 

2. Before their settlement in the southern provinces of Europe^ 
the Goths were no longer idolaters, but christians ; and their mo- 
rality was suitable to the religion which they professed. Salvia- 
nus, bishop of Marseilles, in the fifth century, draws a parallel 
between the manners ol the Goths and of the Romans, highly to 
the credit of the former. Grotiup, in his publication of i'rocopius 
aud Jornandes, remarks, as a strong testimony to their honourable 
character as a nation, that no province once subdued by the Goths 
ever voluntarily withdrew itself from their government. 

3. It is not possible to produce a more beautiful picture of an 
excellent administration than that of the Gothic monarchy in Italy 
under i heodoric the great. Though master of the country by 
conques', yet he was regarded by his subjects witn the att'cction of 
a native sovereign. He retained the Koraau laws, aiid, as nearly 



ll!S A.\CIENT HISTORY. 

Ti.9 possible, the ancient political regulations. In supplying all 
eivil offices of state he preferred the native Romans. It was his 
•are to preserve every monument of the ancient grandeur of the 
'impire, and to embellish the cities by new works of beauty and 
utility. In the imposition and levying of taxes he shov/ed the 
most humane indulgence on every occasion of scarcity or calam- 
ity. His laws were dictated by the most enlightened prudence 
,tnd benevolence, and framed on that principle which he nobly in- 
o-iilcated in his instructions to the Roman senate, " Benigni prin- 
npis ci/, non tar,i delicta velle pwiire^ quam tollere.'''* It is the 
duty of a heiiiyin prince to be disposed to prevent rather than to pun- 
ish offences. Ihe historians of the times delight in recounting 
the examples of his munificence and humanity. Partial as he 
v/as to the Irian heresy, many even of the catholic fathers have 
done the most ample justice to his merits, acknowledging that, 
under his reign, the church enjoyed a high measure of prosperity. 
Such was Theodoric the great, who is justly termed by Sidonius 
Apollinaris, Romans decus columcnque gentis {the glory and the 
support of the Roman nation^. 

A. But a single example could not warrant a general inference 
with regard to the merits of a whole people. The example of 
Theodoric is not single. If it does not find a complete parallel, it 
IS at least nearly approached to in the similar characters of Alaric, 
Amalasonte, and Totila. Alaric, compelled by his enemy's 
breach of faith to revenge himself by the sack of Rome, showed 
even in that revenge a noble example of humanity. No blood 
was shed without necessity ; the churches were inviolable asy- 
lums ; the honour of the women was preserved ; the treasures of 
the city were saved from plunder. Amalasonte, the daughter of 
Theodoric, repaired to her subjects the loss of her father, by the 
equity and wisdom of her administration. She trained her son ta 
the study of literature and of every polite accomplishment, as the 
best means of reforming and enlightening his people. Totila^ 
twice master of Rome, yhich he won by his arms after an obsti- 
nate resistance, imitated the example of Alaric in his clemency to 
the vanquished, and in his care to preserve every remnant of an- 
cient magnificence from destruction. He restored the senate t« 
its authority, adorned Rome with useful edifices, regulated its 
internal policy, and took a noble pride in reviving the splendour 
and dignity of the empire. Habitavit cum Romanis., says a co- 
temporary author, fanquam pater cum Jiliis. He lived with the 
Romans as a fatlier with his children. 

5. The stem of the Gothic »ation divided itself into two great 
branches, the Ostrogoths, who remained in Pannonia, and the 
Westrogoths or Visigoths, so termed from their migrating thence 
to the west of FAirope. Italy was possessed by the latter under 
Alaric, and by the former under Theodoric. The \isigoths, after 
the death of Alaric, withdrew into Gaul, and obtained from Ho- 
norius the province of Aquitaine, of which Thoulouse was the 
capital. "When expelled from that province by the Franks, they 
crossed the Pyrenees, and, settling in Spain, made Toledo the 
^pital of their kingdom, The race of the Visigoth priftces was 



ANCTENT HISTORY. llo 

termed the Balfi\ that of the Ostm^oths the Amali. The Ostro- 
goths enforced in their dominions the observance of the Roman 
laws ; the Visigoths adhered to a code compiled by their own sove- 
reigns, and founded on the ancient manners and usagfes of their 
nations. From this code, therefore, we may derive m :ch infor- 
mation relative to the genius and character of this ancient people, 

6. It is enacted by the laws of fhp f^isisotJis that no jud^-e shall 
decide in any lawsuit, unless he find in that b-^ok a law applicable 
to the case. All causes that fall not under this description are re- 
served for the decision of the sovereign. The penal laws are se-> 
vere, bat tenioerel with great equity. No punishment can atfect 
the heirs of the criminal : Omnia crimina suo.^ sequuniur aurtores^ 
— et ille folus jadicetur culpabilis qui cidpanda covimfserif^ ef crime'n 
cum illo qui fecerit moriatur. Jill crimes shidl afi'ich to their au- 
thors^ — and he alone shall he judged culpable^ who hcth committed 
offences^ and the crime shall die with him tvho hath committed it. 
Death was the punishment of the murder of a freeman, and per» 
petual infamy of the murder of a slave. Pecuniary fines were 
enacted for various subordinate oftences, according- to their mea- 
sure of criminality. An adulterer was delivered in bondage to 
the injured husband; and the free womaii who had committed 
adultery with a married man, became the slave of his wife. i\o 
physician was allowed to visit a female patient, except in the pre- 
sence of h.r nearest kindred. The lex talionis (Jhe law of ret all- 
atio'i) was in §;reat observance for such injuries as adaiitted it. 
It was even carried so far, that the incendiary of a house was 
burnt alive. The trials by judicial combat, by ordeal, and by the 
judgment of God, which were in frequent use among the Franks 
and Normans, had no place among the Visigoths. Montesquieu 
has erroneously asserted, that in all the Gothic nations it was 
usual to judge the litigants by the law of their own country ; the 
Roman by the Roman law, the Prank by the law of the I ranlcs, 
the Aleman by the law of the Alemans. On the cor trarv, the 
Visigoth code prohibits the laws of all other nations within tht ir 
territories. J^olamus sive Romanis legibus^ sive alienis instUu- 
iiunibus^ amplius convexari. We ivill not he controlled hy the Ro- 
inian laws^ nor hy foreign instituHons. The laws of the Iraiiks 
and Lombards are remarkable for their wisdom and judicious 
policy. 

7. The government of the Go hs, after their settlement in the 
Roman provinces, was monarchical. It was at first elective, and 
afterwards became hereditary. The sovereign on his death- bed 
appointed his successor, with the advice or consent of his gran- 
d es. Illr^gitimacy did not disqualify from succession or nomina- 
tion to the throne. 

8. The dukes and counts were the chief officers under the 
Gothic, government. The duke (dux exercitus) was the com- 
mander in chief of the troops of the province ; the count {comes) 
•was the highest civil magistrate. Rut th^^se offices frequently in- 
termixed their functions, the count beii.g empowered, on sudden 
^caergeucies, to assume a military commaud, aud tue duke, oa 

10- 



114 ANCIENT HISTORY, 

some occasions, warra^ited to exercise judicial authority. Im 
general, however, their departments were distinct. Of comites 
there were various orders, with distinct official powers ; as, comeSy 
cuhiculi^ chamberlain, conies stahuli^ constable, &;c. These vari" 
ous officers were the proceres or g-iandees of the king^dom, by 
■whose advice the sovereign conducted himself in important mat- 
ters of government, or in the nomination of his successor ; but 
we do not find that they had a voice in the framing of laws, or in. 
the imposition of taxes ; and the prince himself had the sole no- 
mination to all offices of government, magistracies, and dignities.- 



SECTION XLIX. 

METHOD OF STUDYING ANCIENT HISTORY. 

i. A general and concise view of ancient history may be ac- 
quired by the perusal of a very few books ; as that part of the 
Cours d^Etude of the Abbe Coodillac which regards the history 
i>f the nations of antiquity , the Elements of Geueial History by 
the Abbe Millot, part 1st ; the Epitome of Turselline, with the 
notes of L'Agneau, part 1st; or the excellent Compendium His- 
Tories, Universalis^ by professor OfFerhaus of Groningen. The tw« 
:first of these works have the merit of uniting a spirit of reflectiom 
.with a judicious selection of events. 1 he notes of L'Agneau to 
the Epitome of Turselline contain a great store of geographical 
•and biographical information. The work of Offerhaus is pecul* 
iarly valuable, as uniting sacred with profane history, and con- 
taining most ample references to the ancient authors. The Dis- 
t^urs sur VHisioire Unirerselle^ by the bishop of Meaux, is'a work 
of high merit, but is not adapted to convey information to the un- 
instructed. It is more useful to those who have already studied 
kistory in detail, for uniting in the mind the great current of events^ 
and recalling to the memory their order and connection. 

But the student who wishes to derive the most complete advan^- 
i,age from history, must not confine himself to such general oF 
compendious views ; he must resort to the original historians of 
■ancient times, and to the modern writers who have treated with 
unplitude of particular periods. It may be useful to such stu- 
dents to poinl: out the order in which those historians may be most 
profitably perused. 

2. Next to the historical books of the Old Testament, the most 
ancient history worthy of perusal is that of Herodotus, which 
comprehends the annals of Lydia, Ionia, Lycia, Egypt, Persia. 
Gr;^ece, and Macedonia, during above 230 years preceding 479 
A, C. 

Book 1. History of Lydia from Gyges to Croesus. Ancient Io- 
nia. Manners of the Persians, Babylonians, &c. History c," Cy- 
jHis the Elder. 

B. 2. History of Egypt, and Manners of the Egyptians. 

B. 3. History ff Cgtmbyses* Fersiaa Moaacchjf uudef Doxiv^ 



iWfCtENT msTORY;- lis 

^. 4. History of Scythia. 

B. 5. Feraiaa Embassy to Macedon. Athens, Hace daemon, Co* 
tinth, at the same period. 

B. 6. Kingfs of Lacedemon. War ofPersia against Greece, t©' 
the battle of Marathon. 

B. 7. The same War, to the battle of Thermopylae. 

B. 8. The Naval Battle of Salamis. 

B. 9. The Defeat and (Expulsion of the Persians from Greece^ 

(The merits of Herodotus are shortly characterized in Sect.? 
XXII, 1.) 

3. A Tnore particular account of the periods treated by Hero-' 
d.r>tns may be found in Justin, lib. 1, 2, 3, and 7 ; in the Cyrope- 
«iia of Xenophon ; in the Lives of Aristides, Theniistocles, Cimon^, 
Militiades, and Pausanias, written by Plutarch and Cornelius Ne- 
pos ; and in the lives of Anaximander, Zeno, Empedocles, llera- 
cditus, and Democritus, by Diogenes Laertius. 

4. The Grecian history is taken up by Thucydidos A'om the 
period where Herodotus ends, and is continued for seventy years, 
to the twenty-first of the Peloponnesian war. (This work cha- 
racterized. Sect. XXTI, i> 2.) This period is more amply iilustra* 
ted by perusing- the 11th and 12th books of Diodorus Siculus ; tii& 
X.ives of Alcibiades, Chabrias, Thrasybulus, and Lysias, by Plu- 
tarch and Nepos ; the 2d, Sd, 4th, and 5th books of Justin ; and 
the 14th and 15th chapters of the 1st book of Orosius. 

5. Next to Thucydides the student ought to peruse the-lst and 
2d books of Xenophon's History of Greece, which comprehends, 
the narrative of the Pelopouesian war, with the coteaiporary his- 
tory of the Medes and Persians ; then the expedition of Cyru$ 
(^Anabasis)^ and the continuation of the history to its conclusion 
with the battle of Mantinea. (Xenophon characterized, Sect,, 
XXI !, i 3.) For illustrating this period we have the Lives of Ly 
Sander, Agesilaus, Artaxerxes, Conon, a)id Datames, by Plutarch 
and Nepos ', the 4th, 5th, and 6th books of Justin ; and the I3tb 
and 14th books of Diodorus Siculus. 

6. After Xenophon let the student read the 15th and 16th bookf 
af Diodorus, which contain the history of Greece and Persia, frotn 
the battle of Mantinea to the reign of Alexander the great. (Di- 
odorus characterized, Sect. XXII, i 5.) To complete this period 
b't him read the Lives of Dion, Iphicrates, Timotheus, Phocioiij 
and Timoleon, by Nepos. 

7. For the history of Alexander the great we have the admira* 
ble works of Arrian and Quintus Curtius. (Arrian characterized, 
Sect. XXII, f 8.) Curtius possesses great judgment in the seJec- 
tion of facts, with much elegance and perspicuity of diction. He 
is a good moralist and a good patriot ; but his passion for embel*- 
lishment derogates from the purity of history, and renders his an- 
tliority suspicious. 

8. For the continuation of the history of Greece from the death 
of Alexander we have the 18th, 19th, and 20th books of Diodo* 
rus ; the history of Justin from the 13th book to the end ; ai.4 
the Lives of the principal personages written by Plutarch. The 
^story Qi JusUa k a jtadi^ious tt^cid^ni^at oi ^ muck i<u'g;er yi9s]^ 



116 AKOTENT HISTORY. 

by Trojans Pnmpelus, which is lost. Justin excels in the deline- 
ation of characters, anri i'l purity of style. 

9. I have mentioned tlK- lives of Plutarch and Cornelius Ne- 
pos as tht best supplement to the account of particular periods of 
ancient history. It is the highest praise of Plntarch that his wri- 
tings are admirable for their morality, and furnish instructive les- 
sons of active virtue. FJe makes us familiarly acquaii ted with 
the great men of antiquity, and chioriy delights in painting their 
private character and manners. The short lives written by Ke- 
pos show great judgment, and a happy selection of such facts as 
display the genius and character of his heroes They are writ- 
ten with great purity and elegance. 

10. For the Roman history in its early periods we have the An- 
tiquities of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, which bring down the his- 
tory of Rome to 412 A. V. C. They aie chiefly valuable, as 
illustrating the manners and customs, the rites civil and religious, 
and the laws of the Roman state. But the writer is too apt to 
frame hypotheses, and to give views instead of narratives. V e 
expect these in the modern writers who treat of ancient times^ 
but cannot tolerate them in the sources of history. 

11. The work of Livy is far more valuable than that of Diony- 
eius. It is a perfect model of history, both as to matter and com- 
position. (Characterized, Sect XXXVI, ^ 10.) Of 132 booke 
only 35 remain, and those are interrupted by a considerable 
chasm. The first decade (or ten books) treats of a period of 460 
years ; the second decade, containing seventy-five years, is lost ; 
the third contains the second Punic war, including eighteen years ; . 
the fourth contains the war against Philip of ^jacedon, and the 
Asiatic war against An^"iochus, a space of twenty-three years. 
Of the fifth decade there are only five books; and the remainder, 
"which reaches to the death of Drusus, 746, A. U. C. t<.gether 
"with the second decade, have been supplied by 1 reinshemius. 
To supply the chasm of the second decade the student ought toi 
read, together with the epitome of those lost books, the first and 
second books of Polybius ; the 17th, 18th, 22d, and 23d books of 
Justin; the lives of Marcellus and Fabius IV.aximus by Plutarch; 
fend the Punic and Illyrian wars by Appian. 

12. The history of l^olybias demands a separate and attentive 
perusal, as an admirable compendi'.im of political and military- 
instruction. Of forty books of gen.- ral history we have only five 
entire, and excerpts of the following twelve. Polybius treats of 
the history of the Romans, and of the nations with whom they 
were at war, from the beginring of the second Iiinic war to the 
beginning of the war with iS.acedonia, comprisiug in all a period 
of about fifty years. Of the high estimation in which Polybius 
was held by the authors of antiquity we have sufllicient proof in 
the encomiums bestowed on him by i icero, btrabo, Josephus, and 
Pli tarch ; and in the use which Livy has made of his history, in 
ad< pting his narratives by a translation nearly literal. 

!3. i he work of Appian, which originahy consisted of twenty 
bo k , irom the earliest period ot the l.oman history down to the 
age 01 Adrian, is greatly mutilated ; and thfere remains only his 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 117 

account of the Syrian, Parthian, Mithridatic, Spanish, Funic, and 
Illyrian wars. His narrative of eaeh of these wars is remarkably 
distinct and judicious ; and his composition, on the wliole, is 
chaste and perspicuous. After the history of Appian the student 
should resume Livy, from the beginning of the third decade, or 
21st boolc, to the end. Then he may peruse with advantage the 
Lives of Hannibal, Scipio Africanus, Flaminius, Paulus ^fenilius, 
the elder Cato, the Gracchi, iVlarius, Sylla, the younger Cato, 
Sertorius, Lucullus, Julius Caesar, Cicero, Pompey, and Brutus, by 
Plutarch. 

14. Sallust's histories of the Jugurthine war and of the conspi- 
racy of Cataline come next in order. (Sallust characterized, 
Sect. XXXVI, 8.) Then follow the Commentaries of Caesar, 
remarkable for perspicuity of narration, and a happy union of 
brevity with elegant simplicity of style. (Sect. XXXVI, i 9.) 
The epitomes of Florus and of Velleius Paterculus may be peru- 
sed v/ith advantage at this period of the course. Ihe latter is a 
model for abridgment of history, in the opinion of the president 
Henault. 

15. For the history of Rome under the first emperors we have 
Suetonius and Tacitus ; and for the subsequent reigns, the series 
of the minor historians, termed Historic Augustce. Scriplores (ivri- 
ters of august history]^ and the Byzantine writers. Suetonius 
gives us' a series of detached characters, illustrated by an artful 
selection of facts and anecdotes, rather than a regular history. 
His work is chiefly valuable as descriptive of Roman manners. 
His genius has too much of the caustic humour of a satirist. Ta- 
citus, with greater powers and deeper penetration, has drawn a 
picture of the time* in stern and gloomy colours. (Sect, XXXVI^ 
§ 11.) From neither of these historians will the ingenuous mind 
of youth receive moral improvement, or pleasing and benevolent 
impressions ; yet we cannot deny their high utility to the student 
of politics. 

16. If we except Herodian, who wrote with taste and judg- 
ment, it is doubtful whether any of the subsequent writers of the 
Roman history deserve a minute perusal. It is therefore advisa- 
ble f®r the student to derive his knowledge of the history of the 
decline and fall of the Roman empire from modern authors, re- 
eorting to the original writers only for occasional information oa 
detached points •f importance. For this purpose, the General 
History by Dr. Howel is a work of great utility, being written 
entirely on the basis of the original historians, whose narrative he 
g-enerally translates, referring constantly to his authorities in the 
margin. In this work the student will lind a valuable mass of his- 
torical information. 

17. The reader having thus founded his luiowledge of general 
history on the original writers, will now peruse with great advan* 
tage the modern histories of ancient Greece and Pi,ome by Aiit- 
fortl, Gillies, Gast, Hooke, Gibbon, and Fergusson ; and will find 
himself qualified to form a just estimate of their merits, on which 
ilvis presumptuous tp decide witii£>uj, euch preparatory kuowledge* 



118 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

18. Tlie greatest magazine of historical information which hat 
ever been collected into one body, is the English Universal His- 
tory ; a most useful work, from the amplitude of its matter, its 
general accuracy, and constant reference to the original authors. 
We may occasionally consult it with great advantage on points 
•where deep research is necessary ; but we cannot read it with 
pleasure as a continued work, from its tedious details and harsh- 
ness of style, its abrupt transitions, and the injudicious arrange- 
ment of many of its parts. 

19. Geography and chronology have been justly termed the 
liglits of history. We cannot peruse with advantage the historic- 
al annals of any country without a competent knowledge of its 
geographical situation, and even of its particular topography. In 
reading the description of any event the mind necessarily forms a 
picture of the scene of action ; and it is surely better to draw the 
picture with truth from nature and reality, than falsely from ima- 
gination. Many actions and events are likewise intimately con- 
nected with the geography and local circumstances of a country, 
a.nd are unintelligible without a knowledge of them. 

20. The use of chronological tables is very great, both for the 
purpose of uniting in one view the cotemporary events in different 
nations, which often have an influence on one another, and for re- 
calling to the memory the order an?l series of events, and renewing 
the impressions of the objects of former study. It is extremely 
useful, after perusing the history of a nation in detail or that of a 
certain age or period, to run over brieiiy the principal occurrences 
in a table of chronology. The most perfect works of this kind are 
the chronological tables of Dr. Flayfair, v/hich unite history and 
biography ; the tables of Dr. Blair ; or the older tables by Tal- 
lent.* 

* A list of l?!e best translations of the principal books above mentione<f= 

Herodotus. IrHJislaled by Beloe, 4 vols. 8vo. 

Xenophon'* Cycropedia, by Coupei-, 8vo. 

Xenophon's Anabasis, by Spelman. 2 vols, 8vo. 

Xenophen's History of Greece, by Smith, 4io. 

Plutarch, by Langhorae, 6 voh. 8vo., or 6 vols. 12mo. Wranghara'g 

edition. 
Thu(jdides by Smith, 2 vols. 8vo. 
DionyMUs Haltcarnassup, by Spelman, 4 vols. 4to. 
Polybius, by Hampton, 4 vols. 8vo. 
Livy, by Baker, 6 vols 8vo. 

Salliist. by Murphy. 8vo. ; by Steinrt, 2 vo!s. 4tJ.; by Rose, 8vo> 
Tacitus, by IViurphy, 8 vols. 8vo.; Irish editiea, 4 vols. 8vo. 
Suetonius, by Thojupson. 3vc. 
Di' dorus Si uIhs, b» Boot!., folio. 
A ran, by Rt>()k, 2 vols. 8vo. 
Q. Cmiius, bv Oi^b>, 2 vols. 12mo. 
Jtutin, by TurnbulJ, ' 12mo. EdiTO?, 

END OF PART FIRST. 



PART SECOND. 



SECTION I. 

OF ARABIA, AND THE EMPIRE OF THE SARACENS. 

• The fall of the western empire of the Romans, and the final 
ihjugation of Italy by the Lombards, is the aera from which we 
ite the commencement of Modern History. 

The eastern empire of the Romans continued to exist for many 
>;es after this period, still mas^nificent, though in a state of com- 
irative weakness and degeneracy. Towards the end of the 
xth century a new dominion arose in the east, which was des- 
ned to produce a w^onderful change on a great portion of the 
obe. 

The Arabians, at this time a rude nation, living chiefly in inde- 
gndent tribes, who traced their descent from the patriarch Abra- 
a,m, professed a mixed religion, compounded of Judaism and 
lolatry. Mecca, their holy city, lose to eminence from the dona- 
ons of pilgrims to its temple, in which was reposited a black 
one, an object of high veneration. Mahomet was born at Mec- 
j, A. D; 571. Of mean descent, and no education, but of great 
atural talents, he sought to raise himself to celebrity, by feign- 
ig a divine mission to propagate a new religion for the salvation 
i mankind. He retired to the desert, and pretended to hold con- 
Tences with the angel Gabriel, who delivered to him, from time 
> time, portions of a sacred book or Corari, containing revelations 
f the will of the Supreme Being, and of the doctrines which he 
squired his prophet to communicate to the world. 

2. This religion, while it adopted in part the morality of chris- 
anity, retained many of the rights of Judaism, and some of the 
rabian superstitions, as the pilgrimage to Mecca ; but owed to a 
prtain spirit of Asiatic voluptuousness its chief recommendation 
) its votaries. The Coran taught the belief of one God, whose 
'■ill and power were constantly exerted towards the happiness of 
is creatures ; that the duty of man was to love his neighbours, 
ssist the poor, protect the injured, to be humane to inferior ani- 
lals, and to pray seven times a day. The pious mussulman was 
llowed to have four wives, and as many concubines as he chose ; 
nd the pleasures *f love were promised as the supreme joys of 



120 MODfiRK mSTdllY. 

paradise. To rrrlTe the impression of these laws, which Grod had 
engrave)) oriulnally in the hearts of men, he had sent front time to 
time his prophets upon earth, i^braham, Moses, Jesus Christ, and 
Mahomf t : the last the greatest, to whom all the world should owe 
itsconversio'i to the true religion. By producing the Coran in de- 
t?tched parcels Mahomet had it in his power to solve all objections 
by new revelations. 

3. Dissensions and popular tumults between the helieyers and 
infdels caused the banishment of JN'ahomet from Mecca. His 
flight, called the hegyra, A. D. 622, is the jera of his glory. He 
retired to Medina, and was joined by the brave Omar. He prop- 
ajraf ed his doctrines with great success, and marched with his fol- 
lowers in arms, and took the city of Mecca. In a few years he 
subdueri ail Arabia; and then attacking Syria, took several of the 
Homan cities. In the midst of his victories he died at the age of 
sixty-one, A. D. 632. He had nominated Ali, his son-in-law, his 
successor ; hut Ahubeker, his fadher-in-law, secured the succession 
fey gaining the army to his interest. 

4. Ahubeker united and published the books of the Coran, and 
prosecuted the conquests of Mahomet. He defeated the army of 
Heraclius, took Jerusalem, and subjected all the country between 
Mount Libanus and the Mediterranean. On his death Omar was 
elected to tke caliphate, and in one campaign deprived the Greek 
empire of Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, and Chaldsea. In the 
next campaign he subdued to the mussulman dominion and reli- 
gion the whole empire of Persia. His generals at the same time 
conquered Egypt, Libya, and Numidia. 

5. Otman, the successor of Omar, added to the dominion of the 
the caliphs Bactriana, and part of Tartary, and ravaged Rhodes 
and the Greek islands. His successor was Ali, the son-in-law of 
Mahomet, a name to this day revered by the Mahometans. He 
transferred the seat of the caliphate from Mecca to Couffa, whence 
it was afterwards removed to Bagdat. His reig^n was glorious, 
"but only of five years' duration. In the space of half a century 
from the beginning" of the conquests of Mahomet the Saracens 
raised an err-pire more extensive than what remained of the Ro- 
man. Nineteen caliphs of the race of Omar {Ommiades) reigned 
in succession, after which began the dynasty of the ^.bassidie^ de- 
scended by the male line from Mahomet. Almanzor, second ca- 
liph of this race, removed the seat of empire to Eagdat, and in- 
troduced learning and the culture of the sciences, which his suc- 
cessors continued to promote with equal zeal and liberality. Ha- 
roun Alraschid, who flourished in the beginning of the ninth cen- 
tury, is celebrated as a second Augustus. 1 he sciences chiefly 
cultivated by the Arabians v/ere, medicine, geometry, and astron- 
omy. They improved the oriental poetry, by addin«^ regularity 
to its fancy and luxuriancy ©f imagery. 



M©DE?wN HISTORY. 121^ 

SECTION II. 

MONARCHY OF THE FRANKS. 

1. The Franks -were originally those tribes of Germans Xvho In- 
habited the districts lying on the Lower Rhine and Weser, and 
who, in the time of Tacitu«, pasi-ed under the names of Chauci, 
Cherusci, Catti, Sicambri, &c. They assumed or received the 
appellation of Franks^ or freemen, from their temporary union to 
resist the dominion of the liomans. Legendary chronicles record 
a Pharamond and a Meroveus; the latter the head of the first 
race of the kings of France, termed the Merovingian ; but the au- 
thentic history of the Franks commences only with his grandson 
Clovis, who began his reign in the year 4BL In the twentieth 
3'ear of his age Clovis achieved the conquest of (raul, by the de- 
feat of Syagrins the Roman governor; and marrying Clotilda, 
daughter of Cbilperic king of Hurgundy, soon added that province 
to his domijiions, by dethroning his father-in-law. He was con- 
verted by (Uotilda ; and the Frank?, till then idolaters, became 
christians, after their sovereigu''s example. The Visigoths, pro- 
fessing Arianism, were masters at this time of Aquitaine, the 
country between the Pihonc and Loire. The intemperate zeal of 
Clovis prompted the extirpation of those heretics, who retreated 
across the Pyrenees into Spain; and the provinces of Aquitaine 
became part of the kingdom of the Franks. They did not long 
retain it, for Theodoric the great defeated Clovis in the battle of 
Aries, and added Aquitaine to his dominions. Clovis died A. D, 

sn. 

2. His four eons divided the monarchy, and were perpetually 
at war with one another. A series of weak and wicked princes 
succeeded, and Gaul for some ages was characterized under its 
Frank sovereigns by more than ancient barbarism. On the death 
of Dagobert II, A. D. 638, who left two infant sons, the govern- 
ment, during their minority, fell into the hands of their chief offi- 
cers, termed mayors of the palace ; and these ambitious men 
founded a new power, which for some generations held the Frank 
sovereigns in absolute subjection, and left them little more than 
the title of king. Austrasia and Neustria, the two great divisions 
of the Frank monarchy, were nominally governed by Thierry, 
but in reality by Pepin Heristel, mayor of the palace, who, re- 
stricting his sovereign to a small domain, ruled France for thirty 
years with great wisdom and good policy. His son, Charles Mar- 
tel, succeeded to his power, and under a similar title governed for 
twenty-six years with equal ability and success. He was victo- 
rious over all his domestic foes. His arms kept in awe the sur- 
rounding nations, and he delivered France from the ravages of 
the Saracens, whom he entirely defeated between Tours and 
Poictiers, A. I). 732. 

3. Charles Martel bequeathed the government of France, as aa 
iiBdisputed inheritance, to his two sons, Pepin le bref and Carlo* 

11 



122 MODERN HISTORY. 

man, who gfoverned, under the same title of major, one Austra- 
sia, and the other Neustria and Burgundy. On the resignation of 
Carloman Pepin succeeded to the sole a.drainistration. Ambitioui 
of adding the title of king to the power which he already enjoy- 
ed, he proposed the question to pope Zachary, whether he or his 
sovereign Childeric was most worthy of the throne ? Zachary, who 
had his interest in view, decided that Pepin had a right to add the 
title of king to the office ; and ChiWeric was confined to a monas- 
tery for life. \Hth him ended the first or Merovingian race of 
the kings of France, A. D. ' 31. 

4. Pepin recompensed the service done him by the pope, by 
turning his arms against the Lombards. He deprived them of 
the exarchate of I'aAenna, and made a donation of that and other 
considerable territories to the holy see, which were the first, as ig 
alleged, of its temporal possessions. Conscious of his defective 
title, it was the principal object of Pepin le bref to conciliate the 
affections of the people Avhoni he governed. 1 he legislal ive power 
among the Franks was vested in the people assembled in their 
chara/is dt Mars. Under the Merovingian race the rega^ author- 
ity had sunk to nothing, while the pov/er of the nobles had attain- 
ed to an inordinate extent. Pepin found it his best policy to ac- 
knowledge and ratify those rights, which he could not without 
danger have invaded ; and thus, under the character of guardian, 
of the powers of all the orders of the state, he exalted the regal 
office to its proper elevation, and founded it on the securest basis. 
On his death-bed he called a council of the grandees, and obtain- 
ed their consent to a division of his kingdom between his two sons, 
Charles and Carloman. He died A. 1). 768, at the age of fifty- 
three, after a reign of seventeen years from the death of Childeric 
111, and an administration of twenty-seven from the death of 
Charles Martel. 



SECTION III. 

REFLECTIONS ON THE STATE OF FRANCE DURING 
THE MEROVINGIAN RACE OF ITS KINGS. ORIGIN 
OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

1. The manners of the Franks were similar to those of the 
ether Germanic nations described by Tacitus. Though under the 
command of a chief or king, their government was extren^ely de- 
mocratical, and they acknowledged no other than a military sub- 
ordination. The legislative authority resided in the general as- 
sembly, or champ de mars^ held annually on the 1st day of iviarch ; 
a council in which the king had but a single suffrage, equally with 
the meanest soldier. But, when in arms against the enemy, his 
power was absolute in enfocing military discipline. 

2. After the establishment ot" the Franks in Gaul some changes 
took place from their new situation. They redu'^ed the Gauls to 
absolute subjection ; yet they left many in possession of their 
lands, because the new country was too large for its conquerors. 



MODERN HISTORY. 1^ 

They left them likewise the use of their existin,^ laws, which were 
those of the Ro-nan code, while thpy themselvis were governed 
by the sallque and Tipaarian laws, ancient institutions iu observ- 
ance among the Franks before they left their original seats in Ger- 
many. Hence arose that extraordinary diversity of local laws and 
usages in the kingdom of France, which continued down to mod- 
ern times, and gave occasion to numberless inconveniences. 

3. The ancient Germans had th-^ highest veneration for the 
priests or druids. It was natural that the Franks, after their con- 
version to Christianity, should have the same reverence for their 
bishops, to whom accordingly they allowed the first rank in the 
national assembly. These bishops were generally chosen from 
among the native Gauls ; for, having adopted from this nation 
their new religion, it was natural that their priests should be cho- 
sen from the same people. The influence of the clergy contribu- 
ted much to ameliorate the condition of the conquered Gauls, and 
to humanize their conquerors ; an 1 in a short space of time the 
two nations were thoroughly incorporated. 

4. At this period a new system of policy is visible among this 
united people, which by degrees extended itself over most of the 
nations of Europe. This is the feudal system. By this expres- 
sion is properly meant that tenure or condition on which the pro- 
prietors of land held their possessions, viz., an obligatijn to per- 
form military service, whenever required by the chief or overlurd 
to whom they owed allegiance. 

Many modern writers attribute the origin of this institution or 
policy to the kings of the Franks, who, after the conquest of Gaul, 
are supposed to have divided the lands among their followers, on 
this condition of military service. But this notion is attetided 
with insurmountable difficulties. For, in the first place, it pro- 
ceeds on this false supposition, that the conquered lands belono:ed 
in property to the king, and that he had the rigiit of bestowing 
them in gifts, or dividing them among his followers ; whereas it is 
a certain fact, that among the Franks the partition of conquered 
ianls was made by lot, as was tVie division even of the spoil or 
booty taken in battle ; and that the king^s share, though doubt- 
less a larger portion than that of his captains, was likev/ise as- 
signed him by lot. Secondly, if we should suppose the king to 
have made those gifts to his captains out of his own domain, the 
creation of a very few bentficia {benefices) would have rendered 
hi a a poorer man than his subjects. We must therefore have re- 
course to another supposition for the origin o( the fiefs ; and we 
shall find that it is to be traced to a source much more remote 
tha 1 the conq lest of Gaul by the Franks. 

5. Among all barbarous nations, with whom war is the chief 
occupation, we remark a strict subordination of the members of a 
tri'^e to their chief or leader. It was obsr-rved by Caesar as pecul- 
iarly strong anong the Gaulish nq^tions, and as subsisting not only 
between the soldisis a id their commander, but between the infe- 
rior towns or villages and the canton or province to which they 
belonged. In poace every man cultivated his land, free of all tax- 
a4ioa, aiid subject to uo other burden but that of military seivice^ 



1:24 MODERN HISTORY. 

« 

•when reqiiirccl by his chief. When the province was at war, each 
rillagfe, Ihotigh taxed to furni?h only a certain number of soldiers, 
v.'as bound to send, on the day appointed for a general muster, all 
its males capable of bearing: arms ; and from these its rated num- 
ber was selected by the chief of the province. This ditnttla 
(vassalage) subsisted among the Franks as well as a.mong the 
Gauls. It subsisted among- the Romans, who, to check the in- 
;'oads of the barbarian nations, and to secure their distant con- 
<|uests, were obliged to maintain fixed garrisons on their frontiers. 
yVo each officer in those garrisons it wa^ customary to assign a por- 
tion of land as the pledge and pay of his service. These gifts 
were termed benefida^ and their proprietors hentjiciarii. Plin. 
Ep. lib. 10, ep. 32. The henejicia were at first granted only for 
life. Alej^ander Severus ailov/ed them to descend to heirs, on the 
like condition of military service. 

6. "\\ hen Gaul was overrun by the Franks, a great part of t?ie 
lunds was possessed on this tenure by the Roman soldiery, as the 
rest was by the native Gauls. The conquerors, accustomed to 
the same policy, would naturally adopt it in the partition of their 
new conquests ; each man, on receiving his share, becoming bound 
to military service, as a condition necessarily annexed to territo- 
rial property. With respect to those Gauls who retained their 
possessions, no other change was necessary but to exact the same 
obligation of military vassalage to their new conquerors which 
they had rendered to their former masters the emperors, and, be- 
fore the Roman conquest, to their native chiefs. Thus no other 
change took place but that of the overlord. The system was the 
same which had prevailed for ages. 

7. But these henejicia^ or fiefs, were personal grants, revocable 
by the sovereign or overlord, and reverting to him on the death 
of the vassal. The weakness of the Frank kings of the ^Xero- 
vingian race emboldened the possessors of fiefs to aspire at inde- 
pendence and security of property. In a convention held at An- 
deli in 5o7, to treat of peace between Gontran and C'hildebert II, 
the nobles obliged these princes to renounce the right of revoking 
their benefices, which henceforward passed by inheritance to their 
eldest male issue. 

8. It was a necessary consequence of a fief becoming perpetual 
and hereditary, that it should be capable of subinfeudation ; and 
that the vassal himself, holding his land of the sovereign by the 
tenure of military service, should be enabled to create a train of 
inferier vassals, by giving to them portions of his estate to be 
held on the same condition, of following his standard in battle, 
rencJeiing him homage as their lord, and paying, as the symbol of 
their subjection, a small annual present, either ol" money or the 
fruits of their lands. Thus, in a little time, the whole territory 
in the feudal kingdoms \vas either held immediately and in cap its 
of the sovereign himself, or laediately by inferior vassals of the 
tenants m capite. 

9. It was natural in those disorderly times, when the authority 
of government and the obligation of general laws were extremely 
weak, that the superior or overlord should acquire a «ivil a»(J 






MODERN HISTORY. 12« 

flrtmiVial jurisdiction over his vassals. The comites, to whom, as 
the chief masristrates of police, the administrati >n of justice be- 
long-ed of riii;ht, paid little attention to the duties of their office, 
and shamefully abused their powers. The inferior classes natu- 
rally chose, instemd of seeking" justice through this corrupted 
channel, to sub>nit their lawsuits to the arbitration of their over- 
lord ; and this jurisdiction, conferred at first by the acquiescence 
of parties, came at leng-th to be reg-arded as founded on strict 
right. Hence arose a perpetual contest of jurisdiction between 
the grea.ter barons in their own territories and the established ju- 
dicatories ; a oatural cause of that extreme anarchy and disorder 
which prevaih'.d in France during; the g;reater part of the Mero- 
vinaiaa period, aod sunk the reg-al authority to the lowest pitch 
of al)as'^ment. In a gfovernment of which tvery part was at vari^ 
ance with the rest, it was not surprising" that a new power should 
arise, which, in able hands, should be capable of bring-ing the 
whole under subjection. 

10. The mayor of the palace, or first officer of the household, 
gradually usurped, under a series of weak princes, the whole 
powers of the sovereign. This office, from a personal dignity, be* 
came h-reditary in the family of Pepin Heristel. His gfrandson, 
Pepin L bref, removed from the throne those phantoms of the Me- 
Foving-ian race, assumed the title of king", by the authority of a 
papal decree, a id reigned for seventeen years v/ith dignity aud 
success. He was the founder of the second race of the French 
moaarchs known by the name of the Carlovingian. See Kettle 
"Elements of General Knowledge, vol. I, 



SECTION lY. 

CHARLEMAGNE. THE NEW EMPIRE OF THE WEST. 

1. Pepin le bref^ with the consent of his nobles, divided, on hi^? 
death-bed, the kiig'dom of France between his sons, Charles aid 
Caiioraan, A. D. 768. The latter died a few years after his fa- 
ther, and Charles succeeded to the undivided sovereig'nty. In 
the course of a reigfu of forty-five years darltMagnt (lor so he 
was deservedly styled) extended the iiaiits of his empire beyond 
the Danube ; subdued Dacia, Dalmatia, and Istria ; conquered 
and subjected all the barbarous tribes to the banks of the Vistula; 
made hi.nself master of a gfreat portion of Italy ; and successfully 
encountered the arms of the Saracens, the Hans, the iudgarians, 
and the Saxons. His war with the Saxons, was of thirty years' 
duration, and their final conquest was not achieved without an 
inhuman waste of blood. At the request of the pope, and to dis- 
charg-e the oblig-ation of his father Pepin to the h ly see, Charle- 
magne dispossessed Desiderius king of the Lombards of ail his 
dominions, though allied to hijn by marriage ; and put a final pe- 
mod to the Lombard dominion in Italy, A. O. 774. 

%, He made his entry into Home at the festival of Easter, was 



126' MODERN HISTORV. 

there crowned king of France and of the Lombards, and wag, hy 
pope Adrian I, invested with the rip^ht of ratifying- the election of 
the popes. Irene, empress of the east, sought to ally herself with 
Charlemagne, by the marriage of her son Constantino to his daugh- 
ter ; but her subsequent inhuman conduct, in putting Constantine 
to death, gave ground to suspect the sincerity of her desire for 
that alliance. 

3. In the last visit of Charlemagne to Italy he was consecrated 
emperor of the west by the hat:ds of pnpe Leo III. It is probable 
that if he had chosen Rome for his residence and seat of govern- 
ment, and at his death had transmitted to his successor an undi- 
vided dominion, the great but fallen empire of the west might 
"have once more been restored to lustre and respect. But Charle- 
magne had no fixed capital, and divided, even in his lifetime, hie 
dominions among his children, A. D. 806. 

4. The economy of government and the domestic administra- 
tion of Charlemagne merit attention. Pepin le href had intro- 
duced the system of annual assemblies or parliaments, held at 
first in March, and afterwards in May, where the chief estates of 
cltrgy and nobles were called to deliberate on the public atfaira 
•and the wants of the people. Charlemagne appointed these as- 
semblies to be held twice in the year, in spring and in avitumn. 
In the latter assembly all affairs were prepared and digested ; ia 
the former was transacted the business of legislation ; and of this 
assembly he made the people a party, by admitting from eack 
province or district twelve deputies or representatives. The as- 
sembly now consisted of three estates, each of which formed a 
separate chamber, and discussed apart the concerns of its owm 
Order. They afterwards united to communicate their resolutions, 
or to deliberate on their common interests. The sovereign waa 
sever present, unless when called to ratify the decrees of the as- 
sembly. 

5. Charlemagne divided the empire into provinces, and the 
provinces into districts, each comprehending a certain number of 
couui: «s. The districts were governed by royal envoys, chosen 
l\"or>'. the clergy and nobles, and bound to an exact visitation of 
their territories every three months. These envoys held annual 
conventions, at which were present the higher clergy and barons, 
to discuss the affairs of the district, examine the conduct of it^ 
magistrates, and redress the grievances of individuals. At the 
general assembly, or champ dt Mai^ the roj^al envoys made their 
report to the sovereign and states; and thus the public attention 
was constantly directed to all the concerns of the empire. 

.6. The private character of Charlemagne was most amiable 
and respectable. His secretary, Eginhart, has painted his domes- 
tic life in beautiful and simple colours. The economy of his fam- 
ily is characteristic of an age of great simplicity ; for his daugh- 
ters were assiduously employed in spinning and housewifery, and 
the sons were trained by their father in the practice of all manly 
exercises. This illustrious man died A. D, 814, in the seventy- 
second year of his age. Cotemporary with him was liaroun Al- 
caicliidj calipli of the Saracen?, ec^iiall/ celebrated ibr his Goa- 



MODERN Hl&TORV, l'2t 

quests, excellent policy, and the wisdom and humanity of his gor-' 
eriimcnt. 

7. Of all the lawful sons of Charlomag-ne Lewis the debonnairt> 
was the only one who survived hi;n, and who therefore succeeded 
without dispute to all the imperial do-ninionp, except Italy, whick 
the emperor had settled ou iJeruard, his grandsou by Fepin, hi« 
^coud son. 



SECTION y, 

J^IANNERS, GOVERNMENT, AND CUSTOMS OF THE AGL^ 
OF CHARLEMAGNE. 

1. Tn establishing- the provincial conventions under the royal 
envoys Charlema'irne did not entirely abolish the authority of th© 
ancient chief maj;istrates, the dukes and counts. They continued 
to command the troops of the province, and to make the levies i* 
stated numbers from each district. Cavalry were not numerous 
in the imperial armies, twelve farms bein^ taxed to furnish only 
o^.ia horseman with his armour and accoutrements. The province 
supplied six months' provisions to its complement of men, and th© 
kiu^ maintained them durinsf the rest of the ca^npaign. 

2. The en»-ines for the attack and defence of towns were, as ia 
form«r times, the ram, the balista, ca-apulta, testudo, Slc. Char" 
ie na;^ne had his ships of war stationed in the mouths of all the 
lar2:er rivers. He bestowed great attention on commerce. 'i'h« 
merchants of Italy and the south of J- ranee traded to the Levant, 
and exchang-ed the commodities of Europe and Asia. Venice 
aiid Grenoa were rising' into commercial opulence ; and the manu- 
factures of wool, ^lass, and iron, were successfully cultivated iin. 
many of the principal towns in the south of Europe. 

o. The value of money was nearly the same as in the Romaa 
«!npire in the a::^e of Constantine the great. The numerary livre, 
in the age of Charlemagne, was supposed to be a pound of silver, 
in value about 31. sterling of English money. At present the livrs 
ia worth 19 l-2d. Knglish. Hence we ought to be cautious in 
foraiing our estimate of ancient money from its name. From the 
wait of this caution have arisen the most erroneous ideas of the 
«0;n nerce, riches, and strength of the ancient kingdoms. 

4. The capilalirLa (jstatule-hooks) of Charlemagne, compiled 
into a body A. D. 827, were recovered from oblivion in 1531 and 
1545. They present many circumstances illustrative of the man- 
ners of the times. Unless in great cities there were no inns : the 
laws obliged every man to give accommodation to travellers. 
The chief towns were built of wood. The state of the mechanic 
arts was very low in Europe. The Saracens had made more pro- 
gress in them. Painting and sculpture were only preserved from 
al)3olute extinction by the existing remains' of ancient art. Char- 
le Jiagne appears to h-ive been anxious for the improvement of 
music; and the Italians are said to have instructed his French 
performers iu tiie tu't of playing oii the orgaa, Arciiitecture w^ 



l*f$ MODERN inSTOR?. 

• 

st'idier? arid successfully cultivated in that style termed the GotTi-' 
ic, which admits of great beauty, ele^-ance, and inagfnificeijce, 
Th(' composition of Mosaic appears to have been an invention of 
those ag:es. 

5. The knowledge of letters was extremely low, and confined 
to a few of the ecclesiastics. ( harlen^ayne srave the utmost en- 
couragement to literature and the sciences, ii?vitiD°: into his do- 
minions of I ranee men eminent in those departments from Italy, 
and from the Britannic isles, which, in those dark ages, preserved 
more of the light of learning than any of the western kiiigdoms. 
*' Keque enim siltnda laus Briiannirr^ Scotia^ et Hibernicc. qua 
studio liberalium arHum to tempore anfecellebant rdiquis ociuhri' 
talibus regnis ; et cm a prcEseitiin monachorum^ qui litcraruvi ^lo- 
riani^ alibi aut languentem aui depressaw^ in lis reg/oriihusimpif:re 
suscitabani atqut taebantur .'''* Mnrat. Anliq. Iial. Liss. 43. "/ 
vimst not omit the praise due to England^ Scotland^ and Ireland^ 
•which at that time excelled the other insiern kingdoms in the study 
€f the libernl arts ; and especially to the monks^ by whose care and 
diligence the honour of liteiature^ iihich in other countries uas 
eithei languishing or depiessed^rvas revived and protected in tlese.'^ 
The scarcity of books in those times, and the nature of their sub- 
jects, as legends, lives ol the saints, &:c., evince the narrow diiTu- 
sion of literature. * 

6. The ptcuniary fines for homicide, the ordeal or judg-ment of 
God. and judicial combat, were striking; peculiaiities in the laws 
and manners of the northern nations, and particularly of the 
Franks. By this warlike, barbarous people, revenge was esteem- 
ed honourable and meritorious. The high- spirited warrior chas- 
tised or vindicated with his own hand the injuries which he had 
recei\ed or inflicted The magistrate interfered, not to punish, 
but to reconcile, and was satisfied if he could persuade the ag- 
gressor to pay, and the injured party to accept, the moderate fine 
which was imposed as the price of blood,^ and of which the mea- 
sure was estimated according' to the rank, the sex, and the coun- 
try of the person slain. But increashig civilization abolished those 
barbarous distinctions. "VVc have remarked the equal severity of 
the laws of the Visigoths, in the crimes of murder and robbery ; 
and even among the i ra jks, in the age of Charlemagne, delibe- 
rate murder was punished Vv'ith death. 

7. By their ancient laws, a party accused of any crime was al- 
lowed to produce con^purgators, or a certain number of witnesses, 
according to the measure of the oiience ; and if these declared 
upon oath their belief of his innocence, it was held a sufficient 
exculpation. Seventy-two compiijgators were required to acquit 
a murderer or an incendiary, 'the flagrant perjuries occasi.-ned 
by this absurd piactice probably gave rise to the trial by ordeal, 
l^'hich was termed, as it was believed to be, the judgment of God. 
Ihe criminal was ordered, at the option of the juiige, to prove hie 
innocence or guilt, by the ordeal of cold water, of boiling water, 
or red hot iron. He was tied hand and font, and thrown into a 
pool, to sink or swim ; he was niade to fetch a ring from the bot- 
tofti of a vfe«sei <?f boiiing; w^terj or to waik fc^u'eiooted ov«r buia^ 



MODERN HISTORY. 129 

ing plongbshares. History records examples of those wonderful 
experinients having been made without injury or pain. 

8. Another peculiarity of the laws and manners of the north- 
ern nations was judicial combat. Both in civil suits and in the 
trial of crimes, the party destitute of legal proofs might challenge 
his Antogonist to mortal combat, and rest the cause upon its issue. 
This sanguinary and most iniquitous custom, which may be tra- 
ced to this day in the practice of duelling, had the authority of 
law in the court of the constable and marshal, even iii the ladt 
oentury, in I'rauce and England. 



SECTION VI. 

RETROSPECTIVE VIEW OF THE AFFAIRS OF THi; 
CHURCH BEFORE THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 

1. The Arian and Pelagian heresies divided the christian 
ehurch for many ages. In the fourth century, Arius, a presbyter 
of Alexandria, maintained the separate and inferior nature of the 
second person of the trinity, regarding Christ as the noblest of 
created beings, through whose agency the Creator had formed 
the universe. His doctrine was condemned in the council of 
Nice, held by Constantine A.D. 325, who afterwards became a 
convert to it. For many centuries it had an extensive influence, 
and produced the sects of the Euuomians, Semi-Arians, Eusebians, 
&;c. 

2. In the beginning of the fifth century Pelagius and Calestius, 
the former a native of Britain, the latter of Ireland, denied the 
doctrine of original sin, and the necessity of divine grace to en- 
lighten the understanding, and purify the heart ; and maintain- 
ed the sufficiency of man's natural powers for the attainment of 
the highest degrees of piety and virtue. These tenets were ably 
combated by St. Augustine, and condemned by an ecclesiastical 
council, but have ever continued to find many supporters. 

3. The most obstinate source of controversy in those ages waS 
the worship of images ; a practice which was at first opposed by 
the clergy, but was afterwards, from interested motives, counte* 
nanced and vindicated by them. It was,. however, long a subject 
of division in the church. The emperor Leo the Isaurian, A. D. 
727, attempted to suppress this idolatry, by the destruction of 
every statue and picture found in the churches, and by punish- 
ment of their worshippers ; but this intemperate zeal rather in* 
creased than repressed the superstition, hi is son Constantine Co- 
pronymus, with wiser policy, procured its coiidemnation by the* 
church. 

4. From the doctrines of the Platonic and Stoic philosophy^ 
which recommended the purification of the soul, by redeeming it 
from its subjection to the senses, aro'se the system of penances, 
mortiiication, religious sequestration, and monachism. After 
Constantine had put an end to the persecution of the christians, 
faaiiy conceived it a duty to prosur^ for themseivaa voiitaiajiy 



130 MODERN HISTORY, 

grievances and sufferings. They retired into cax'es and hermif- 
ag-es, and there practised the most rigorous mortifications oi the 
flesh, by fasting, scourging-, vigils, &c. This phreazy first show- 
ed itself in Egypt in the fourth century, whence it spread over ail 
the east, a great part of Africa, and within the limits of the bish- 
opric of Rome. In the time of Iheodosins these devotees began 
to form communities or cosnobia^ each associate binding himself bj^ 
oath to observe the rules of his order. St. Benedict introduced 
monachism into Italy, under the reign of Totila ; and his order, 
the Benedictine, soon became extremely numerous and opulent. 
Many rich donations were made by the devout and charitable, 
who believed that they profited by the prayers of the monks. 
Benedict sent colonies into Sicily and France, whence they soon 
spread over all Europe. 

5. In the east, the monachi solilarii (solitary monks) were first 
incorporated into cce.nubia by .'*t. Basil, bishop of Cfesarea, in the 
middle of the fourth century ; and some time before that period 
the first monasteries for women were founded in Egypt by the sis- 
ter of St. Pacomo. From these, in the following age, sprung a 
variety of orders, under difierent rules. The rule of the cano/is 
regular was framed after the model of the apostolic life. To 
chastity, obedience, and poverty, the mendicants added the obli- 
gation of begging alms, 'i'he military religious orders were un- 
known till the age of the holy wars. (Sect. XVII, $ 3.) The 
monastic fi aterr-ities owed their reputation chielly to the little lit- 
ei^ry knowledge which, in those ages of ignorance, they exclu- 
sively possessed, (lor the origin of monachism, see ^ arieties of 
Literature.) 

6. In the fifth ceutury arose a set of fanatics termed slylifts^ or 
pillar-saints, who passed their lives on the tops of pillars of vari- 
ous height. Simeon of Syria lived thirty-seven years, and died on 
a pillar sixty feet high. This phrenzy prevailed in the east for 
many centuries, (i or a curious account of the fanaticism of the 
Hindoos, see Teanaat's Indian Recreations.) 

7. Auricular confession, which had been abolished in the east 
in the fourth century, began to be in use in the west in the age of 
Charlemagne, and has ever since prevailed in the Romish ciua'ch. 
1 he canonization of saints was, for near twelve centuries, prac- 
tised by every bishop. Pope Alexander III, one of the most vi- 
cious of men, first claimed and assumed this right, as the exclu- 
eive privilege of the successor of t-U Peter. 

8. 'I he conquests of Charlemagne spread Christianity in the. 
north of Europe ; but all beyond the limits of his conquests was 
idolatrous, britain a..d Ireland had received the light of caiisr 
tianity at an earlier period ; but it was afterwards extin^^uishedj 
^Aid agam revised under the Saxon heptarchy. 



HODERN HISTORY* 131 



SECTION VII. 

EMPIRE OF THE WEST UNDER TPIE SUCCESSORS OP 
CHARLEMAGNE. 

1. The empire of Charlemagne, raised and supported solely by 
his abilities, fell to pieces under his weak posterity, i ewis {It 
dehonnairt\ the only survivor of his lawful sons, was consecrat- 
ed emperor and king- of the Franks at Aix la Cha]->e!le, ^ . J). 
816. Among the f.rst acts of his rci.rn was tlv^ ; !<ifion of his 
dominions among" his children, 'i'o Pepin, his second son, he 
gave J^quitaine, a third part of the south of l<'ra'-ice ; to Lewis, 
the youngest, Bavaria: a^d he ass.'.ciafed his eldest so i Lotharius 
with hiinself in the JT'^verument of the rest. I'he three princes 
qua relied amors; them? Ives., a,?;re.eiiig in nothing hut in hostility 
aiiainst their father. Tney niade open v/ar again?thin), suppoited 
by pope Cregery jV. 'i he pretciice was, that the emperor hav- 
ing a y^ung^i- son, Charles, born after this | aitition of liis states, 
wanted to give hiin Ii]>:ewise a share, which could not be done but 
at the expence ci his elder brothers. 1 ewis was compelled to 
suivendei' hirastif a prijoner tolas rebellious sons. "^1 hey couthied 
him for a year to a monas(ery, till, on a r:ew quarrol between 
Lev.'is the yeungcr ai.d i'cpin, botharius once more restore d his 
father to the thre,!!o : but his spirits v/eie broken, his health de- 
cayed, and he finished, soon after, an iugloriLais and turbulent 
reign, >. D. 840. 

2. 'ihe dissensions of the brothers still continued. Lotharius, 
now emperor, and Fepin his brother's s^n, having taken up arms 
against the two other-sons of Lewis le dthonnairt^ Lewis of Rava- 
ria and Charlesthe bald, wtre defeated by them in the battle of 
Foritenai, where 1(50,000 are said to have fallen in the field. The 
church in th':>se times was a prime organ of the civil policy. A 
council of bishops immediately assembled, ard solenmly deposed 
Lotharius. At the sane time they assumed an equal ai.ithority 
over his conquerors, whom they permitted to reign, on the express 
condition of submit sivt obedience to the supieme spiritual author- 
ity. Yet Lotharius, though excommunicated and deposed, found 
means to accommodate matters with his brothers, who agreed t@ 
a new partition of the emipire. By the treaty of Verdun, A. D. 
843, the western part of irance, termed Neustria and Aquitaine, 
was assigned to Charles the bald ; I-otharius, with the title of 
emperor, had the nominal sovereignty of Italy, and the real terri- 
tory of Lorraine, Franche Compte, Frovence, and the Lyonnois ; 
the share of Lewis was the kiiigdom of Cei'many. 

3. Thus was Germany finally separated from the empire of the 
Franks. On the death of Lotharius Charles the bald assumed 
the empire, or, as is said, purchased it from pope John VIH, on 
the condition of holding it as a vassal to the holy see. This prince, 
after a weak and inglorious reign, died by poison, A. D. 877. He 
was the first of the i rench monarchs who made dignities and titles 
hereditary. Under the distracted reigns of the Carloyingian 



132 MODiRN HISTORY. 

kin°rs the nobles attained great power, and commanded a formida- 
ble vassalage. 1 hey strengthened themselves in their castles and 
fortresses, and bid defiance in the arm of- govern jnent, -while the 
country was ravaged and desolated by their feuds. 

4. (n the reign of C haries the bald France was plundered by 
the Normans, a new race of Goths fi oin ^-Can'iii-a^ ia, who had be- 
gun their depredations even in the tinn.- of * harlemagne, and w-ere 
only checked in their prog:rcss by the terror of his arms. A, D. 
843 they sailed up the Seine, and plunder* d Kou en ; while anoth- 
er fleet entered the 1 oire, ard laid waste the country and its vi- 
cinity, cauyins:, tcg;ether with its spoils, men, women and chil- 
dren into captivity. In the tollowin;:': ytar they attacked the coasts 
of I-'nglard, T ranee and Spain, but vrtre repelled from the last by 
the good conduct and courage of its ?>ahometan rulers. In 845 
they entered the Flbe, plundered Hamburgh, and penetrated far 
into Germany. Eric, king of -Denmark, who c-mmanded Ihese 
Normans, scut once more a fleet into the Feine, which advanced to 
Paris. Its inhabitants fied, and the city was burnt. Another lieet, 
with little resistance, pillaged Bourdeaux. To avert Ihe arms of 
these ravagers, Charles the bald bribed them with money ; and bis 
successor, Charles the gross, yielded them a part of his blemish 
dominions. These were only incentives to fresh depredation. Pa- 
ris was attacked a second time, but gallantly defended by count 
Odo or F.udes, and the venerable bishop Go?lin. A truce was a 
second time concluded ; but the barbarians only changed the scene 
of their attack: they besieged Sens, and plundered Burgundy. An 
assembly of the states held at Mentz deposed the unworthy Charles, 
and conferred the crown on the more deserving Eudes ; who, dur- 
ing a reign of ten years, bravely withstood the Normans. A great 
part of the states of France, however, refused his title to the 
crown, and gave their allegiance to Charles surnamed the simple, 

5. Rollo, the Norman, in 912, compelled the king of France to 
yield him a large portion of the territory of Neustria, and to give 
him his daughter in marriage. The new kingdom was now calledl 
Normandy, of which Rouen was the capital. 



SECTION VIII. 

SiWPIRE OF THE EAPT DURING THE EIGPITH ANB 
NINTH CENTURIES. 

1. While the new empire of the west was thus rapidly tending 
to dissolution, the empire of Constantinople still retained a ves- 
tige of its ancient grandeur. It had lost its African and Syrian 
dependencies, and was plundered by the Saracens on the eastern 
frontier, and ravaged on the north and west by the Abari and Bul- 
garians. The capital, though splendid and refined, was a con- 
stant scene of rebellions and conspiracies ; and the imperial fam- 
ily itself exhibited a series of the most horrid crimes and atroci- 
ties. One emperor was put to death in revenge of murder and 
mc*-st ; another was poisoned by his queen ; a Uiird was assassi- 



Modern history 



19« 



Mated in the bath by his OAvn domestics ; a fourth tore out the 
eyes of his brothers; the empress Irene, respectable for her tal- 
ents, was infamous for the murder of her only son. Of such con - 
plexion was that series of princes who swayed the sceptre of Vav. 
east nearly "200 years. 

2. In the latter part of this period a most violent coutrovprsy 
was maintained respecting the M'orship of imag'es, which were al- 
ternately destroyed and replaced according to the humour of the 
sovereign. The female sex was their most zealous supporter. 
This was not the only subject of division in the christian church ; 
the doctrines of the Maniches were then extremely prevalent, and 
the sword was frequently employed to support and propagate their 
tenets. 

3. The misfortunes of the empire were increased by an inva- 
sion of the Russians from the Talus Mceotis and Euxine. In tLo 
reign of Leo, named the philosopher, the Turks, a new race cf 
barbarians, of Scythian or Tartarian breed, began to ma'ce ef- 
fectual inroads on its territories. About the same time its dO' 
mestic calamities were aggravated by the separation of the Creek 
from the Latin church, of which we shall treat under the fo] ■ow- 
ing: section. 



SECTION IX. 

STATE OF THE CHURCH IN THE EIGHTH AND NINTH 
CENTURIES. 

1. The popes had begun to acquire a temporal authority under 
Pepin le bref and Charlemagne, from the donations of territory 
made by those princes, and they were now gradually extending a 
spiritual jurisdiction over all the christian kingdoms. Nicholas I. 
proclaimed to the whole world his paramount judgment in appeal 
from the sentences of all spiritual judicatories ; his power of as- 
sembling councils of the church, and of regulating it by the ca- 
nons of those councils ; the right of exercising his authority by 
legates in all the kingdoms of Europe, and the control of the 
pope over all princes and governors. IJterary imposture gave its 
support to these pretences. Certain :5purious epistles were writ- 
ten in the name of Isidorus, with the design of proving the justice 
of the claiais of the pope ; and the f ri^f ry of those epistles was 
not completely exposed till the sixteenth century. Among the 
prerogatives of the popes was the regulation of the marriages of 
all the crowned heads, by the extreuie extension of the prohibi- 
tions of the canon law, with which they alone had the power of 
dispensing. 

2. One extraordinary event (if true) afforded, in the ninth cen- 
tury, a ludicrous interruption to the boasted succession of regu- 
lar bishops from the days of St. Peter, the election of a female 
pope, WHO is said to have ably governed the church for three 
years, till detected by the birth of a child.- Till the reformation 

12 



f34 MODERN HISTORY. 

ty Luther this event "vvas not regarded by the catholics sis incred- 
ible, nor disgracefnl to the church : since that time its truth or 
falsehood has been the subject of keen controversy betvi^een the 
protestants and catholics ; and the evidence for its falsehood 
seems to preponderate. 

3. The church was thus gfradually extending its influence, and 
its head arrogating the control over sovereign princes, who, by a 
singular interchange of character, seem, in those ages, to have 
fixed their chief attention on spiritual concerns. Kings, dukes, 
and counts, neglecting their temporal duties, shut themselves ttp 
in cloisters, and spent their lives in prayers and penances. Eccle- 
siastics were employed in all the departments of secular govern- 
ment ; and they alone conducted all public measures and state 
negotiations, which of course they directed to the great objects of 
advancing the interests of the church, and establishing the para- 
mount authority of the holy see. 

4. At this period, however, Avhen the popedom seemed to have 
attained its highest ascendancy, it suffered a severe wound in that 
remarkable schism which separated the patriarchates of Rome 
and Constantinople, or the Greek and Latin churches. The Ro- 
man pontiff had hitherto claimed the right of nominating the pa- 
triarch of Constantinople. The emperor Michael IIL denied this 
right, and deposing the pope''s patriarch, Ignatius, appointed the 
celebrated Photius in his stead. Pope Nicholas L resented this 
affront with a high spirit, and deposed and excommunicated Pho- 
tius, A. D. 863, who, in bis turn, pronounced a similar sentence 
against the pope. The church was divided, each patriarch being' 
supported by many bishops and their dependent clergy. The 
Greek and Latin bishops had long differed in many points of prac- 
tice and discipline, as the celibacy of the clergy, the shaving of 
their beards, &c. ; l3ut in reality the prime source of division was 
the ambition of the rival pontiffs, and the jealousy of the Greek 
emperors, unwilling to admit the control of Rome, and obstinately 
asserting every prerogative which they conceived to be annexed 
to the capital of the Roman empire. As neither party would yield 
in its pretensions, the division of the Greek and Latin churches 
became from this time permanent. 

5. Amid those ambitious contests for ecclesiastical power and 
pre-eminence, the christian religion itself was disgraced, both by 
the practice and by the principles of its teachers. Vi orldly ambi- 
tion, gross voluptuousness, and grosser ignorance, characterized 
all ranks of the clergy ; and the open sale of benefices placed 
them often in the hands of the basest and most profligate of men. 
Yet the character of Photius forms an illustrious exception. 
Though bred a statesman and a soldier, and in both these respects 
•f great reputation, he attained, by his singular abilities, learn- 
ing, and worth, the highest dignity cf t?ie church. His Bihlio-^ 
theca is a monument of the most various knowledge, erudition,, 
and critical judgment. 



MODERN HISTORY. 133 



SECTION X. 

OP THE SARACENS IN THE EIGHTH AND NINTH CENr. 
TURIES. 

1. In the beginning of the eighth century the Saracens sub- 
verted the monarchy of the Visigoths in Spain, and easily overran 
the country. They had lately founded in Africa the empire of 
Morocco, which was governed by Muza, viceroy of the caliph 
Valid Almanzor. Muza sent his general Tariph into Spahi, who^ 
in one memorable battle, fought A. D. 713, stripped the Gothic 
king Rodilgo of his crown and life. The conquerors, satisfied 
with the sovereignty of the country, left the vanquished Goths in 
possession of their property, laws, and religion. Abdallah the 
Moor married th§ widow of Rodrigo, and the two nations formed 
a perfect union. One small part of the rocky country of Asturia 
alone adhered to its christian prince, Pelagius, who maintained 
his little sovereignty, and transmitted it inviolate to his successors. 

2. The P.'Ioors pushed their conquests beyond the Pyrenees ; but 
division arising among their emirs, and civil wars ensuing, LeAvis 
h dabonnaire took advantage of the turbulent state of ihe coun- 
try, and invaded and seized Barcelona, The Moorish sovereignty 
in the north of Spain v/as weakened by throwing off its depeJi-- 
dence on the caliphs ; n.nd in this juncture the christian sovereign- 
ty of the Asturia?, under Alphonso the chaste, began to make vig- 
orous encroachments on the territory of the Moors. Navarre and. 
Arragon, roused by this example, chose each a christian king, and 
feoldly asserted their liberty and independence. 

3. While the Moors of Spain were thus losing ground in the 
north, they were highly flourishing in the southern parts of the 
kingdom. Abdalrah;nan, the last heir of the family of the Ommi- 
ades (the Abassidae now enjoying the caliphate), was recognized 
as the true representative of the ancient line by the southern 
Moors. He fixed the seat of his government at Cordova, which, 
for tv/o centuries from that time, v/as the capital of a splendid 
monarchy. This period, from the middle of the eighth to the 
middle of the tenth century, is the most brilliant cera of Arabiaa 
magnificence. Whilst Haroun Alraschid made Ragdat illustrious 
by the splendour of the arts and sciences, the Moors of Cordova 
vied with their brethren of Asia in the same honourable pursuits, 
and were undoubtedly at this period the most enlightened of the 
states of Europe. Under a series of able princes they gained the 
highest reputation, both in arts and arms, of all the nations of the 
v/est. 

4. The Saracens were at this time extending their conquests in 
almost every quarter of the world. The Mahometan religion was 
professed over a great pa,rt of India, and all along the eastern and 
Mediterranean c- ast of Africa. The African Saracens invaded 
Sicily, and projected the conquest of Italy. They actually laid 
§ie§;e t« R»iue, v/hiph v/s«s nobty defended by pope Leo IV, The^.- 



"ioo MODEtlN Hi STORY. 

were reioulsed, their ships v/ere dispersed by a storm, and their 
arrny T/as cut to pieces, A. D. 848. 

C. The Saracens might have raised cm immense empire, if they 
iir d -. -knowiedged ccihv' or;C head; but their states were always 
c:'.;:; .tod. Eg-ypt, Morocco, Spain, India, had ail their separate 
sover. igrns, v/ho cov>tiiir;ed to respect the caliph of Kagdat as the 
succoisor of the prophet, but acknowledged no temporal siibjec- 
ik-'A i) his s-oTernnient. 



SECTIONS XL 

i:^T = -mE OF THE WEST AND ITALY IN THE TENTH AND 
ELEVENTH CENTURIES. 

i. The e)npi*e founded by Charlemagne now subsisted only in 
'T'C-.-c c, Arnold, a bastard son of Cavloman, possessed Gcrmau}-. 
I'.alv v/as divided between Guy duke of Spolotto and Bereng-arius 
d-.! le of Priuli, who had received these duchies from Charles the 
bald. France, thou.?^h claimed by Arnold, was governed by Eu- 
(u:^. Thus the empire in reality consisted only of a part of G'er- 
t;i;,riy, while France, Spain, Italy, Burg-uudy, and the countries 
between the Macs and Rhine, were all subject to different poTrers. 
The ernperors^were at this time elected by the bishops and g-ran- 
dces all of A%hom claimed aT voice. In this manner Lewis the 
«oti of Arnold, the last of tlic blood of Charlemagne, was chosen 
emperor after the death of his father. On his demise Otho duke 
el' Saxony, by his credit with his brother grandees, conferred the 
empire on Conrad duke of iiauconia, at whose death Henry sur- 
narlied the fowler, son of the same duke Otho, was elected empe- 
K.r.A. D. 918. 

2. Henry L (the fovvder), a prince of great abiiities, introduced 
order and good government into the empire. He united the gran- 
dees, and curbed their usurpations ; built, embellished, and forti-. 
fled the cities ; and enforced with great rigour the execution of 
the laws in the repression of all enormities. He had been conse- 
crated bv his own bishops, and maintained no corresponde.-ice- 
v/ith the'^see of Rome. 

3. His son Otho (the great), A. D. 933, again united Italy to 
the empire, and kept the popedom in complete subjection. . He 
inade Denmark tributary to the imperial crown, annexed the crown 
of Bohemia to his own doraiuions, and seemed to aiin at a para- 
ciount authority over all the sovereigns of Europe. 

4. Otho ou^ed his ascendancy in Italy to the dhov.^-^'-^ of the pa- 
pacy. Formosus, twice excommunicated by pope Joh.u VL'I, had 
arrived at the triple crown. On hi.:, 'lea+h hi- rival, pope Ste],hc.n 
VII caused his body to be dug out of i; e grave, and, after trial 
for his crimes, condemned it .to be flung into the Tiber. Ihe 
friends of lormosus had interest to procure the deposition of Ste* 
phfn,'who was strangled in pri:^o:i. I'hey sought and fou.nd his 
body, axid buried iR A surc-e:::ng pop^, Sergms Hi, a^am d.-s 
un this iil-falod carcase, a^.d thiew it into the 'iiper. Iwo iifii^n 



-MODERN HISTORY. 13? 

-tn»\is Vomen, Marozla and Theodora, manasjed for many years 
the popedom, and filled the chair of St. Peter with their own g:al- 
lants, or their adulterous ofFsprinor. Such was the state of the- 
holy see, when Beren2:arius duke of Priuli disputed the sovereign- 
ty of Italy Avith Ilug^h of Aries. The Italian states and pope 
John X!l, who took part against Berengarius, in%'ited Otho to 
compose the disorders of the country. He entered Italy, defeat- 
ed Berengarins, and was consecrated emperor by the pope, with 
the titles. of Caesar and Augustus ; in return for which honours lie 
Gonfirmed the donations made to the holy see by his predecessors, 
Fepin, Cliavlemagne, and Lewis the debonnaire, A. D. 962. 

5. But John XII. was false to his nev^ ally. He made his peace 
with Berengarius, and both turned their arms against the emperor, 
Otho flew back to Rome, and revenged himself by the trial and 
deposition of the pope ; but he had scarcely left the city, whea 
John, by the aid of his party, displaced his rival Leo VIII. Otho 
once mo)-e returned, and took exemplary vengeance on his ene- 
mies, by hanging one half of the senate. Calling together th« 
lateran council, he created a new pope, and obtained from the 
assembled bishops a solemn acknowledgment of the absolute right 
t>f the emperor to elect to the papacy, to give the investiture of 
the crown of Italy, and to nominate to all vacant bishoprics ; con- 
cessions observed no longer than while the emperor was p,r€!pent 
to enforce them. 

6. Such was the state of Rome and Italy under Otho the great^ 
e.nd it continued to be much the same under his successors for a 
century. The emperors asserted their sovereignty over Italy an-d 
the popedom, though with a constant resistance on the part of the 
Ramans, and a general repugnance of the pope, when once estab- 
lished. In those ages of ecclesiastical profligacy it was not unu- 
sual to put up the popedom to sale. Benedict VIII. and John 
XIX, two brothers, publicly bought the chair of St. Peter, one 
after the other ; and, to keep it in their family, it was purchased 
afterwards by their friends for Benedict IX, a child of tweh^e 
years of age. Three popes, each pretending regular election and 
equal right, agreed first to divide the revenues between them, ra*^ 
afterwards sold all their shares to a fourth. 

7. The emperor Henry III, a prince of great ,Ebllity, strenuously 
vindicated his right to supply the pontiflcal chair, and created 
three successive popes without opposition. 



SECTION XII. 

HISTORY OF BRITAIN FROM ITS EARLIEST ITRIG© 
DOWN TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 

1. The history of Britain has been postponed to this time, th^-t 
it may be considered in one connected view from its earliest peri? 
•ed to the end of the Anglo-SaxoB government. 

We strive not to pierce through that jni-st of obscurity -^iob 



133 



MODERN HISTORY. 



veils the original population of the British isles ; remarking^ ^^^7^ 
as a ma.tter of high probability, that they derived their first inha- 
bitants from the Ccltrfi of Gaul. Their authentic history com- 
mences Vvith the first Roman iiivasion ; and we learn from Caesar 
and Tacitus, that the country was at that period in a state very 
remote from barbarism. It xvas divided into a number of small 
independent sovereignties, each prince having a regular army and 
A fixed revenue. The manners, language, and religion of the 
pe(.>ple, were the same as those of the Gallic Celtjs. The religion 
^^^as the druidical system, v/hose influence pervaded -overy depart- 
ment of the government, and, by its pov/er over the minds of the 
people, supplied the imperfection of laws. 

2. Julius Caisar, after the conquest of Gaul, turned his eyes 
towards Britain. He landed on the southern coast of the island, 
55 A. C. ; and meeting v/ith most obstinate resistance, though 
on the whole gaining some advantage, he found himself obliged, 
after a short campaign, to withdraw for the winter into Gaul. He 
returned in the following summer with a great increase of force, 
an army of 20,000 foot, a competent body of horse, and a fleet of 
800 sail. The independent chiefs of the Britons united their 
forces under Cassibelanus king of the Trinobantes, and encoun- 
tering the legions with great resolution, displayed all the ability of 
practised warriors. But the contest was vain. Cassar adran-^ 
ced into the co-jniry, burnt Verulamiam, the capital of Cassi*- 
belanus, and, after forcing the Britons into articles of submission.^ 
returned to Gaul. 

3. Ihe domestic Jisordevs of Italy gave tranquillity to the 
Britons for near a century; but, in the reign of C^laudius, the 
»i;onquest of the i?l8.ad was determined. The emperor landed in 
Britain and compelled the subniission of the fouth-eastern provinc* 
es. Ostorius ScajHila defeated Caractacus, who was sefit prisoner 
to Rome. Suetonius Faulinus, the general of Nero, destroyed 
Mona (Anglesey, or as others think, Man), the centre of the druid- 
ical suj erstition. The Iccni (inhabitants of Norfolk and Suffolk), 
vUiikr their queen Boadicea, attacked several of the Roman st t- 
tkments. London, with its Roman garrison, was burnt to ashes. 
But a decisive battle ensued, in which 00,000 of the Britons fell 
in the field, A. D. 61. Thirty years after, in the reign of Titus, 
the reduction of the island Avas completed by the Roman gener- 
al. Julius Agricoia. lie secured the Roman province against in- 
vasion from the Caledonians, by walls and garrisons ; and recon- 
ciled the southern inhabitants to the government of their conquer- 
ors, by the introduction of Roman arts and improvements. Under 
Severus tlio Roman province was extended far into the north of 
Scotland. 

4. With the decline of the Roman power in the west, the 
southern Britons recovered their liberty, but it was only to become 
the object of incessant predatory invasion froin their brethren of 
tlie north. The Romans, after rebuilding the wall of Severus, fi- 
nally bid adieu to Britain, A. D. 448. The Picts and Caledoni- 
ans now broke down upon the so jth, ravaging and desolating the 
country, without a purpose ol cou(iuest, aatl weieij, as it appears^ 



;»IOL)ERN HISTORY. 139 

ibv the supply oi" their temporary wants. After repeated applica- 
tion for aid froai Rome without success, the Briljns meanly soli- 
cited the Saxons for succour and protection. 

5. The Saxons received the embassy with jj;reat satisfaction^ 
Britain had been long known to them in their piratical voyages to 
its coasts. They lauded to the amount of IGOO, under the com- 
mand of Hengist and Horsa, A. D. 450 ; and joining the South 
Britons, soon, compelled the Scots to retire to their mountains > 
They next turned their thoughts to the entire reduction of the Brit- 
ons, and received large reinforcements of their countrymen. Al- 
ter an obstinate contest of nsar 150 years they reduced the whole 
of England under the Saxon government. Seven distinct proyv 
iuces became as many independent kingdoms. 

6. The history of the Saxon heptarchy is uninteresting, from its 
obscurity and confusion. It is suiiicient to mark the duration of 
the several kingdoms, till theii" union under Egbert. Kent began 
in 455, and lasted, under seventeen princes, till 827, when it was 
subdued by the West Saxons. Under Ethelbert, one of 'its kings, 
the Saxons were converted to Christianity by the monk Augustine. 
Northumberland began in 597, and lasted, under twenty-three 
kings, till 792. East Anglia began in 575, and ended in 793. 
Mercia subsisted from 582 to 827. Essex had fourteen princes, 
from 527 to 747. Sussex had five kings before its reduction under 
the dominion of the West Saxons, about 600. Wessex (the couii* 
Iry of the West Saxons) began in 519, and had not subsisted a- 
bove eighty years, when Cadwalla, king of Wessex, conquered 
Sussex, and annexed it to his dominions. As there was no fixed 
rule of succession, it was the policy of the Saxon princes to put to 
death all the rivals of their intended successor. From this cause^ 
and from the passion for celibacy, the royal families were nearly 
extinguished in the kingdoms of the heptarchy ; and Egbert, 
prince of the West Saxons, remained the sole surviving descendant 
of the Saxon conquerors of Britain. This circumstance, so favor- 
able to his ambition, promjj'ed him to attempt the conquest of the 
heptarchy ; and he succeeded in the enterprize. By his victori- 
o'.is arms and judicious policy all the separate states were unittd 
into one great kingdom, A. D. 827, near 400 years after the firit 
ari'ival of the Saxons in Britain. 

7. England, thus united, was far from enjoying tranquillity* 
The piratical Normans or Danes had for fifty years desolated her" 
coasts, and coniinued, for some centuries after this period, to be a 
pei-petual scourg/ to the country. Under Alfred (the great), 
grandson of Egbert, the kingdom was from this cause reduced to 
extreme wretchedness. The heroic Alfred in one year defeated 
the Danes in eight battles ; but a new irruption of their country- 
men forced him to solicit a peace, which these pirates constantly 
interrupted by new hostilities, Alfred was compelled to seek his 
safety for many months in an obscure quarter of the country, till 
the disorders of the Danish army offered a fair opportunity of at- 
tacking them, which he impioved to the entire defeat of his ene- 
mies. He might have destroyed them ail, but chose rather to 
spai-e and to 'mcov^ov^ta tiiinn y^ith iiia English sub/ects, Tui's 



140 Mojffilijs^ ms-fOfY. 

olemency did not restrain their countrymen from atteiQipiJhg a 
new invasion, liipy were again defeated with immense loss ; and 
the extreme severity which it was necessary to exercise against 
the vanquished, had the effect of suspending the Danish depreda- 
tions for several years. 

8. Alfred, whether considered in his public or private charf\cter, 
deserves to be reckoned among the be^t and <?reatest of princes. 
He united the most enterprizing and heroic spirit with consummate 
prudence and moderation, the utmost vigour of authority vv^ith the 
most engaging gentleness of manner, the most exemplary justice 
with the greatest lenity, the talents of the statesman and the man 
ef letters with the intrepid resolution and conduct of the general. 
He found the kingdom in the most miserable condition to which 
anarchy, domestic barbarism, and foreign hostility, could reduce 
it : he brought it to a pitch of eminence surpassing, in many res- 
pects, the situation of -its cotemporary nations. 

9. Alfred divided England into counties, with their subdivisions 
of hundreds and tithings. The tithing or decennary consisted of 
ten families, over which presided a tiihing-mar. or bovg-holder ; 
and ten of these composed the hundred. Every house-holder was 
answerable for his family, and the tithing-man for all within hia 
tithing. In the decision of dif\ rences the tithing-mian had the as- 
sistance of the rest of his decennary. An appeal lay from the de- 
cennary to the court of the hundred, which was assembled every 
four weeks ; and the cause was tried by a jury of twelve free- 
holders, sworn to do impartial justice. An armual meeting of the 
hundred was held for the regulation of the police of the district. 
The county-court, superior to that of the hundred, and consisting 
of all the freeholders, met tAvice a year, after Michaelmas and 
Easter, to determine appeals from the hundreds, and settle disputes 
Ibetween the inhabitants of different hundreds. The ultimate ap" 
peal from all these courts lay to the king in council ; and the fre- 
quency of these appeals prompted Alfred to extreme circumsi^ec- 
"lion in the appointment of his judges. He composed for the regu- 
lation of these courts, and of his kingdom, a body of laws, the ba^ 
sis of the common law of England. 

10. Alfred gave every encouragement to the cultivation of let^ 
fer?, as the best means of eradicating barbarism. He invited, 
from every quarter of Europe, the learjied to reside in his domin- 
ions, established schools, and is said to -have founded the university 
of Oxford. He was himself a most accomplished iEcholar for the 
age in which he lived, as appears from the works which he com- 
posed : poetical apologues, the translation of the histories of Be- 
de and Orosius; and of Boethius on the consolation of philosophy. 
In every view of his character we must regard Alfred the great a« 
-one of the best and wisest men that ever occupied the regal seat. 
He died at the age of fifty-three, A. D. 901, after a gloricus reign of 
twenty-nine years and a half. 

11. The admirable institutions of Alfred were partially and 
feebly enforced under his successors ; and England, still a prey t& 
the ravages of the Danes and intestine disorder, relapsed intp 
'soai'tisioa mi^^ foarbarism. Tk^ re|sKts cvf Edward th^ elder,, ti»e 



MaDERN HISTORY. 141 

."oii of Aln-ed, aiid of his succcpsors, Alhdstan, Edmund, and Ed- 
red, vere tainaltuous and anarchical. Tiie clergy began to ex- 
tend their aulhorlty over the throne, and a series of succeeding 
priuc-'s v/ere (he obseq>iious slaves of their tyranny and ambition. 
In' the r •;.,.; i-f Eihelred, A. D. 901, the Danes seriously projected 
the c _, : . ■. : of En2,]and ; and led by Swcyn king of Denmark, 
and cf i\'.\ -^ i;, made a more formidable descent, won 

sevr; :i,t u; :il s, and were restrained from the destruc- 

tion 01 London only l;y a dastardly sub;nissioa, and a promise of 
tribute to be paid by the inglorious Eihelred. The English no- 
bility v/ere ashamed of their prince, and, seeing no other relief to 
the kingdom, made a t.^u lep of the crown to the Danish monarch. 
On the death of Sweyn, Ethelred atiCinpled to regain his king-- 
dom, but found in Can.ile, the son of Sv/eyn, a prince determined 
to support his claims. On the death of Ethelred his son Edmund 
Ironside gallantly but ineii^:;ctualiy opposed Canute. At length 
a partition of the kivigdom was made between Canute and Ed- 
mund, wh:';a, after a :ew jnonths, the Danes annulled by the 
murder of E j.n.i'W, liius secwrin;^ to their monarch Canute the 
throne of ail Engi?;ad, A. 1>. 10J7. Edmund left two children, 
Edgar Atholing, and Margaret, afterwards wife to i^Ialcolm Cau- 
m^re, king '--' sr,->- lorvi. 

1?. €■-■■ ,: :;n^'eiTul ^nonarch of his time, sovereign 

of Denn;:;.; ■_ ^ Linglaa',!. swayed, for seventeen years, 

the sceplr- -r ;.!);:<;tu I vith a firm aid vigorous hand. He was 

sever? in tn ; b::iu m.g o:" his reign, while his government was in- 

■-e. . :\,' • bu: rnild aa_d equiiable v,'hen possessed of a settled do- 

ru i: -. He left, A. D. iOdrJ, three sons, Sweyn, who was crown- 

■ f Norway, Harold!, vriio succeeded to the throne of Eng- 

iicu-ui:.:\n;i{v', sovereign of Denmark. Harold, a raer- 

-^ ::, died in t:ij fo'.irui year of his reign, and was succeed* 

• : ,' iiardicau'ite, v^'ho, afcLU' a violent administration of two 

i:li_ i In ant oi (b:bo icli. The English seized this opportu- 

.::ii:/ vbi" ihv iKiuAi yoke, and conferred the crown on 

. .; }ou;.-: r ^-; 1 :k jb'ielred, rejecting the preicrable right 

oi i-.uga!' Atbeii u;-, lh._; son oi iMi;n;nid, who, unibrtunafely ibr 

his pretensions, V,' as, at this time abroad in Hungary. Edward, 

surnamed the conibssor, A. D. 1041, reigned weakiy and inglori- 

ously for twenty-tlve years, i'he rebellious attempts of Godwin, 

earl of Wesjex, aimed at noihbig less than a usurpation of the 

crow. J ; au 1 0.1 hi- d-Mib, Irs s.u i 'arcid, cherishing secretly the 

same \-iL- A^rf ofanbl.!-.!, b,t ! ^i ;i I Iress lo secure to his interest 

,a very tbrmidable I'-^-y '■- '-■■•-^ ki ig ion, Ehvard, to defeat thesi? 

Tiews beqaeauied i.\:'. crow.i to v^'biiaoi deke o;' iVor-nandy, a 

prince wjiose grea' abilities and personal prowess had rendered hi^ 

.Ea n-. illustr;o.!s over E-irope. 

13. Oa th.^ dea' h of Edwa-d the confesior, 1036, the usurper 
Harold took possession oi' rhe throne, which Ihe i:i.r;pid xVormaa 
<:i.-.r-.rmm<^d immediately to reclaim a-? his inncbaoe of ight. 
ilx iiade the most lormidable preparanuns, aided, in this age of ro- 
mantic eytcrpri^e, bv nany of cue .-jvereign princes, and a vast 
body of lae no biiii^y, iroia the di;Jereut coniineaiai Kju^-doms. A 



H^ MODERN HISTORY. 

Norwegian fleet of 300 sail entered the Hum'uer (a river on the 
t^astern coast of England). The troops were disembarked, and, 
after one successful engagement, were defeated by the English ar- 
my in the interest of Harold. William landed his army on the 
coast of Sussex, to the amount of 60,000 ; and the English, under 
Harold, flushed with their recent success, hastily advanced to 
meet him, being imprudently resolved to venture all on one decisive 
/ battle. The toto.! rout and discomfitvxre of the English army i*i 
y the field of Hasthigs, on the 14th day of October, 1066, and the 
' death of Harold, after some fruitless attempts of further resistance, 
put William duke of I\'oimandy in possession of the throne of 
England. 

SECTION XIII. 

<^F THE GOVEPvNMENT, LAWS, AND MANNERS OF THE 
ANGLO-SAXONS. 

1. The government, laws, and manners of the Anglo-Saxons 
have become a subject of inquiry to modern writers, as being sup- 
posed lohave had influence in the formation of the British constitu- 
tion. The government of the Saxons was the same as that of all 
the ancient Germanic nation?, and they naturally retained, in their 
new settlement in Britain, a policy similar to their accustomed 
usages. Their subordination v/as chiefly military, the king hav- 
ing no more authority than v/hat belonged to the general, or mili- 
tary leader. There was no strict rule of succession to the throne ; 
for though the king was generally chosen from the family of the 
last princG, yet the choice usually fell on the person of the best 
capacity for government, iasome instances the destination of the 
last sovereign regulated the choice. We know very little of the 
Mature of the Anglo-^ axon go'v'ernment, or of the distinct rights 
of the sovereign and people. 

2. One institution common to all the king(^onis of the heptarchy 
was the wittenagemot, or assembly of the wise men, whose consent 
was requisite for enacting laws, and ra.tifying the chief acts of 
pivisiic administration. The bishops and abbots formed a part of 
this assembly ; also the aldermen, or eavls, and governors of coun- 
ties. The wites, or wise men, are discriminated from the prelales 
and nobility, and have by some been supposed to hav<^ been the 
representatives of the commons. But Ave hear nothing of election 
or representation in those periods, and we must therefore presume 
ibat they were merely landholders, or mm of considerable estate, 
who, fr-'m ^b*:-!!' v/eight and consequence in the country, were ht id 
entitled, without a;y election, to take a share in the public delib- 
erations. 

3. The Anglo-Saxon g'overnment was extremely aristocratical ; 
the regal authority bein^ very limited, the rights of the people 
little known or regarded, ajad the nobility possessing^ much uncon- 
trolled and lawless rule over their dependents. The oflices of 
g<>vernment were hereditary in their families, and they command- 
ed the whole rjiUitajy force of Xh^lr rc'spectiye province?. So 



MODERN HISTORY. 143 

i-rict was the cUentela between these nobles and their vassals, that 
he murder of a vassal was cempensated by a fine paid to his 
ord. 

4. There were three ranks of the people, the nobles, the free, 
md the slaves. The nobles were either the king's thanes, who 
leld their lands directly from the sovereia^n, or less thanes, who 
leld lands from the former. One law of Athelstan declared, that 
I merchant who haJ made three voyag-es on his own account 
vas entitled to the dig^nity of thane ; another decreed the same 
ank to a ceorle, or husbandman, who was able to purchase five 
lides of land, and had a chapel, a kitchen, a hall, and a bell. 
Phe ceorles, or freemen of the lower rank, occupied the farms of 
he thanes, for which they paid rent ; and they were removable 
it the pleasure of th^nr lord. The slaves or villains were either 
;mployed in domestic puposes, or in cultivating the lands. A 
naster was fined for the murder of his slave ; and if he mutila.ted 
lim, the slave recovered his freedom. 

5. Under this aristocratical government there were some traces 
>f the ancient Germanic democracy. The courts of the decen- 
lary, the hundred, and the county, were a considerable restraint 
>n the power of the nobles. In the county-courts the freeholders 
net twice a-year to determine appeals by the majority of suffrages. 
Fhe alderman presided in those courts, but had no vote : he re- 
ceived a third of the fines, the remaining two-thirds devolving to 
:he king, which was a great part of the royal revenue. Pecun- 
ary fines were the ordinary atonement for every species of crime, 
«.nd the modes of proof were the ordeal by fire or water, or by 
lompurgators. (Part II, Sect. V, i 7.) 

6. As to the military force, the expense of defending the state 
ay equally on all the land, every five hides or ploughs being tax- 
•d to furnish a soldier. There were 243,600 hides in England, 
lODsequently the ordinary military force consisted of 48,720 men. 

7. The king's revenue, besides the fines imposed by the courts, 
lonsisted partly of his demesnes or property-lands, which were 
BXtensive, and partly in imposts on boroughs and sea-ports. The 
Danegelt was a tax imposed by the states, either for payment of 
tribute exacted by the Danes, or for defending the kingdom 
(Lgainst them. By the custom of gavelkind, the land was divided 
equally among all the male children of the deceased proprietor. 
Book-land was that which was held by charter, and folk-land 
what was held by tenants removable at pleasure. 

8. The Anglo-Saxons were bf hind the Normans in every point 
pf civilization ; and the conquest was therefore to them a real 
advantage, as it led to material impr©vement in arts, science, 
government, aad laws. 



144 MODERN HISTORY 



SECTION xiy. 

STATE OF EUROPE DURING THE TENTH, ELEVENTH, 
AND TWELFTH CENTURIES. 

1. France, from the extent and splendour of its dominion un- 
der Charlemagne, had dAvindled to a shadow under his -weak pos- 
terity. At the end of the Carlovingian period France compre- 
hended neither Normandy, Danphine, nor ProveriCe. On the 
death of Lewis V. (Faineant), tlic crown ought to have devolved 
on his uncle, Charles of Brabant, as the last male oi ";i;e race of 
Charlemagne; but Hugh Capet, h rd of Picardy and Cl.rmpagne, 
the most powerful of the French n.-bles, was elected sovereign by 
the voice of his brother peers, ^. 1j. 907. The kingdcni, torn by 
parties, suffered much domestic misery under the r^igu cf Hugh, 
and that of his successor Pcobert ; the victim of papal tyranny, for 
daring to marry a distant cousin without the dispensation of the 
church. 

2. The prevailing passion of the times was pilgrimage and chi- 
ralroits enterpri/e. In this cart er of adventure the Normans most 
remarkably distinguished thciiiselves. In 983 they relieved the 
prince of Salerno, by expelling the Saracens from Lis territory. 
They did a similar service to pope FJenedict VIII, and the duke of 
Capua ; while another band of their countrymen fought first 
against the Greeks, and afterwards against the popes, alv. ays sell- 
ing their services to those who best rewarded them. William 
Fierabras, and his brothers, Humphrey, Robert, and Richard, 
kept the pope a prisoner for a year at Benevento, and forc&d the 
court of Rome to yield Capua to Richard, and Apulia and Cala- 
bria to Robert, with the investiture of Sicily, if he should gain the 
country from the Saracens. In 1101 Rogero the Norman comple- 
ted the conquest of Sicily, of which the popes continued to be the 
lords paramount. 

3. The north of Europe was in those periods extremely barba- 
■rous. Russia received the christian religion in the eighth cen- 
tury. Sweden, after its conversion in the ninth century, relapsed 
into idolatry, as did Hungary and Bohemia. The Coustantino- 
politan empire defended its frontiers with difficulty against the 
Bulgarians on the west, and against the Turks and Arabians on 
the east and north. 

4. In Italy, excepting the territory of the popedom, the princi- 
palities of the independent nobles, and the states of Venice and 
Genoa, the greater part of the country was now in the possession 
of the Normans. Venice and Genoa were rising gradually to 
great opulence from commerce. Venice was for seme ages tribu- 
tary to the emperors of Germany. In the tenth century its doge 
assumed the title of duke of Lalmatia, of which the republic had 
acquired the property by conquest, as well as of Istria, Spalatro, 
Ragusa, and Narenza. 

5. Spain was chiefly possessed by the Moors ; the christians 
retainu'g only about a fourth of the kingdom, namely, Asturia. 



MOJDEFtN HISTORY. 145 

jiart of CastKe and Catalonia, Navarre, and Arra^on. Portug*al 
was likewise occupied by the Moors. Their capital was Cordo- 
va, the seat of luxury and magnificence. In the tenth century 
the Moorish dominions were split among- a number of petty sove- 
reigns, who were constantly at war with one another. Such, un- 
fortunately, was likewise the situation of the christian part of the 
kingdom ; and it was no uncommon policy for the cVn'istian prin- 
ces to form alliances with the Moors against one another. Be- 
sides these the country abounded with independent lords, who 
made war their profession, and performed the otfice of champions 
in deciding the quarrels of princes, or enlisted themselves in ttieir 
service with all their vassals and attendants. Of these, termed 
cavalleTGs andantes^ or knights-errant, the most distinguished was 
Rodrigo the cid, who undertook for his sovereign, Alphonso king 
t.f Old Castile, to conquer the kingdom of New Castile, and 
achieved it M'ith success, obtaining the governHjent of Valencia 
as the reward of his services. 

G. The contentions between the imperial and papal powers 
make a. distinguished figure in those ages. Kenry 111. vindicated 
the imperial right to fill the chair of St. Peter, and nominated 
three suecessive popes, without the intervention of a council of 
the church. Bwt in the minority of his son Henry IV. this right 
was frequently interrupted, and Alexander II. kept his seat, 
though the emperor named another in his place. It was the lot 
of this emperor to experience the utmost extent of papal inso- 
lence and tyranny. After a spirited contest with Gregory VII, in 
which the pope v/as twice his prisoner, and the emperor as often 
excommunicated and deposed, Henry fell at length the victim of 
ecclesiastical vengeance. Urban II, a successor of Gregory, 
prompted the two sons of Henry to rebel againsi their father ; and 
his misfortunes were terminated by imprisonment and death in 
HOG. The same contests went on under a succession of popes 
and emperors, but ended commenly in favour of the former. Fred- 
erick I. (Barbarossa), a prince of high spirit, after an indignant de- 
nial of the supremacy of Alexander III, and a refusal of the cus- 
tomary homage, was at length coKipelled to kiss his feet, and ap- 
pease his holiness by a large cession of territory. Pope Celesti- 
nus kicked off the imperial crown of Henry VI, while doing ho- 
mage on his knees, but made amends for this insolence by the gift 
of Naples and Sicily, from v/hich Henry had expelled the Nor- 
mans. These territories now became an appanage of the empire, 
11^4. The succeeding popes rose on the pretensions of their pre- 
decessors, till at length Innocent III, in the beginning of the thir- 
teenth century, established the power of the popedom on a settled 
basis, aud outained a positive acknowledgment of the papal su- 
premasy, or the right principalcter et finalittr {principally and 
finally) to confer the imperial crown. It was the same pope In- 
nocent whom we shall presently see the disposer of the crown of 
England in the reign of the tyrant John. 

13 



146 MODERN .mSTOIlY. 



SECTION XV. 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN THE ELEVENTH, TWELFTH. 
AND PART OF TPIE THIRTEENTH CENTURIES. 

1. The consequence of the bo.ttle of Hastings was the submis- 
sion of all England to William the conqueror. The character of 
this ]3rince was spirited, ha'ighty, and tyrannical, yet not wiihnut 
a portion of the generous affections. He disgusted his English 
subjects by the strong partiality which he showed ^o his Norjuan 
followers, preferring them to all offices of trust a-jd dig-nity. A 
conspiracy arose from these discontents, which William defeated, 
and avenged wilh signal rigour and cruelty. Be determined 
henceforward to treat the English as a conquered people, a policy 
that involved his reign i-i perpetual commotions, which, while 
they robbed him of all peace oi mind, aggravated the t}ranny of 
his disposition. To his own children he owed the severest of hi» 
troubles. Lis eldest son Robert rose in rebellion, to wrest from 
him the sovereignty of ]\ aire ; and his foreign si.Vjects took part 
with the rebel. A' illiam ltd ag^ainst th^m an army of the Eng;- 
lisb, and was on the point cf perishing- in fight by his son's hand. 
Philip L of France had aided this rebellion, which was avf>ng'( d 
hy William, who carried havoc and devastation into the heart of 
his kingdom, but was killed in the enterprize by a fall from his 
horse, 1087. He bequeathed England to TVilliam his second son ; 
to Robert he left Normandy ; and to Henry, his youngest son, the 
property of his mother Matilda. 

2. "V\ illiam the conqueror introduced into England the feudal 
law, dividing- the whole kingdom, except the royal demesnes, into 
baronies, and bestowing: the most of these, under the tenure of 
miiitaiy service, on his Norman followers. Ey the forest laws he 
reserved to himself the exclusive privilege of killing game ©ver 
all the kingdom ; a restriction resented by his subjects above eve- 
ry other mark of servitude. Preparatory to the introduction of 
the feudal tenures, he planned and accomplished a general sur- 
vey of all the lands in the kingdom, with a distinct specification 
of their extent, nature, value, names of their proprietors, and an 
enumeration of every class of inhabitants who lived on them. 
This most valuable record, called Doomsday-book, is preserved ia 
the English exchequer, and is now printed. 

3. William IL (Rufus) inherited the vices, without any of the 
virtues, of his father. His reign is distinguished by no event of 
importance, and, after the defeat of one conspiracy in its outset, 
presents nothing but a dull career of unresisted despotism. After 
a reign of thirteen years he was killed when hunting by the ran- 
dom shot of an arrow, 1100. Ihs crown of England would have 
devolved on his elder brother Ftobert ; but his absence on a cru- 
sade in Palestine made way ior the unopposed succession of hi3 
younger brother TIenry, who, by his marriage v.ilh T/Jatilda, the 
nfece of Edgar Atheling, united the last remnant of the Saxon 
wilh the Norman line. Vv ith most criminal ambition he now in- 



MODERN "HISTORY. 147 

-raded his brother^s doiiiinions of Normandy ; and Roherf, on his 
return, was defeated in battle, and detained tor life a prisoner ia 
Eng-land. The crimes of Henry were expiated by his misfortunts. 
His only son was drowned in his passage from Nor;nandj. His 
daughter Matilda, married first to the emperor Henry V, and af- 
terwards to Geoffrey Flantag-onet of Anjon, was destined to be his 
successor; bnt the popularity of his nephew Stephen, son of the 
count of Blois, defeated those intentions. Henry I. died in Nor- 
mandy, after a reig;n of thirty-five years, A. D. 1135; and, in 
?pite of his destination to Matilda, Stephen seized the vacant 
throne. The party of Matilda, headed by her natural brother, 
the earl of Gloucester, engaged, defeated, and made Stephen pri- 
soner. Matilda in her turn mounted the throne ; but, unpopular 
from the tyranny of her disposition, she was sok*,nily deposed by 
the prevailing party of her rival ; and Stephen was once more re- 
stored. He found, however, in Henry Plantagenet, the son of Ma- 
tilda, a more foroiidabie competitor. Of a noble and intrepid 
spirit, he resolved, while yet a boy, to reclaim his hereditary 
crown ; and, landing ia England, won by his prowess, and the fa- 
vour of a just cause, a great part of the kingdom to his interest. 
By treaty wi'h Stephen, who was allo^ved to reign for life, he se- 
cored tlie succession at his death, which soon after ensued, 1154. 

4. Henry 11, a prince in every sense deserving of the throne, 
began hjs rei-2;n with the reformation of all the abuses of the gov- 
ernment of his predecessors ; revoking all impolitic grants, abol- 
ishing partial immunities, regulating the administration of justice, 
aocl establishing the freedom of the towns by charters, which are 
at this day the basis of the national liberty. Happy in the alfec- 
tions of his people, and powerful in the vast extent of additio)ial 
territory which he enjoyed on the continent in right of his father 
and of his wife, the heiress of a great portion of France, his reign 
had every promise of prosperity and happiness ; but from one fa- 
tal source these pleasing prospects were all destroyed. Thom?vS 
Becket was raised by Henry from obscurity to the office of chan- 
cellor of England. On the vacancy of the see of Canterbury the 
king, desirous of his aid in the correction of ecclesiastical abuses, 
conferred' the primacy on his favourite ; and the arrogant Becket 
availed himself of that authority to abase the prerogative of his 
sovereign, and exalt the spiritual power above the crown. It v/as 
disputed, whether a priest could be tried for a murder, and pun- 
ished by the civil court. It was determined in the affirmative by 
the council of Clarendon, against the opinion of liecket. Pope 
Alexander III. annulled the decree of the council ; and Becket, 
who took part with the pope, was deprived by Henry of all his 
dignities and estates. He avenged himself by the excommunica- 
tion of the king's ministers ; and Henry, in return, prohibited all 
intercourse with the see of Rome. At length both parties foXind 
it their interest to come to a good understanding. Becket was re- 
stored to favour, and reinstated in his primacy,when the increas- 
ing insolence of his demeanour drew from the king some hasty 
expressions of indignation, which his servants interpreted into a 
ap^tence of proscription, and, trusting that the deed would b§ 



148 MODERN HISTORY. 

grateful to their master, murdered the prelate while m the aet of 
celebrathig vespers at the altar. For this shocking action Kenry 
expressed the regret which he sincerely felt, and the pope indul- 
gently granted his pardon, on the assurance of his dutiful obedi- 
ence to the holy church. 

5. The most important event of the reign of Henry II. v,-as the 
\ conquest of Ireland. The Irish, an early civilized people, ajxl 

among the first of the nations of the west who embraced the chris- 
tian religion, were, by/requent invasions of the Danes, and their 
ewn domestic commotions, replunged into barbarism for many 
ages. In the twelfth century the kingdom consisted of five sepa- 
rate jovereiguties, Ulster, Leinster, Munster, Meath, and Con' 
naught; hiit these were subdivided among an infinite number oi 
petty chiefs, ovving a very weak allegiance to their respective 
sovereigns. Derm^ Macmorrogh, expelled from his kingdom of 
Leinster for a rape ou the daughter of the king of Meath, sought 
protection from Henry, and engaged to become his feudatory, if 
he should recover his kingdom by the aid of the English. Henry 
empowered his subjects to invade Ireland, and, while Strongbow 
earl of Pembroke avcd his followers were laying waste the country, 
landed in the ii.land in 1172, and received the submission of inany 
gf tlie independent chiefs. Roderick O'Connor, prince of Con- 
naught, whom the Irish elected nominal sovereign of all the pro- 
vinces, resisted for three years the arms of Henry, but finally ac- 
' knowledged his dominion by a solemn embassy t© the king at 
Windsor. The terms of the submission were, an annual tribute of 
every tenth hide of lajid, to be applied for the support of govern- 
*icnt, and an obligation of allegiance to the crown of England ; 
on which conditions the Irish should retain their possessions, and 
Roderick his kingdom ; except the territory of the Pale, or that 
part v/liich the English barons had subdued before the arrival of 
Mcnry. 

6. Henry divided Ireland into counties, appointed sherifis in 
each, and introduced the laws of England into the territory of th« 
Pale. The rest of the kingdom was regulated by their ancient 
laws, till the reign of Edward I, when, at the request of the na- 
tion, the English laws v^ere extended to the whole kingdom. la 
the first Irish parliament, which was held in the same reign, sir 
John Wogan presided as deputy of the sovereign. From that 
time there was little intersourse between the two kingdoms for 
some centuries ; nor was the island considered as fully subdued 
till the reign of Elizabeth and of her successor James h 

7. The latter part of the reign of Henry II. was clouded by do- 
mestic misfortunes. His children, Henry, Richard, Geoffrey, and 
John, instigated by their unnatural mother, rose in rebellion, and, 
with the aid of Louis VII, king of France, prepared t© dethrone 
their father. While opposing them with spirit on the continent, 
his kingdom was invaded by the Scots under William (the lion). 
lie hastened back to England, defeated the Scots, and made their 
king his prisoner. Two of his sons, Henry and Geoffrey, expi- 
ated their offences by an early death ; but Richard, once recon- 
ciled, was again seduced from his allegiance, and, in leag^ue with 



MODERN HISTORY. 149 

the kin^ of France, plundered his fathar^'s contiaental dominion?. 
The s])irit of Henry was unequal to his domestic Tiifefortune'S and 
he died of a broken heart in the 58th year of his a^s, 111!^, au 
ornaiient to the En,^lish throne, and a prince surpassing all his 
«oateinporaries in the valuable qualities of a sovereisrn. To him 
Eao-land owed her first permanent improvement in arts, in laws, 
in g-overn'nent, and in civil liberty. 

8. Richard I. (coaur de lion) immediately on his accession exa- 
bavl-rerl for the Holy Land, on a crusade ag'ainst the infidels, after 
plundering- his subjects ©f an immense sfira of money to defray 
the charges of the enterprize. Forming- a league with Philip Au- 
^s^ustas of France, the two monarchs joined their forces, and act- 
iiig^ for some time in concert, were successful in the takings of Acra 
or Ptolemais ; but Philip, jealous of his rivaPs g^lory, soon return- 
ed to France, while Richard had the honour of def'-^atint:: ihe he- 
roic Saladin in the battle of Ascalon, with prodigious slaug-hter ©f 
his enemies. He prepared now for the sie^e of Jerusalem ; but, 
•iinding- his army wasted with famine and fatig-ue, he was compel- 
led to end the war by a truce with tSaladin, in which he obtained 
a free passag-e to the Holy Land for every christian pil,^rim. 
Wrecked in his voya,^e homeward, and travelling- in disg-uise 
throu;^h Germany, Richard was seized, and detained in prison, by 
command of the emperor Hen"y VL The king: of I'rance uug-eii- 
eronsly opposed his release, as did his unnatural brother Johc, 
froai selfish ambition ; bnt he was at leng-th ransomed by his sub- 
jects for the sum of 150,000 mefks, and, after an absence of nine 
years, returned to his dominions. Mis traitorous brother was par- 
doned after some submission ; and Richard employed the short 
rc^id'ie of his rei,2:n in a spirit&d revenue against his rival Philip. 
A truce, however, was concluded by the mediation of Rome ; and 
Richard was soon after killed, while stormingf the castle of one of 
Lis rebellions vassals in the Lijnosin. He died in the tenth year 
of his reig-n, and forty-second of his age, 1199. 

9. John (lack-land) succeeded to the throne on the death of his 
brothor, but foxind a competitor in his nephew Arth-'r, the son of 
GeDlTrey, supported by Philip of France. War was of course re- 
newed with that country. Arthur, with fatal confidence, throw- 
ing himself into the hands of his uncle, was removed by poison or 
the sword : a deed which, joined to the kaown tyranny of hia 
character, rendered John the detestation of his subjects. He was 
stripped by Phili}) of hi5 continental dominions, and he made the 
pofio his enemy by an avaricious attack on the treasures of the 
c'larch. After an ineffectual menace of vengeance Innocent III. 
pr;>aounced a sentence of interdict against the kin«;dom, which 
put a stop to all the ordiaances of re'.ig-iou, to baptism, and the 
burial of the dead. He next exconrmunicated John, and absolved 
his subjects from their alleg-iance-; and he finally deposed him, and 
made a g-ift of the kingdom to Philip. John, intimidated into 
submission, declared himself the pope's va-svil, swore allegiance 
on his knees to the papal legate, and agreed to hold his k'ingdona 
.^libutpiiy to the holy see. On these conditions, which e^sured.tUe 



150 MODEEN HISTORY 

tiniversal hatred and contempt of his people, he made his peace 
with the church. It was natural that his subjects, thus trampled 
upon and sold, should rindicate their rights. The barons of the 
kingdom assembled, and, binding themselves by oath to a union 
of measures, resolutely demanded from the king a ratification of 
a charter of privileges granted by Henry I. John appealed to the 
pope, who, in support of his vassal, prohibited the confederacy of 
the barons as rebellious. The barons were only the more reso- 
lute in their purpose, and the sword was their last resource. At 
length John was compelled to yield to their demands, and signed 
at Runymede, on the 19th day of June, 1215, that solemn charter, 
which is the foundation and bulwark of English liberty, Magna 
Charta (Jhe great charter). 

10. By this great charter, 1, the freedom of election to benefi- 
ces was secured to the clergy ; 2, the fines to the overlord on the 
succession of vassals were regulated ; 3, no aids or subsidies were 
allowed to be levied from the subject, without the consent of the 
great council, unless in a few special cases ; 4, the crown shall not 
seize the lands of a baron for a debt, while he has personal pro- 
perty sufficient to discharge it ; 5, all the privileges granted by 
the king to his vassals shall be communicated by them to their 
inferior vassals •, 6, one weight and one measure shall bo used 
throughout the kingdom ; 7, all men shall pass ft'ora and return to 
the realm at their pleasure •, 8, all cities and boroughs shall pre- 
serve their ancient liberties ; 9, the estate of every freeman shall 
be regulated by his will, and, if he die intestate, by the law ; 10, 
the king's court shall be stationary, and open to all; 11, every 
freeman shall be fined only in proportion to his offence, and no 
fine shall be imposed to his utter ruin ; 12, no peasant shall, by a 
fine, be deprived of his instruments of husbandry ; 13, no person 
shall be tried on suspicion alone, but on the evidence of lawful 
witnesses ; 14, no person shall be tried or punished unless by the 
judgment of his peers and the law of the land. 

11. John granted at the sajne time the Charteb de Foresta (the 
charter conctrning forests)^ which abolished the royal privilege 
of killing game over all the kingdom, and restored to the lawful 
proprietors their woods and forests, which they were now allow- 
ed to enclose and use at their pleasure. As compulsion alone had 
extorted these concessions, John was determined to disregard them, 
and a foreign force was brought into the kingdom to reduce the 
fearons to submission. The barons applied for aid to P>ance, and 
Philip sent his son Lewis to England with an army ; and such was 
the people"'s hatred of their sovereign, that they sv/ore allegiance 
to this foreigner. At this critical period John died at Newark, in 
1216, and an instant change ensued. Bis son H'^nry III, a boy of 
aine years of age, was crowned at Bristol ; and his uncle, the earl 
of Pembroke, was appointed protector of the realm. The disafiect- 
ed barons returned to •their allegiance ; the people hailed their 
sovereign ; and Lewis with his army, after an ineffectual struggle, 
laade peace with tiie protector, and evacuated tixe lyn^doia. 



MODERN HISTORY. 151 



SECTION XVI. 

STATE OF GERMANY AND ITALY IN THE THIRTEENTH 

CENTURY. 

1. Frederick IT, son of Henry VI, was elected emperor on the 
resignation of Otho IV, in 1?12. At this period Naples, Sicily, 
and Lombardy, were all appanages of the empire ; and the con- 
tentious between the imperial and papal powers divided the states 
of Italy into factions, known by the name of Guelphs and Ghibel- 
lines ; the former maintaining the supremacy of the pope, the lat- 
ter that of the emperor. The opposition of Frederick to four suc- 
cessive popes was avenged by excommunication and deposition ; 
yet he kept possession of his throne, and vindicated his authority 
with great spirit. Frequent attempts were made against his life, 
by assassination and poison, which he openly attributed to papal 
resentment. On his death, in 1.'250, the splendour of the empire 
was for many years obscured. It was a prey to incessant factions 
and civil war, the fruit of contested claims of sovereignty. Yet 
the popes gained nothing by its disox'-ders, for the troubles of Italy 
were equally hostile to their ambition. We have seen the turbu- 
lent state of England. France was equally weak and anarchical ; 
and Spain was ravaged by the contests of the Moors and christianso 
Yet, distracted as appears the situation of Europe, one great pro- 
ject gave a species of anion to this discordant mass, of which we 
«©w proceed to give account. 



SECTION XVIL 

THE CRUSADES, OR HOLY WARS. 

1. The Turks or Turcomans, a race of Tartars frora the re- 
g-ions of Mount Taurus and Imaus, invaded the dominions of 
Moscovy in the eleventh century, and came down upon the banks 
of the Caspian. The caliphs employed Turkish mercenaries, and 
s.cquired the reputation of able soldiers in the wars that took 
place on occasion of the contested caliphate. The caliphs of 
Bagdat, the Abassidae, were deprived of Syria, Egypt, and Africa, 
by their rival caliphs of the race of Omar ; and the Turks strip- 
ped of their dominions both the Abassidae and Ommiades. Bag- 
dat was taken by the Turks, and the empire of the caliphs over- 
thrown in 1055 ; and these princes, from temporal monarchs, 
bacame now the supreme pontiffs of the Mahometan faith, as the 
popes of the christian. At the time of the first crusade, in the 
end of the eleventh century, Arabia was governed by a Turkish 
sultan, as were Persia and the greater portion of Lesser Asia. — 
The eastern empire was thus abridged of its Asiatic territory, 
and had lost a great part of its dominions in Europe. It retained, 
however, Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, and Illyria ; and Coh- 
fttantiaople itself was populgusj opiUentj ajad luxurious. Palestine 



\St MODERN HISTORY. 

"wa= In the possession of the Turks; and its capital Jerusalem, 
fallen from its ancici:r consequence and ?plei.rlour, was yet lirld 
in respect by its conquerors as a holy city, and constantly at- 
tracted the resort of Mahometans to the mosque of Oniar, as of 
christian pilg-tims to the sepulchre of our Saviour. 

2. Peter the hermit, a native of Amiens, on his return from 
this pilofrinia^e, complair-ed in loud terms of the grievances 
■which the christians sntTered from the Turks ; awl lirban II. 
pitched on this enthusiast as a lit person to commence the execu- 
tion of a grand desi«:n which the popes had lon°r entertained, of 
arnnng- all Christendom, and exterminating the infidels fron:; the 
Holy i avd. The project was opened in two general councils held 
at riaceitia and (Jlermoqt. The 1 rench possessed more ardour 
than the Italian^; and an immense multitude of ambitious and 
disorderly nobles, -with all their dependents, eager for enterprize 
and plunder, and assured of eternal salvation, immediately took 
the cross. Peter the hermit led 80,000 under his banners, and 
they began th?ir march towards the east in 1095. Their progres". 
was marked by rapine and hostility in every christian country 
through which tiiey passed ; and the army of the hermit, on its 
arriva;! at C onstantinople, was wasted down to 20,000. 'i he em- 
peror Alexius Ccmnenus, to whom the crusaders behaved with 
the most provoking insolence and folly, conducted himself with 
admirable moderation and good sense. He hastened to get rid 
of this disorderly multitude, by furnishing thera with every ai(i 
^vhich they required, and cheerfully lent his ships to transport 
them across the Bosphorus. The sultan Solymaa met them in 
the pi >n of INicea, and destroyed the array of the hermit. A 
new ho L in the mean time arrived at Constanlinople, led by more 
illustrious commanders ; by Godfre}'' of Bouillon duke of iira- 
feant, R.aymond count of Ihoulouse, Robert of Normandy, son of 
"W illiam king of England, Bohemond, son of B^obert Guiscard, 
the conqueror of -icily, and other princes of high'reputation. To 
the^e, who amounted to some hundred thousands, Alexius mani- 
fested the same prudent conduct, to accelerate their departure. 
The 'i'urks, overpowered by numbers, were twice defeated ; and 
the crusaders, pursuing their successes, penetrated at length to 
Jerusalem, which after a siege of six weeks, Ihey took by storm, 
and with savage I'lry -massacred the whole of its .>!aliometan and 
Jewisii inhabitants, A. D. 1099. Godfrey was hailed king of Je- 
rusalem, but was obliged soon after to cede his kingdom to the 
pope''s hgate. Ihe crusades divided Byria and I'alestine, and 
formed four separate states, which weakened their power. T'he 
Turks Icgau to recover strength ; and the christians of Asia soon 
found it necessary to solicit aid from F.urope. 

3. 7 he second crusade set out from the west in 1146, to the 
amount of 200,000 trench, Germans, and Italians, led by Hugh, 
brother of Philip L of }■ ranee, these met with the same fate 
•which attended the a.rn:y of^'eter the hermit. The garrison of 
Jerusalejn was at this lime so weak, that it became necessary to 
embody and ai'ni the monks lor its defence ; and hence ar-'Se ^he 
miiii^ry ot'dei's of the knis^hts templars aixd hosjiitaUers, and^QOsi 



MODERN HISTORY. 153 

after tbo Teutonic, from the German pilgfrims. Meantime pope 
Eugfaius HI. employed St. Bernard to preach a new crusade in 
France, which was headed by its sovereign Lewis VII. (the young-), 
who, in conjunction with Conrad HI, emperor of Germany, jnus- 
tered jointly 3-00,000 men. The Germans were extirpated by the 
sultan of Iconium ; the French were totally defeated near Laod- 
icea ; and the two monarchs, afier much disaster, returned with 
shame to their dominions. 

4. The illustrious Saladin, nephew of the sultan of Eg-ypt, 
forined the desigfn of recovering- Talestine from the christians ; 
and besieging- Jerusalem, he took the city, and made prisoner its 
sovereig-n, Guy of Luslgnan. Pope Clement lU, alarmed at the 
successes of the iafideis, began to stir up a new crusade from 
France, England, and Germany ; and the armies of each country- 
were headed by their respective sovereigns, Thilip August;is, 
Richard I, and Frederi^ck Barbarossa. In this third crusade the 
emperor Frederick died in Asia, and his army, by repeated de- 
feats, mouldered to nothing. The English ajid French were more 
»)iccessful : they besieged and took Poteiemais ; but Richard and 
Fhiiip quarrelled from jealousy of each other's glory, and the 
Fr^ench monarch returned in disgust to his country. Richard no- 
bly sustained the contest with Saladin, whom he defeated near Aa- 
calon ; but his army was reduced by famine and fatigue. He con^ 
rluded a treaty, at least not dishonourable, with his enemy, and 
was forced at length to escape from Palestine with a single ship. 
(.See Sect. XV, i 8.) Saladin, revered even by the christians, 
died in 1195. 

5. A fourth crusade was fitted out in 1202, under Ealdwin count 
•f Flanders, of wliich the olgect was not the extirpation of the 
infidels, but the destruction of the empire of the east. Censtan- 
tinople,embroiled by civil war and revolution from disputed claims 
to the sovereignly, was beseiged and taken by the crusaders ; and 
Baldwin, their chief, was elected emperor, to be within a few 
months dethroned and murdered. The imperial dominions were 
shared among the principal leaders ; and the Venetians, who had 
lent their ships for the expedition, got the isle of Candia (ancient- 
ly Crete) for their rev/ard. Alexias, of the imperial family of the 
Comneni, founded a new sovereignty in Asia, which he termed 
the empire of Trebi-^ond. The object of a fifth crusade was to 
lay waste Egypt, in revenge for an attack on Palestine by its sul- 
tan Saphadin. Partial success and ultimate ruin was the issue of 
this expedition, as ot all the preceding. 

1. At this period, 1227, a great revolution took place in Asia. 
Gengiskan wich his Tartai's broke down irom the north upon Per- 
sia and Syria, and massacred indiscriminately '1 urks, Jews, and 
Cliristians, who opposed them. The christian knights, templars, 
hospitallers, and ieutonic, made a desperate but ineffectual re- 
sistance ; and Palestine must have been abandoned to these in- 
vaders, if its fate had not been for a while retarded by the last 
crusade under Lewis IX. of France. Ihispriuct;, summoned by 
Heaven, as Vie believed, after four years' preparation, set out far 
the Holy- Land, with his queen, his three brothers, and all Uae 



154 MODERN HISTORY. 

knig-hts of France. His army be2;an their enterprize by an atlaclc 
on i;g-ypt, -where, after some considerable siiccesses, they were at 
length utterly defeated ; and the French monarch, with two of 
his brothers, fell into the hands of the enemy. He purchased his 
liberty at an immense ransom, and, returning- to France, reigned 
prosperously and -wisely for thirteen years. Bat the same phrenzy 
again assailing him, he embarked on a cr.-isade against the Moors 
in Africa, where he and his army were destroyed by a pestilence, 
1270. It is computed that, in the whole of the cri;sa^es to Ir'ales- 
tine, two millions of Europeans were buried in the cast. 

7. Effects of the crusades. One consequence of the holy wars 
is supposed to have been the improvement of European manners ; 
but the times immediately succeeding the crusades exhibit no 
such actual improvement. Two centuries of barbarism and dark- 
ness elapsed between the termination of those enterprizes and the 
fall of the Greek empire in 1453, the aera of the revival of let^^ers. 
and the commencement of civilization. A certain consequence oi 
the crusados was the change of territorial pa'operty in aU the feu- 
dal king;dom3, the fale of the estates of the nobles, and their divi- 
sion among a ijfimber of smaiier proprietors. Hence the feudal aiis- 
tocracy was weakened, and the lower classes began to acqinre 
Vv tight, and a spirit of independence. The towns hitherto bound 
by a sart of vassalage to the nobles, began to purchase their im- 
munity, acquired the right of electing their own magistrates, an<: 
•were governed by their own munioipal lav;s. The church ir; 
some respects gained, and in others lost by those enterprizes. The 
popes gained a more extended jurisdiction ; but the fatal issue 
of tliose expeditions opened the eyes of the world to the sel- 
fish and interested motives -vvhich had prom.pted them, and weak- 
ened the sway of superstition. Many of the religious orders acquir- 
ed an increase of wealth ; but this was balanced by the taxes im- 
posed on the clergy. 1 he coin was altered and debased in most o.' 
the kingdoms of ii^urope, from the scarcity ol specie. The Je-vvs 
■were supposed to have hoarded and concealed it, and hence they 
became the victims of general persecution. The most substantial 
gainers by the crusades were the Italian states of Genoa, Fisa, 
and Venice, from the incr.-ased trade to the Levant for the supply 
of those immense armies. Venice, as v/e have seen, took an act" 
feve concern, and obtained her .^^hare of the conquered territory. 

'J he age of the crusades brought chl/ahy to its perfection an* 
gave rise to romantic ficiion. 

^jee Kelt's Elements cf General Knowledge, vol. I. 



SECTION XVIII. 

OF CHIVALRY AND ROMANCE. 

1. Chivalry arose naturally from the condition of society in 
th se ages in which it pre\'aii(.d. ^ Among the Germanic nations the 
profe^v-ion oi arms was esteemed the sole employment that disserved 
tke aame of mauly or honorable. The initiation ®f the youth i» 



MODERN HISTORY. 155 

this profession was attended with peculiar solemnity and appropri- 
ate ceremonies. The chief of the trit)e bestowed the sword and 
armour on his vassal, as a sympol of their devotion to his service, 
[n (he progress of the feudal system these vas;;als, in imitation of 
their chief, assumed the power of conferring arms on their sub-vas- 
sals, v/ith a similar form of mysterious and pompous ceremonial. 
The can lid ate for knighihood underwent his preparatory fasts and 
vis,ils, and received on his knees the accoUade and benediction of 
his chief. Armed and caparisoned, he sallied forth in quest of ad- 
venture^ which, whether just or not in its purpose, was ever es- 
teemed honourable in proportion as it was perilous. 

2. The esteem of the female sex is characteristic of the Gothi« 
mamors. In those a^es of barbarism the castles of the greater 
baruis were the couits of sovereigns in miniature. 1'he society 
oftu'^ ladies, who found only in such fortresses a security from 
antra^fe, polished t""e manners ; and to protect the chastity a*d 
lionou'- of the fair, vv-as the best eairloy and the hia-host merit of 
ar a'';omr.lislud kni^•ht, ilomaiitic exploit therefore had always 
2, tincture of galla itry. 

It hath (.ceii tfn-oup;?! all .Trrp,.5 ovfr spen, 

That Aid) thp prrii-if <>' avmr- fH)<\ ( hivalry 
The p'ize o^'lx'aiiir 5iiill ha'h jo ned ' een, 

And ibat <"or reti?0(is i-|)H(.4al ppivitj : 
For eilber doth on ether rpucL rely ; 

For be, me sewus, most fif the fiir t>/ serve, 
Tha< can h'^r be^t dtforid Com villany ; 

And .he iiJo-»t fif ';.is («erv!':e d'jih deserve 
That fairest is, and iVomije!- faith w\'\ n».vev swerve. 

t^PEASERS Fairy Qoeek. 

3. To»*he passion for adventure and romai\tic love was added a 
high regard for morality and religion ; but as the latter were ever 
subordinate to the for ner, we may prcsvrme more in favour of the 
refmemcnt ihan of tht; puiity of th*; knights. It was the pride of 
Si knight to redress wronij^s and injuries ; but in that honourable em- 
ployment he made small account of those which he committed. 
It was easy to expiat'^ the greatest offences by a penance or a pil- 
grimage, which furnished only a new opportunity for adventurous 
exploit. 

4. Chivalry, whether i4|Lbcjgan with the Moors or Normans, 
attained its perfection at tlie period of the crusades, which pre- 
sented a noble object of adventure, and a boundless field for mili- 
tary glory. Few indeed returned from those desperate enter- 
prizes ; but those had a hit!;h reward in the admiration of their 
countrymen. The bards and romancers sung their praises, and 
recorded their exploits, with a thousand circumstances of fabu- 
lovis e)nbellishment. 

5. The earliest of the old romances (so termed from the Ro- 
mance language, a mixture cf the Frank and Latin, in which they 
were wriltt n) appeared about the middle of the twelfth century, 
the })eriod of the second crusade, but tViose more ancient com- 
posiiioiis did not record cotemporary events, whose known truth 



156 JiOUERN HISTORY. 

would have precluded all liberty of fiction or exaggeration. Ge- 
offrey of Monmouth, and the author who assumed the name of 
archbishop Turpin, had free scope to their fancy, by celebrating 
the deeds of Arthur aiid the kwsghts of the round table, and the 
exploits of Charlemagne and his twelve peers. From the fruitful 
stock of those first romances sprung a numerous offspring equally 
wild and extravag-ant. 

6. Philosophers have analyzed the pleasure arising from works 
€)f fiction, and have end; avoured, by various hypotheses, to ac- 
count for the interest which we take in the description of an event 
or scene which is known to be utterly impossible. The fact mar 
be simply explained as follows. Every narration is in some"de» 
gtee attend- d with a dramatic deception* We enter for the time 
into the situation of the persons concerned ; and, adopting their 
passions and feeling?, we lose all sense of the absurdity of their 
cause, v.diile we see the agents then)t:elves hold it for reasonable 
and adequate. The most incredulous sceptic may sympathize 
strongly with the feelings of Hamlet at the sight of his father'* 
spectre. 

7. I'hus powerfully affected as we are by sympathy, eveia 
against the convictien of our reason, how much greater must have 
been th^ ef!ect of such works of the imagination in those days, 
when popular sup.-rstition gave full credit iothtj reality, or at least 
the possibility, of all that they described! And hence we must 
censure, a& beth unnecessaa'y and improbable, the theory of Dr. 
Hurd, which aecou?.Tts for all the wildness of ihe ©Id romances, on 
the supposition that Iheir fictions weie entiitly allegorical ; which 
explains the giants and savages into the oppressive feudal lords 
and their barbarous dependents; as M. Ajallet construes the ser- 
pents and dragons which guai^ed the enchanted castles, into their 
winding walls, fosses, and batilements. It were s.ifiicient to say, 
that many of those old romances are inexplicable by allegory. 
They were received by the popular belief aa truths ; and even 
their contrivers believed in the possibility of the scenes and ac- 
tions wbich they described. In latter ages, and in the wane of 
superstition, yet while it still retained a powerful influence, the 
poets adopted allegory as a vehicle of moral instrivction : and to 
this period belong those poetical romances v.hich bear an allego- 
rical explanation ; as the Fairy Queen of Spenser, the Orlando of 
Ariosto, and the CrierusaJemme Liberatit^ Tasso. 

8. In more modern times the taste K»r romautic composition 
declined with popular credulity ; and the fastidiousness of philo- 
sophy affected to treat all supernatural fiction with contempt. 
But it was at length perceived that this refinement had cut oft' a 
source of very high mental enjoyment. The public taste now 
took a new turn ; and this moral revolution is at present tending 
to its extreme. We are gone back to the nursery to listen to tales 
of hobgoblins ; a change which we may safely prognosticate caa 
lie of He duration. 



MODERN HISTOllY. 157- 



SECTION XIX. 

STATE OF EUROPE IN THE THIRTEENTH AND FOUR- 
TEENTH CENTURIES. 

1. Constantinople, taken in 1202 by tiie crusaders, was pos- 
sessed only for a short time by its conquerors. It was governed 
by French emperors for the space of sixty years, and was retaken 
by the Greeks in 1261, under Michael Palteologus, who, by ia\- 
prisoning: and patting out the eyes of his pupil Theodore Lasca- 
lis, secured to himself the sovereig-nty. 

2. In the beginning- of the thirteenth century Germany wag 
governed by Frederick II, who paid homa^^e to the pope for the 
king;dom of Naples and Sicily, which was possessed by his son 
Conrad, and afterwards by his brother Manfred, who usurped the 
crov/n in violation of the right of his nephew Conradin. Pope 
Clement IV, jealous of the dominion of the imperial family, gave 
the investiture of Naples and Sicily to Charles of Anjon, brother 
of Lewis IX. of France, who defeated and put to death his com- 
petitors. Tiie Sicilians revenged this act of usurpation and cru- 
elty by the murder, in one night, of every Frenchman in the isl- 
and. This shocking massacre, termed the Sicilian vespers^ hap- 
pened ou Easter Sunday, 1282. It was followed by every evil 
that comes in the train of civil war and revolution. 

3. The beginning of the thirteenth century had been signalized 
by a new species of crusade. The Albigenses, inhabitants of Al- 
by in the Pays de Vaud, were bold enough to dispute many of the 
tenets of the catholic church, judging them contrary to the doc- 
trines of scripture. Innocent III. established a holy commission 
at Thoulouse, with power to try and punish those heretics. The 
count of Thoulouse opposed this pei'secution, and was, for the 
punishment of his offence, compelled by the pope to assist in a 
crusade against his own vassals. Simon de Monfort was the lead- 
er of this pious enterprize, which was marked by the most atro- 
cious cruelties. The benefits of the holy commission were judg- 
ed by the popes to be so groat, that it became from that time a 
permanent establishment, known by the name of the inquisition. 

4. The rise of the house of Austria may be dated from 1274, 
tvheu Rodolphus of Hapsbourg, a Swiss baron, was elected empe- 
ror of Germany. Jie ov/ed iiis elevation to the jealousies of the 
slec: ; a! princes, who could not agree in the choice of any one 
5f themselves. I'he king of Bohemia, to whom Rodolphus had 
been steward of the household, could ill brook the supremacy of 
lis former dependent ; and refusing him the customary homage 
for his Geriiianic possessions, Rodob^hus stripped him of Austria, 
which has ever since remained in the faraily of its conqueror. 

6. The Italian states of Venice, Genoa-, and Pisa, were at thi« 
;ime flourishing and opulent, while most of the king-doms of Eu- 
•ope (if we except England under Edward I.) w:re exhausted, 
eeble, and disorderly. A dawning of civil Ubei'ty b-.gaa to ap- 

u 



158 MODT^R?^ HfSTORY. 

pear in Prance mader Philip IV. (le 6fZ), -who anmnroned the f?ifr^ 
estate to the national assemblies, which had hitherto consistod of 
the nobility and clergy, 1303. thilip established perpttual courts 
of judicatui-e in I rauce, under the name of parliaments. OveT 
these the parliament of Paris possessed a jurisdiction by appeal; 
but it Tvas not till later times that it assumed any authojity in 
matters of State. 

6. The parliament of England had before this era beg-im to as- 
sume its present constitution. The commons, or the representa- 
tives of counties and boroughs, were first called to parliament by 
Henry III. Before that time this assembly consisted only of the 
greater barons and clergy. But of the rise and progress of the 
constitution of England we shall afterwards treat more particu- 
larly in a separate section. 

7. The spirit of the popedom, zealous in the maintenance and 
extension of its prerooatires, continued much the san e in the 
thirteenth and fourteenth, as we have seen it in the three prece- 
ding; centuries. Philip the fair had subjected his clerg-y to bear 
their share of the public tax^s, and prohibited all contributions to 
be levied by the pope in his dondni-'ns. 1 his double oflence v as 
bighly resented by Boniface \1II, v.ho exprcssfd Lis indig-nation 
by a sentence of excommunication and interdict, and a solemn 
transference of the kingdom of i ranee to the eniperor JVlfcert. 
Philip, in revenue, sent his general Nog-aret to Rome, who tlrcw 
the pope into prison, 'j he 1 rei.ch, he we\er, were overpowered 
by the papal troops ; and the death of Boniface put an end to the 
quarrel. 

S. It is less easy to justify the conduct of Philip the fair to the 
knights templars than his behaviour to pope Boi iiace. 'J he whcle 
©f this order had incurred his resentment, from si'spicion ol har- 
bouring treasonable designs. Ee bad ijifluence v.ith (, lenent V. 
to procure a papal bull warianting tbeir exiirpa<icn from all the 
christian kingdoms: and this infamous picscription was cairied 
into effect over all Europe. Ihose unfortunate men were solemn- 
ly tried, not for their real offence, but for pret'-nded im} ieties anil 
idolatrous practices, and committed to the Lames 1S0& — 1312. 



SECTION XX. 

REVOLUTION OF SWITZERLAND. 

2. The beginning of the fourteenth century was distinguished 
by the revolution of Switzerland, and the rise of the I eJvetic re- 
public. Ihe emperor Rrdoijhus of Kaptbourg was hfreditary 
sovereign of several of the Swiss cantons, and governed his slatei 
With n.uch equity and moderation. Piis successor Albert, aiyran- 
nical prince, formed the design of annexing; tbe whcle cf the pro- 
vir.ces to bis dominion, and of erecting them into a princij aiity 
for one of his sons. Tbe cavitc;;s of £chv\ci;z, Ury, aijd L'lider- 
wald, v;hJch bad always resisted the ai thorify of Ausliia, coiii- 
bir'.ea to asseit their freedom ; and a small army of 4UU or &U# 



MODERN HISTORY. 15S 

^Mett defeated an immense host of the Austiians in the pas3 of Mor- 
g-ate, 1315. The rest of the cantons by decrees joined the as30- 
-ciation. With invincible perseverance the united '^antons won 
and secured their dear bought liberty^ after sixty pitched battles 
with their enemies. 

2. Constitution of Sicifserland. Th'> thirteen cantons were unf- 
Jted by a solemn treaty, which stipulated the proportional suc- 
cours to be furnished by each in the case of foreign hostility, and 
the measures to be followed for securing; the union of the states, 
and accommodatinq; domestic differences. Wi':h respect to itt 
internal g-overnment and econo^'iy, each ca^^t^a was independent. 
Of some the constitution was monarchical and of others republi- 
can. All matters touchinor the geiieral league were transacted 
either by letters sent to Zurich, aid thence officially circulated t» 
all the cantons, or by confer<^nces. 'Ihe general diet, wh-^re two 
deputies attended fiom each canton, was held once a year, the first 
deputy of Zurich presidins:. The catholic and protestant canton*, 
likewiiie held their separate diets on occasional emergencies. 

3. T'he Swiss, when at peace, emp!oy/^d their troops for hire ii 
foreign service, judging it a wise policy to keep alive the military 
fpirit of the nation; and the arrai.^s thus employed hare beea 
equally distinguished for their co;irage and fidelity. The indus- 
try and economy of the Swiss are r roverbial ; and their country- 
supports an abutida^it population, from the zealous promotion ©f 
ag-riciiiture and manufactures. 



SECTION XXL 

^SITATE OF EUROPE IN THE THTRTEEPrTH, FOUR- 
TEE iN'TII, AND PART OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTU- 
RIES. 

1. The rival claims of superiority between the popes and em- 
perors still continued. Henry VII, the successor of 41bert, vin- 
dicated his right by the svrrrd, triumphantly fought his way t© 
Rome, where he was solemnly crowned, and imposed a tribute 
on all the states of Italy. His sudden death was suspected to be 
the consequpnce of papa! resentment. I« his time the seat of the 
popedom was transferred by Clement V. from Home to Avignon, 
1309, where it remained till 1377. The factions of Italy were 
the cause of this removal. Lewis of Pavaria, the successor of 
Henry, deposed and excommunicated by John XXII, revenged 
himself by deposing the pcpe. 'This pontiff, who had originally 
been a cobler, surpassed most of his predecessors in pride and ty- 
ranny. He kept his seat on the papal chair, and left at his death 
an immense treasure acoumulated by-the sale of benefices ; while 
his rival the emperor died in indigence. 

2. His successor in the empire, Charles IV, published, In 1355, 
the imperial constitution, termrd the golde/i bull^ the fundamental 
law of the r-erm<inic body, vhirh reduced the number of ©lectors 
.i9 ssyeu ^ad S8ttie4 on them all the hereditary offiges of state. 



16© MODERN HISTORY. 

The electors cxeinplified their nev/ rig^hts "by deposhi^ his se» 
Wenceslaus for incapacity, 1400. Three separate factions of the 
French and Italian cardinals having- elected three separate popes, 
the emperor Sigismund judged this division of the church to be 
a fit opportunity for his interference to reconcile all differences, 
and establish his own supremacy. He summoned a general coun- 
cil at Constance in 1414, and ended the dispute by dpgrading all 
the three pontiffs, and naming a fourth, Martin Colonna. This 
division of tlie papacy is termed tbe great schism, of the west. 

3. The spiritual business of the council of Constance was no 
less important than its ttmporal. John Huss, a disciple of Wick- 
liff, was tried for heresy, in denyu)g the hierarchy, and satirizing^ 
the immoralities of the popes and bishops. He did not deny the 
charge, and, refuting to confess his errors, was burnt alive. A 
similar fate was the portion of his friend and disciple, Jerom of 
Prague, who displayed at his execution the eloquence of an apos- 
tle, and the constancy of a martyr, 1416. Sigismund felt the con- 
sequence of these horrible proceedings ; for the Bohemians oppo- 
sed his succession to their vacant crown, and it cost him a war of 
^xteen j^ears to attain it. 

4. Vvhatever was the imperial power at this time, it derived 
"but small consequence from its actual revenues. The wealth of 
the Germanic states was exclusively possessed by their separate 
sovereigns, and the emperor had little more than what he drew 
from Bohemia and Hnngary. The sovereignty of Italy was aa 
empty title. The interest of the emperor in that country furnish- 
ed crily a source of faction to its princes, and embroiled the state« 
in pejpctual quarrel. A series of conspiracies and civil tumuit» 
form the annals of ti. principal cities for above 200 years. Na- 
ples and Sicily were ruined by the weak and disorderly govern* 
ment of the two Joannas. A passion which the younger of these 
conceived for a soldier of the name oi Sforza raised him to the 
sovereignty of JSiilan ; and her adoption, first of Alphonzo of Ar- 
ragon, and afterwards of Lewis of Anjou, laid the foundation of 
those contests between Spain and France for the sovereignty »f 
the two Sicilies J which aftery/ards agitated ail Europe. 



SECTION XXIL 

HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 

1. On the death of John his son Henry III. succeeded to the 
crown of England at nine years of age. He was a prince of ami- 
able dispositions, but of -weak understanding. His preference of 
foreign favourites disgusted his nobles ; and the want of economy 
in his government, and oppressive exactions, deprived him of the 
aitection of his people. Aiontfort earl of Leicester, son of the 
leader of the crusade against the Albigenses, and brother-in-law 
of the king, conceived a plan for usurping the government. He 
formed a 1 ague with the larona, on the pretext of reformijag: 
abuses, and eompelled Heury to delegate all thp regal pow^ iai» 



MODERN HTSTonr, . 161 

tiie" hands of twenty-fotir of their number. These divided among 
•themselvea the offices of jrovernment, and neW-rnocieled the par- 
liament, by summoning- a certain number of knights chosen from 
each coiinty. This measure was fatal, to their cvrn povrer •, for 
these knights or representatives of the people, indigTiant at J ei- 
cestcr^s usurpation, determined to rfsl.ore the royal authority ; 
and called on prince Fdward, a youth of intrepid spirit, to avenge 
his father's wrongs and save the kingdom, 

2. Leicester raised a formidable force, and defeated the royal 
army at Lewes, in Susecx, 1264, and made both the kinp: and 
prince Edward his prisoners. He now compelled the impotent 
Henry to ratify his authority by a solemn treaty. He assumed 
the character of regent, and called a parliament, summoning- tv/o 
knights from each of the coTmties, and deputies from the princi- 
pal boroughs, the fir.-t regular plan of the En g-lish house of com- 
mons. This assembly excci-ing its just rights, and asserting- 
with firmness the re-establishment of the ancient government of 
the I'ingdem^ Leicester judged it prudent to release the prince 
from his confinement. Edward was no sooner at liberty than he 
took the field against the usurper, who was defeated and slain in 
the battle of Evesham, on the 4th day of August, 1265. Henry 
was now restored to his throne by the arms of his g-allant son, 
who, after establishing: domestic tranquillits', embarked in the last 
crusade with Lewis IX, and sig^nalized his prowess by many valo- 
rous exploits in Palestine. He bad the honour of concluding an 
advantageous truce for ten years with the sultan of Babylon, and 
was on his return to Engrland when he received intclilgence of h,if. 
accession to the crown by the death of bis father, 1272. 

3. Edward L projected the conquest of Wales in the be^innin^ 
of bis reign. The Welsh, the descendants of the ancient BritosaE 
who had escaped the Roman and Saxon conquests, preserved 
-their liberty, laws, manners, and language. Their prince, I.e- 
wellyn, refused his customary homage to the king of England-^ 
Edward invaded Wales, and, surrounding- the army of the prince^ 
who retreated to the mountains, cut ofi all his supplies, and com- 
pelled him to an unqualified submission. The terms demanded 
were, the surrender of a part of the country, a large sum of mo- 
ney, and an obligation of perpetual fealty to the crown of Eng» 
laud. The Welsh infringed this treaty, and Edward marched Wz 
arm}'- into the heart of the country, where the troops of Lewellyn 
made a most desperate but ineflectuai resistance. In a decisive 
engagement, in 1283, the prince was slaiOo Hir- brother David., 
betrayed into the hands of the conqueror, was inhum-aniy execu- 
ted on a gibbet; and Vt ales, completely subdued, was annexed 
to the crown of England. With a policy equally absurd and. 
cruel Edward ordered the Welsh bards to be put to death where- 
€ver found ; thereby ensurii-g the perpetuation of their heroi« 
songs, and increasing the abhorrence of the vanquished peopit 
for their barbarou-s -conqueror. 

4. The conquest of Wales irifiamed the ambition of" Edwa.r^ 
a*ad iiigpired. him with the desiga of extfcliding iiisodomuajaoirfi* 



162 ' HODERSJ- HISTOHY, 

tlie extremity of the island. The dcsijsnns ef ttiia etitwrptt'ztftgf 
monarch on the kingdom of Scotland in rite o«r atteation to that 

<|uarter. 

SECTION XXIII. 

History of Scotland from the eleventh to thii 
fourteenth century. 

1. The history of Scotland before the reigfn of Malcolm ITf^ 
Burnamed Caninore, is obscure -and fabulous.- This prince suc- 
ceeded to the throne in 1057 by the defeat of Macbeth, the mur- 
tlerc r of his father Duncan. Espousing' the cause of Edg-ar Athe- 
ling, heir of the Saxon kings of England, whose sister he married, 
he thus provoked a war with William the conqueror, which was 
equally prejudicial to both kingdoms. In an expedition of Mal- 
colm into England it is alleged, that, after concluding a truce, h« 
was compelled by V\ illiam to do homage for his kingdom. The 
truth is, that this homage was done for the territories in Cumber- 
land and Northumberland won by the Scots, and held in vassal- 
age of the English crown ; though this homage was afterward* 
absurdly made the pretext of a claim vf feudal sovereignty over 
all Scotland. In a reign of twenty-seven years Malcolm support- 
«d a spirited contest with England, both under William I. and hi« 
son Rufus ; and to the virtues of his queen Margaret his kingdom, 
in its domestic policy, owed a degree of civilization remarkable 
in those ag-es of barbarism. 

2. Alexander I, his son and successor, defended, with equal 
spirit and good policy, the independence of his kingdom ; and his 
son David I, celebrated even by the democratic Buchanan as an 
honour to his country and to monarchy, won from Stephen, and 
annexed to his crown, the v/hole earldom of Northumberland. 
In those reigns we hear af no claim of the feudal subjection of 
Scotland to the crown of England ; thoug-h the accidental fortune 
«f war afterwards furnished a ground for it. William I. (the lion), 
iaken prisoner at Alnwick by Henry II, was compelled, as the 
price of his release, to do homage for his whole kingdom ; an ob- 
ligation which his successor Richard voluntarily discharged, deenv- 
ing it to have been unjustly extorted. 

3. On the death of Alexander III. without male issue, in 1285, 
Bruce and Ealiol, desceuvants of David I. by the female line, 
were con petitors for the cxown, and the pretensions of each were 
supported by a formidable party in tiie kingdom. Edward I. of 
England, chosen umpire of the contest, arrogated to himself, in 
■that character, the feudal sovereignty of the kingdom, compelling' 
all the tsrcns to swear allegiance to him, and taking actual pos- 
flession of the country by his troops. He then adjudged the 
«rown to Pal id, on the express condition of his swearing fealty 
to him as lord paramount. Baliol, however, soon after renouno* 
ing his allegiance, the indignant Edward invaded Scotland with 
An immense force, and compelled the weak prince to Sibdicats ijof^ 
sthroae, and resign the kin^dcm i»to J^s iiaadjs* 



NTdD^RN ITTSTOR-f. 163 

4. WllHara "Wallace, one of the greatest heroes wliom history 
Tecorils, restored the fallen honours of his conntrr. Joined by a 
few patriots, hia fir?t successes in attacking- the English grarrisr.n« 
brought number? to his patri tic sta^ndard. J heir successes were 
si^rnal a'ld conspicuous. Victory followed upon victory. While 
Edward was engaged on the continent, his troops were utterly do- 
feated in a desperate engagement at Stirling, and forced to evacu- 
ate the kingdom. Wallace, the deliverer of his country, now as- 
sumed the title of governor of Scotland under Baliol, who wa« 
Edward's prisoner; a distinction which was followed by the qnvy 
and disaffection of many of the nobles, a id the conseqcunt dimi- 
nution of his army. The Scots were defeated at i alkirk. Ed- 
ward returned with a vast accession of force. After a fruitless 
resistance the Scottish barons f.r#».lly obtained prace by a capitu- 
lation, from which the bravo Wallace v/as excepted by name. A 
fugitive for some time, he was betrayed into the hands of Edward, 
who put him to death, with every circumstance of cruelty that 
barbarous revenge could dictate, 1C04. 

5. Scotland found a second cha^npion and deliverer in Robert 
Bruce, the grandson of the competitor with Ealiol ; who, deeply 
resenting the humiliation of his country, once more set up the 
standard of war, and gave defiance to the English monarch, to 
whom his father and grandfather had meanly sv/orn allegiance. 
Under this hitrepid leader the spirit of the nation was roused at 
once. The English were attacked in every quarter, and once more 
entirely driven out of the kingdom. llo')ert Bruce was crowned 
king at Scone, 1306. Edward was advancing with an, immense 
army, and died at Carlisle on the 7th day of July, 1307. He en- 
joined it with his last breath to his son, Edward II, to prosecute 

the v/ar with ths Scots to the entire reduction of the coujatry. 



SECTION XXIY. 

HISTOIIY OF ENGLAND IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTTTRT, 

1. In the reign of Edwaixl I. we ob&erve the constitution of Eng* 
land gradually advancing. The commons h»d heitn admitted t« 
parliament in the latter period of his father renry III. A statute 
was passed by Edward, which declared, that no tax er impoat 
jEhould be levied without the consent of lords and commons. Ed- 
ward ratified the Magna Charta no less than eleven times in the 
course of his reign ; and henceforward this fundamental law begaa 
to te regardfrd as sacred and unalterable.. 

2. Edward 11. was in character the very opposite of his father; 
v/eak, indolent, and capricious ; but of Lumane and benevolent af- 
fections. He disgusted his nobles by his attachment to mean and 
undeserving favourites, whom he raised to the hig;he9t dignities ©f 
the state, and honoured with his exclusive confidence.. Fiers Ga- 
vestoti, a vicious and trifling minion, whom the king appointed re- 
cent when on a journey to Paris to marry Isabella, daughter of 
^hlii^ the fairj disgusted Ike barons to jjuch a jpitchj that th/^ 



16-4 M015EI1N HISTORY. 

€Orrpelled the kinj to' delegate all the authority of scovernment to 
cei tain ccmmissioner?, avA to abandon his favcnnt.e to their re- 
geiztment. Ke "vvas f-oomtd to perpetoal imprisoniAent, and, oa 
attempt to escape, was seized and beheaded. . 

3. Edward, in cbediepce to his father\? will, inyaded Scotland 
with an army of 100,000 men. King Robert Bruce met this ira- 
menpe force with 30,000 men at Bannockburn, and defeated them 
"with prodieiou? slaughter. This important victory secured the in- 
dependency of Scotland. F.dv/ard escaped by sea to his own do- 
minions. A new favourite, fpenser, supplied the place of Gaves- 
ton *, but bis undeserTed elevation and overbearing character com- 
pleted the di?affection of the nobles to their sovereign. The 
queen, a vicious adulteress., joined the malcontents, and, passing 
over to France, obtained from her brother Charles IV. an army to 
invade England, and dethrone her husband. Jfler enterprize was 
successful. Spenser and bis father were betrayed into the hands 
of their enemies, andperished on a scafTold. The king was taken 
prisoner, tried by parliament, and solemnly deposed ; and being 
confined to prison, Was soon after put to death in a manner shock- 
ing to humanity, 13S7. 

4. Fdward III, crowned at fourteen years of age, could not suh- 
init to the regency of a mother stained with the foulest of crimes. 
His father's death was revenged by the perpetual imprisonment ©f 
Isabella, and the public execution of her paramour Mortimer, 
Bent on the conquest of Scotland, Edward marched to the north 
with a prodigious army, vanquished the Scots in the battle of Kal- 
idoun-hil], and placed on the throne Edward Baliol, his vassal and 
tributary. But the kingdom was as repugnant as ever to the rule 
of England, and a favourable opportunity was t?tken tor the reneW" 
al of hostilities, on the departure of Edward for a foreign enter- 
prize, which gave full scope to his ambition. 

5. On the death of Charles IV. without male issue, the crown of 
France was claimed hj Edward III. of England, in right of his 
zaother, the sister of Charles, W'hile, in the mean time, the throne 
was occupied by the mail heir, Fhillp of Valois. Edward tltted 
out an immense arn ament by sea and land, and, obtaining a signal 
victory over the French fleet, landed on the coast of ISormiandy, 
and with his son, the black prince, r^n a career of the most glori- 
ous exploits. Ihilip, with 100,000 men, met the English with 
30,000, and was entirely defeated in the field of Cressy, A ugust 
26, 1348. Calais was taken by the English, and remained in their 
possession ^10 years. Ihe English are said to have f rst used artil- 
lery in the battle of Cressy. Fire-arms were then but a recent in- 
TentioH (1340), and have much contributed to lessen both the 
slaughter and the frequency of wars. Mr. Hume well observes 
that w-ar is now reduced nearly to a matter of calculation. A na- 
tion knows its power, and, when OTermatehed, either yields to it« 

-enemies, or secures itself by alliance. 

6. The Scots in the mean time uivaded England, and were de- 
feated in the battle of I'urham by Philippa, the heroic queen of 
Jsdward ill; and their sovereign David II. was led prisoner .io 
t3*9iidotjao A tvvLQ& cfaclud^d bfetT»^t'€u £dwargL».nd Fhiiip wa^dis- 



MODERN HISTORY. 16^ 

solved by the death of the latter. Philip waa succeeded by his 
son John, who took the field with 60,000 men against the black 
prince, and was defeated by him with a far inferior number in the 
signal battle of Poictiers, September 19, 1356. John king ©f 
France was led in triumph to London, the fellow-prisoner of David 
king of Scotland. Cut England derived from those victories no- 
thing but honour. The French continued the war with great vigour 
during- the captivity of their sovereign, who died in London ia 
1364. They obtained a peace by the cession to the English of 
Poitou, St. Onge, Perigord and other provinces ; and Edward con- 
sented to renounce his claim to the crown of France. 'I'he death 
of the black prince, a most heroic and virtuous man, plunged th© 
nation in grief, and broke the spirits of his father, who did not long 
survive him. 

7. Pilchard IL succeeded his grandfather, In 1377, at the age of 
eleven. Charles VL soon after became king of Frai>ce at the age 
of twelve. Both kingdoms suffered from the distractions attend- 
ing a regal minority. In England the contests for power between 
the king's uncles, Lancaster, York, and Gloucester, embroiled all 
public measures ; and the consequent disorders required a stioug- 
sr hand to compose them than that of the weak and facile Rich- 
ard. Taking advantage of the king's absence, then engaged ia 
quelling an insurrection in Ireland, Henry of Lancaster rose h\ 
open rebellion, and compelled Richard, at his return, to resign the 
crown. I'he parliament confirmed his deposition, and he wi^a 
soon after privately assassinated. Ihus began the contentions 
iftetweeu the houses of York and Lancaster. 



SECTION xxy. ^ 

E^Gusi^D AND FRANCE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURT. 

STAl'E OF MANNERS. 

1. Henry TV. ascended the throne on the deposition of Richard 
fl, 1399 ; and had immediately to combat a rebellion raised by 
the earl of Norlhuraherland, for placing Mortimer, the heir of the 
house of York, on the throne. -Ihe ;!cots and Welsh took part 
•with the rebels, but their united forces were defeated at Shrews- 
bury, and their leader, young l-'ercy (Hotspur), killed on the held. 
A second rebellion headed by the archuishop of Ifork, was quel- 
led by the capital punishment of its author. The secular arm waa 
jfigorously extended against the followers of Wicklifi', and this reiga 
saw the first detestable examples of religious persecution, i he 
life of Henry was irabittered by the youthful disorders oi his soa 
the prince of Wales, who afterwards laobly redeemed his charac- 
ter. Henry IV. died in 1413, at the age of forty-six. 

2. Henry V^. took advantage of the disorders of France, froa 
the temp -rary insanity of its sovereign Charles yi, and the factious 
straggles for power between .he dukes of Burgundy atid Orleans, 
to Jnvade,the kingdom with a large army, which a contagious dis- 
te^pij^r waited <i9^u t^ a fiXtb of its niiioktirs ; yet witU tJaig ha^^ 



I6f MODERN HISTORY. 

fill of rwoi rite and hardy tr->ops he dtuateu the French anuy of 
toO.OOO, itudtr the cons'abie D'-»lbert^ in i ' e fanous latilf ol -' gin- 
court, in vshich 10,000 of tke enemy were slain, aud 14,010 trade 
prisoners, Octoler 24. 1415. Ret' rniDg to trgrlaiid to recruit hi« 
forces, he landed azain with an a my ot io.COO. and foi ght bis 
vray to Farls. Ihe insane aici.arch. with his coi.rt, dtd to Troye, 
and Henry pursuing, terminated the war by a treaty with the 
queen-mcther of the duke oi' BirguEdy. Ly which it was agreed 
that he should marry the dai vhter of t hsrles VI. and net ire ihe 
kingdom of France as her dowry, which, till the death of herfa^ 
ther, he i^hould govern as regent. 

3. INjean time the return of Hetry to Englard gave the dau] hia 
hopes of the recovery oi his kingdom. It v. as victorious in sn 
engagement with the English under the duke of Clarence ; but 
his success was of no long«r duration ihan tbt^ absence of the 
English sovereign, who was himself hastening to the period of hi» 
triumphs. Seized wiih a mortal distemper, Heriry died in the 
S4th year of his ate, 14-i'j, one of the most heroic princes that ev- 
er swayed the scrptre of England. His brother, the duke of led- 
ford, was declared regent of 1 ranee, and Kecry VI, an in**artniu« 
SQonihs old, was proclaimed king at I ari? and at London, 1422. 

4. Charlts \ 11. recovered France by slow degrees. V- ith the 
aid of a young female enthusiast, the maid cf Orleans, whom the 
credulity of the age supposed to be inspired by Eeaven, he gained 
several important advantages over the English, vhicb the atter 
inhumanly revenged, ty burning thir heroine as a scrctiess. Per 
death was of eqi al advantage to the French as her life had bten. 
The government of the Inglith was uniAtr^ally detested, -After a 
-struggle of many years they were at hngth, in 1450, deprived of 
t'l that they had ever possessed in France, except Calais anc Gu- 
igi:es. Charles, when he had restored his kingdom to feact, go- 
verned it with admirable wisdom and modeiation. 

5. The state of Ihgland and of France, the two most poli<-hed 
kingdoms in Europe, tumishes a good cri erioc or the condition of 
society in those a^es of -which we have been treating. IMn in 
the large cities the housfs were roofed with thatch, and Lad no 
chicinics. Glass windows were extremely ra.re, and the £ocrfi 
were covered with straw. In England wine v. as sold only in the 
shops of the apothecaries. Faper made from linen rati was frst 
manufactured in the heginnins; of the fifteenth centi ry; and the 
tise of linen for shirts was at that time a very lare piece of luxury. 
Yet even before that age the progress cf luxury had excited a ^a^ 
rioi s alarm, for the parliament under Edward 111. found it neces- 
sary 'o prcbihit the use of gold and filver in apparel to all who 
had not a hundred pounds a-year ; and Charles VI. of Frarce or- 
dained, that none should presume to entertain wiib rrcrt tban two 
dishes and a mess of soup. Feiore the reign of i cward I. the 
whole country oi England vas plundered by robbers in great 
bands, who laid waste entire villages ; and some cf the hcusehcld 
c£^cers of Henry III. excused themselves for robbing on the high- 
way, because the king allowed them no Wrg-s. 'n 1!0S the abbot 
&fijd jQa.9uk« of YVestmiaUcr irere indicted f.r robbiiig ik^ kicg> 



MODERN HISTORT. 167 

but acquitted. The admirable la-wa of Edward I, 
•which acq'iirpd hvti the title of the English Justiuian, °:ire sir ng 
testimony of the miserable policy and barbarism of the precedii^ 
times. 

SECTION xxyj. 

DECLINE AND FALL OF THE GP.EF^ EMPIRE. 

1. In the fonrteenth century the Tiirks w re proceeding by de- 
grees to encroach on the frontiers of the Greek empire. 'Ih'^ sul- 
ta.n ' 'ttoman ha 1 fixed the seat of his e:aremment at Byrsa in By- 
thynia ; and his ?on Orcan extendi d his sovereignty to the Pro 
pontis, and obtained in marriage the daughter of the emperor 
John ( 'antacazenos. About the middle of the century the Turks 
crossed over into F.urope, and took Adrianople. The emperor 
John Fal"2olo2:us. after meanly soliciting aid from the pope, con- 
cluded a humiliating- treaty with sultan Amuiat, and gave his sou 
as a hostage to serve in the Turldsh army. 

2. Bajazct, the successor of Amnrat, compelled the emperor to 
destroy his fort of Gaiata, and to admit a Turkish jad: e into the 
city. He prepared now to besieee Con?ta-"tinople m form, when 
he was forced to chanj:e his purpose, and defend himself against 
the victorious Tamerlane. 

3. Tim ir-bek or Tam^-rlane, a prince of the Usbek Tartars, 
and descended from Gengi^kau, after the conquest of Persia, a 
great part of India and •''jrria, ua? invited by the Asiatic princes, 
enemies of iSajazet, to protect th'sm against the. Ottoman power, 
which threat ned to overwhelm th^m. Tamerlane, flattered by 
this request, imperiously summoned the Turk to renounce hi= con- 
quests ; but the message was answered with a_proud def-ance. 
The armies met near Angoria (Ancyra) in ['hrygia, and Bajazet 
was totally defeated and made prisoner by 'i amerlane, 1402. 
The conqupr.">r made ^amarcand the capital of his empire, and 
there received the hemaa:e of all the princ-s of the east. Tamer- 
lane was illiterate, but yet was snlicitojs for the c iltiva'iou of lit- 
t/at- re and science in his dominions. Samarca^.d became for a 
while the seat of learning, politeness, and \he arts ; bui w^.s des- 
tined to relapse, after a short period, into it.- ancient bal arism. 

4. The Turks, after the death of I'araeriane, resumed their 
p:^rpnse of destroying the empire of the east. Amurat Tl, a 
piince of singular character, had, on the faith of a solemn treaty 
with the king o\' Poland, devoted his days to retirement and st.Jy. 
A violation of the treaty, by an attack from the Poles on his do- 
minio'.is, made him quit bis solitude. lie enga 2;ed and deslroypd 
tlio Polish amy, with their perfidious sovereign, and then calu.dj 
retjrned to his r^lrea*, till a similar crisis of public expedie;cy 
orce more brought him into active life. He left his domiiaons to 
his son Ivlah-^met IT, surnamed the great, who resumed thf project 
for the destr^'clion of Constantinople ; bu its fall was a second 
ti.no retarded by the nec'-ssity iu which the lurks were uuex- 



168 MODERN HISTORY. 

pectedly placed, of defending their own dominioas against a pe-vf- 
erful invader. 

5. Scanderbeg (John Castriot) prince of Albania, whose territo- 
fics had been seized by Amurat IT, was educated by the saltan a* 
his ovv^n child, and when of age, intrusted with the command of 
an army, which he employed in wresting from Amurat his pater- 
nal kingdom, 1443. By grrat talents and military skill hf main- 
tained his independent sovereignty against the whole force of the 
Turkish empire. 

6. Mahomet 11, son of the philosophic Amurat, a youth of twen- 
ty-or.e ytars of age, resumed the plan of extinguishing the empire 
of the Greeks, and making Constantinople the capital of the Otto 
man power. Its indolent inhabitants Tirade but a feeble prepara- 
tion for defence, and the powers of Fiirope looked on with supine 
indifference. The Turks assailed the city both by land and sea; 
and, battering down its walls v.ith their cannon, entered sword in 
hand, and massacred all who opposed them. The emperor Con- 
stanlir e was slain ; the city surrendered ; and thus was finally ex- 
tinginshed the eastern empire of the Ilomans, A. D. 1453, which, 
from the building of i^s capital by Constantiae the grea+, had sul>- 
fiisfed ll'-iS years. 7 he imperial edifices were preserved from de- 
struction. 7 he churches were converted into mosques ; but the 
exercise o[ their reli-ion was allowed to all the christians. From 
that time the Greek christians have regularly chosen their own 
patriarch, whom the s:iltan instals ; though his authority contin- 
ues to be disputed by the Latin patiiarch, who is chosen by the 
popt . Mahomet the great liheraliy patronized the arts and sci- 
ences ; and, to compensate for the migratirn of those learned 
Greeks v/ho, on the fall of the empire, spread themselves over the 
countries of Europe, invited both artists and men of letters to hii 
capital from other kingdoms. 

7. The taking vf Constantinople was followed by the conquest 
of Greece and Ipirus. Italy might probably have met a similar 
fate, but by means of their fleet the Venetians opposed the arms 
of Mahomet with considerable success, and even attacked him in 
Greece. The contending powers soon after put an end to hostili- 
ties by a treaty. Mahomet the great died at the ago of fifty-one, 
1481. 

SECTION XXVII. 

GOVERNMENT AND POLICY OF THE TURKISH ExMTIRE. 

1. The srovernment of Turkey is an absolute monarchy, the 
whole legislative and executive authority of the state centerii;g 
in the sultan, whose power is subject to no constitulioral control. 
It is, however, limited in some degree by religious opiuion ; the 
precepts of the Coran inculcating certain duties on the sovereign 
which it would be held an impiety to transgress. It is yet moi^ 
stiongly limited by the fear of deposition And assassination. Un- 
der these restraints the prince can never venture on an extreme 
abuse g[ power. 



MODERN HISTORY. 169 

2. The spirit of the people is fitted for a suTojection bordering 
©n slavery. Concubinage being: agreeable to the law of Maho- 
met, the grand seignior, the viziers, arc born of female slaves : 
and there is scarcely a subject of the empire of ingfenuous blood 
by both parents. It is a fundamental maxim of the Turkish poli- 
cy, that all the officers of state should be such as the sultan can 
entirely command, and at any time destroy, without danger to 
himself. 

^ S. The grand vizier is usually entrusted with the whole func- 
tions of government, and of course subjected to the sole respon- 
sibility for all public measures. Subordinate to him are six vizi- 
ers of the bench, who are his counsel and assessors in cases of 
law, of which he is supreme judge. The power of the grand 
vizier is absolute over all the subjects of the empire ; but he can- 
not put to death a beglerbeg or a bashaw without the imperial 
signature-, nor punish a janizary, unless through the medium of 
his military commander. The beglerbegs are the governors of 
several provinces, the bashaws of a single'province. All dignities 
in the Turkish empire are personal, and dependent on the sove- 
reign's pleasui-e. 

4. The revenues of the grand seignior arise from taxes and cus- 
toms laid on the subject, annual tributes paid by the Tartars, sta- 
ted gifcs from the governors of the provinces, and, above all, the 
confiscations of estates, from the viziers and bashaws downwards 
to the lowest subjects of the empire. The certain and fixed reve- 
nues of the sovereign are small in comparison of those which are 
arbitrary. His absolute power enables him to execute great pro- 
jects at a small expencc. 



SECTION XXVIII. 

FRANCE AND ITALY IN THE END OF THE FIFTEENTH 
CENTURY. 

1. Scarcely any vestige of the ancient feudal government now 
remained in France. The only subsisting fiefs were Burgundy and 
Brittany. Charles the bold, duke of Burgundy, who sought to in- 
crease his territories by the conquest of Switzerland and Lorraine- 
was defeated by the Swiss, and killed in battle. He left no son, 
and Lewis XI. of France took possession of Burgundy as a male 
fief, 1447. The duke's daughter married Maximilian, son of the 
emperor Frederick III, who, by this marriage, acquired the sove- 
reignty of the Netherlands. 

2. The acquisition of Burgundy and of Provence, which was 
bequeathed to France by the count de la Marche, increased very 
greatly the power of the crown. Lewis XI, an odious compound 
of vice, cruelty, and superstition, and a tyrant to his people, was 
the author of many wise and excellent regulaiions of public poli- 
cy. The barbarity of the public executions in his reign is beyond 
all belief; yet the wisdom of his laws, the encouragement which 

15 



i70 MODERN HISTORY. 

he gave, to commerce, the restraints -which he imposed on the op- 
pressioDs of the nobility, and the attention which he bestowed in 
regulating the courts ot justice, must tver be mentioned to his 
honour. 

3. The count de la ATarche, beside 'he bequest of Provence to 
T.ewis XI, left him his empty title of sovereign of the Two Sicilies. 
Lewis was satisfied with the substantial gfiit ; but bis son Charles 
VIII. wa? dazzled wi»h the shadow. In the beginning of his reigu 
he projt .cd the cohquest of Naples, and embarked in the enter- 
prize with tho most improvident precipitancy. 

4. The dismeiri>iered state of Italy was favourable to his views. 
The popedom, during the transference of its seat to \vignon, had 
lost many of its territories. Mantwa. IModena, and Ferrara, had 
thi'ir independent sovereigns. I'iedmont belonged to the duke of 
Savoy; (ienoa and Milan to the family of .Sforza. Florence, un- 
der the Medici, had attained a very li-gh pitch of splendour. Cos- 
ine, the founder of (hat family, employed a vast fortune, acquired 
by commerce, in the improvement of his country, in acts of public 
nuinificence, and in the cultivation of the sciences and elegant 
arts. His high reputation obtained for himself and his posterity 
the chief authority in his native state. Feler de Aiedici, his great 
grandson, ruled in Florence at the period of the expedition of 
Charles Vlll. into Italy. 

6. 'ihe papacy was enjoyed at this time by Alexander VI, a 
monster of wickedness. The pope and the duke of Milan, who 
had invited Charles to tMs enterprize, immediately betrayed him, 
and joined the interest of the king of Naples. Charles, after be- 
sieging the pope in Kome, and forcing him to submission, devoutly 
kissed his feet, l^le now marched against Naples, while its timid 
prince Alphonso fled to Sicily, and his son to the isle of Ischia, af- 
ter absolving his subjects from their alhgiance. Charles entered 
Uaples in triumph, and was hailed emperor and Augustus : but he 
tost his new kingdom in almost as short a time as he had gained it. 
A league wae formed against France between the pope, the empe- 
ror Maximilian, 1 erdinand of Arragon, Isabella of Castile, and the 
Venetians ; and on the return of Charles to France the troops 
%vhirh he had left to guard bis conquest were entirely driven out 
of Italy. 

6. It has been remarked that, from the decisive effect of this 
confederacy against Charles \ III, the sovereigns of Europe deri- 
Ted a useful lesson of policy, and lust adopted the idea of preser- 
ving a balance of pbwer, by that tacit league which is understood 
to be always subsisting, for the prevention of the inordinate ag- 
grandizement of any particular state. 

7. Charles Vlll. died at the age of twenty-eight, 1490; and, 
leaving no children, the duke o{ Orleans succeeded to the throne 
•f France by the title of Lewis XII. 



.MODERN HISTORY. 17 » 



SECTION XXIX. 

HISTORY OF SrAIN IN THE FOURTEENTH AND FIF- 
TEENTH CENTURIES. 

1. We 2;o back a little to the middle of the fourteenth century, 
to trace the history of Spain. Peter of Castile, surnamed the 
cruel, for no other reason but that he employed severe means to 
support his just rights, had to contend against a bastard brother, 
Henry of Transtamarre, who, with the aid of a French banditti, 
called Malandrins, led by Berlrand du Guesclin, strove to disp^- 
Sfcsa him of his kingdom. Peter was aided by Edward the black 
prince, then sovereign of Guienne, who defeated l'ran3'.aiuarre, 
und took Oertraud prisoner; but, on the return of the jM'ince to 
England, Peter was attacked by his former enemies, and entirely 
(leff ated. Unable to restrain his rage in the first view Avith Tran- 
s.tamarre, the latter put him to death with his own hand, 1368 ; 
and thus this usurper secured for himself and his posterity the 
throne of Castile. 

9. The weakness and debauchery of one of his descendants, 
Henry lY. of Castile, occafjioned a revolution in the kingdom. 
The majority of the nation rose in rebellion ; the assembly of the 
nobles solemnly deposed their king, and, on the alledged gi'ound 
of his daughter Joanna being a bastard, compelled him to settle 
the crown on his sister Isabella. They next brought about a mar- 
riage between Isabella and Ferdinand of Arragon, which united 
the monarchies of Arragon and Castile. After a ruinous civil war 
the revolution was at length completed by the death of the depo- 
sed sovereign, 1474, ajid the retirement of his daughter Joanna to 
a m.onastery, 1479. 

3, At the accession of Ferdi;iand and Isabella to the thrones of 
Arragor and Castile, Spain was in a state of great disorder, from 
the lawless depredaiions of the nobles and their vassals. It wa^ 
the first object of the new sovereigns to repress these enormities, 
by subjecting the offtuders to the utmost riijour of law;, enforced 
by the sword. The holy brotherhood was institiited for the discov- 
ery and punishment of crimes ; and the inquisition (Sect. XIX, 
f 3), under the pretext of extirpating heresy and impiety, afforded 
the most detestable examples of sanguinary persecution. 

4. The Moorish kingdom of Granada, a most splendid monar- 
chy, but at that time weakened by faction, and a prey to civil war, 
offered a tempting object to the ambition of Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella. Alboacen was at war with his nephuw Aboabdeli, who 
wanted to dethrone him ; and Ferdinand aided Aboabdeli, in the 
view cf ruining both ; for no sooner was the latter in possession of 
the crown by the death of Alboacen, than Ferdinand invaded his 
ally with the whole force of Arragon and Castile. Granada was 
besieged in 1491, and, after a blockade of eight mouths, surren- 
dered to the victor. Aboabdeli, by a mean capitulation, saved his 
Ufe,^ud purchased a retreat for his countrymen to a mountainous 
o?ji 04 the kingdom, where they were sutftred to enjoy unmolested 

/ 



172 MODERN HISTOHy. 

their laws and their religion. Thus ended the dominion e/ the 
JHoors in Spain, -which had subsis'ted for 800 years. 

5. Ferdinand, from that period, took tiie title of king of Spain. 
In 1492 he expelled all the Jev.s from his dominions, on the ab- 
surd ground, that they kept in their hands the commerce of the 
kingdom ; and Spain thus lost above 160,000 of the most indus- 
trious of her inhabitants. Ihe exiles spread themselves over the 
other kingdoms of Europe, and v/ere often the victims of a perse- 
cution equally inhuman. It v/ould appear that Spain has felt, 
even to the present times, the effects of this folly, in the slow 
progress o{ the arts, and that deplorable inactivity which is the 
characteristic of her people. Even the discovery of the new world, 
"which happened at this very period, and which stimulated the 
spirit of enierprize and industry in all the neighbouring kingdoms, 
produced but a feeble impression on that nation, which might in 
a great degree have monopolized its benefits. Of that great dis- 
covery -we shall afterwards treat in a separate section. 



SECTION XXX. 

FRANCE, ?P A IN, AKD ITALY, IN THE END OF THE FIF- 
TEENTH ANL> EEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CEN- 
TURY. 

1. Lc^^-^is Xllj^^agorly bent on vindicating his right to Naples., 
*Courted the intesest oi pope Alexander VI, who promised his aid 
©n condition that his natural son, Caesar Borgia, should receive 
from Lewis the dutchy of Valentinois, with the king of Navarre's 
sister in marriage. Lewis crossed the Alps, and in the space of a 
few days was master of Milan and Genoa. Sforza duke of Milan 
became his prisoner for life. Afraid of the power of Ferdinand of 
Spain, Levv'is joined with him in the conquest of Naples, and 
agrcied to divide with him the conquered donnnions, the pope ma- 
king no scruple to sanction the partition. But the compromise 
was of no duration; for Alexander VI, and Ferdinand, judging it 
a better policy to bhare Italy between themselves, united their 
interest to deprive Lewis of his new territories. Ihe Spaniards, 
under Gonsaivo de Cordova, defeated the French, under the duke 
de Nemours and the chevalier Bayard; and Lewia irrecoverably 
lost his share of the kingdom of Naples. 

2. History relates Avith h irror the crimes of pope Alexander 
VI, and his son Cfpsar Borgia ; their murders, robberies, profana- 
tions, incests. They compassed their ends in attaining every ob- 
ject of their ambition, but with the universal abhorrence of man- 
kind, and finally met with an ample retribution for their crimesv 
Ihe pope died by poison, prepared, as was alleged, by himself for 
an enemy ; and Borgia, stripped of all his possessions by pope Ju« 
lius H, and sent prisoner to Spain by Gonsaivo de Cordova, per«5 
Xihed in miserable obscurity. 

3. Julius 11, the successor of Alexander, projected the forrrRda- 
ble league of Cambray, 1508, with the emperor, th^ kixi^s oS 



MODERN HISTOIIY. 173 

France and Spain, tlie duke of Savoy, and king of Hungary, for 
the destmctiou of Venice, and the division of her territories among* 
the confederates. They accomplished in part their design, and 
Venice was on the verge of annihilation, when the pope changed. 
his politics. Having made the French subservient to his viev/s of 
piandcring the Venetians, he now formed a new league with the 
Venetians, Germans, and Spaniards, to expel the French from Ita- 
ly, and. appropriate all their conquests. The Swiss and the Eng- 
lish co-operated in this design. The French made a brave resis- 
tance under their generals Bayard and Gaston de Foix, but were 
iinally overpowered. Lewis was compelled to evacuate Italy. 
Ferdinand, with the aid of Henry VHl. of Engdand, stripped him 
of Navarre, and forced him to purchase a peace. He died in 1515. 
Though unfortunate in his military enterprizes, from the "superior 
abilities of his rivals pope Julius and Ferdinand, yet he was justly 
esteemed by his subjects for the wisdom and equity of his govern- 
ment. 

SECTION XXXL 

HISTORY OF ENGLAND FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE 
FIFTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH 
CENTURY. CIVIL WARS OF YORK AND LANCASTER, 

1. We have seen France recovered from the English in the ear- 
ly part of the reign of Ileury VI, by the talents and prowess of 
Charles Vlll. During the minority of HVnry, who was a prince 
of no ca])acily, England was embroiled by the factious contention 
for power bctv/een his uncles, the duke of Gloucester and the car- 
dinal of Winchester. The latter, to promote his own viev/s of 
ambition, married Henry to Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Reg- 
i.ier the titular king of Naples, ar-woman of great mental endow- 
ments and singular heroism of character, but whose severity in 
the persecution of her enemies alienated a great part of the nobles, 
from their alleg'iance, and increased the partizans of a rival claim- 
ant of the crown, 

2. This was Richard duke of York, descended by his mother 
from Lionel, second son of Edv/ard III, and elder brother to Jr-hn 
of Gaunt, the progenitor of Henry VI. The Avhite rose distin- 
guished the faction of York, and th-; red rose that of Lancaster. 
The party of York gained much strong! ''j f:o v, iI e incapacit}'- of 
Henry, who was subject to periodical mrfe,;!':-;-:;^ -, aad Richard was 
appointed lieutenant and protector of the kiogdo'ii. The author- 
ity of Henry v;as now annihilated ; but Miargaret roused her hus- 
band, in an interval of sanity, to assert his right ; and the nation 
was divided in arms between the rival parties. In the battle of 
St. Albans 5000 of the Lancastrians ^ye^e slain, and the king vv-as 
taken prisoner by the duke of York, on the 2.2d day of May, 1455. 
Yet the parliament, while it confirmed the authority of the pro- 
tector, ma.intained its allegiance to Ihe kiiig. 

t>. The spirit of the queen reanimated the reyal party ; and tha 
15* 



174 MODERN HISTOR¥. 

Lancastrians gained such advantage, that the duke of York fiedto 
Ireland, while his cause was secretly maintained in England by 
"Guy earl of Warwick. In the battle of Northampton the party 
vof York a£,-ain prevailed, and Henry once more was brought priso- 
ner to London ; v.hile his dauntless queen still nobly exerted her- 
self to retrieve his fortunes. York now claimed the crown in open 
parliament, but prevailed only to have his rijrht of succession as- 
certained on Henry's death, to the exclusion of the royal issue. 

4. In the next l^attle the duke of York was slain, and his party 
defeated ; but his successor Edward, supported by Warwiclc, 
avenged this disaster by a signal victory ntar Touton, in York- 
shire, in which 40,000 of the Lancastrians wf re slain. York was 
proclaimed king: by the title of F.dwar;! IV, while >''arg-a et, with 
"her dethroned husbarid and infant son, fled into Flanders. 

5. Edward, who owed his crown to Warwick, was unjjrateful 
to his benefactor ; and the imprudence and injustice of his con- 
duct forced thai nobleman at leujo-th to take part with the faction 
of Lancaster. The consequence was, that, after some struggles, 
Edward was deposed, and Henry VI. once more restored to the 
throne by the hands of Warwick, now known by the epithet of 
the king-maker. But this change was of no duration. The party 
•af York ultimately yirevailed. The Lancastrians were defeated 
in the battle of Barnet, and the brave Warwick was slain in the 
engagement, 1472. 

6. 1'he intrepid Margaret, whose spirit was superior to every 
change of fortune, prepared to strike a last blow for the crown of 
England in the battle of Tev/ksbiu-y. The event was fatal to her 
"hopes: victory declared for Edward. Margaret was sent prisoner 
to the tower of London ; and the prince her son, a youth of high 
.spirit, when brou.siht into the presence of his conqueror, having 
nobly darod to justify his eaterprize to the face of his rival, was 
"bar!,arouK]y murdered by the dukes of Gloucester and Clarence. 
Henry VI. was soon after privately put to death in the tower. 
The heroic Margaret, ransomed by Lewis XI, died in France, 1482. 

7. Ldward IV, thus; secured on tiie throne by the death of all 
Ills competitors, abandoned himself wilhout reserve to the indul- 
gence of a vicious and tyrannical nature. He put to death, on the 
most frivolous pretence, his brother Clarence. Prepaiing to grat- 
ify his subjects by a war vith Prance, he died suddenly in the 
forty-second year of his i-.ge, poisoned, as was suspected, by his 
brother Jiichard duke of Gloucester, 1483. 

8. Edward left two sobs, the elder, Edward V.,.a boy of thir- 
teen years of ag.:. Richard dukcof GloL?cester, named protector 
in the minority of his nephew, hired, by means of Hucking-hani, a 
iDoh of the dregs of the populace to declare their wish for his as- 
eumption of the crown. He yielded, with affected reluctance, to 
this voice of the nation, and was proclaimed king by the title of 
Richard III, 1483. Edward V, after. a reiga of two months, with 
liis brother the duke of York, were, by command of the usurpec, 
-smothered while asleep, and privately buried in the Tower. 

9. These atrocious crimes found an aveiiger in Henry earl of 
;Eicimieiidj -ihe ^uxiiTiiig h&K of iii^iwuse of I^ucaster, .itiiPj ai(if 



MODERN HISTORY, 1 T^ 

^ed by Olnarles Vni. of France, landed in Fne;land, and revived 
the siiiiits of a party almost <:^xtin!4,uished in the kiiigdom. He 
gave battle to Richard in the field of B'-^sworth, and entirely de- 
feated the army of tht,- usurper, who was slain while fig^hting; with 
the most desperate ooiirag-e, August '2'2, 1485. 7 he crown which 
he wore in the engagement was immediately placed on the head 
■ of the conqueror. '• his auspicious day put an end to the civil 
wars of York and Lancaster. Henry \U. nnited the rights of both 
families by his marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Idward IV, 

10. 1 he reign of ■' lenry VII. was of twenty- four years' duration ; 
and under his wise and politic government the kingdom recovered 
all the wounds wdiich it had sustained in those unhappy contests. 
Industry, good order, and perfect subordination, were the fruit of 
the excellent laws passed in this reign; though the temper of the 
sovereign was despotic, and his avarice, in the latter part of hiip 
reign, prompted to the most oppressive exactions. 

11. 'the government of Henry was disturbed by two very sin- 
gular enterprlzes ; the attempt of Lambert Simnel, the son of a 
ba.ker, to counterft it the person of the earl of Warwick, sou of 
the duke of Clarence ; and the similp.r attempt of Perkin V^'an- 
beck, son of a Flemish Jev/, to counterfeit the duke of York, who 
had been smothered in the Tower by Bichard III. Both iinpos- 
•tors found considerable support, but were tiaally defeated. .Sim- 
nel, after being crowned king of England and Ireland at Dublin, 
'€nded his days in a menial olfice of Henry -s household. Perkin 
•supported his cause by force of arms for five years., and was aided 
by a great proportion of the English nobility. Overpowered at 
.length he surrendered to Henry, who condemned him to perpe- 
tual imprisonment ; but his ambitious spirit meditated a new la- 
surreclion, and he was put to death as a traitor. Henry VIL 
idied in 1509, in the fifty- third year of his age, aud the twenty- 
jfourth of his rtia-n. 



3IIST0RY OF .SCOTLAND FRO]VI THE MIDDLE OF THE 

FOURl'EENTPi CENTURY TO THE . ND OF THE REIGN 
OF JAMES V. 

1. In no country of Europe had the feudal aristocracy attained 
'to a greater height than in Scotland. 1 he power of the greater 
barons, while it rendered them independent, and often the rivals 
■of their sovereign, wao a perpetual source of turbulence and dis- 
order in the kingdom. It was therefore a constant policy of the 
Scottish kings to humble the. nobles, and break their factious cora« 
binatioijs. Robert I. attempted to retrench the vast territorial 
possessions of his barons, by requiring every landholder to produce 
ihe titles of his estate; but was resolutely answered^ that the 
:«word was their charter of possessioK. 

2. On the death of Robert in 1329,, and during the minority. of 
iius-^a J^avid^ i^dward Baiiol, .tiue son oiJolm foxmerly .kuji .of 



176 MODERN KISTORY. 

Scotland, -with the aid of Edward III. of England, and of mjuiy of 
thf; factious barons, invaded the kingdom, aud was crowrjed at 
Scoue, while the youiag- David was conveyed for security to 1" raDce. 
The mepai dependence of Baliol on the English monarch dej^rivcd 
him of the affections of the people. Robert, the steward of Scot- 
land, Randolph, and Douglas, supported the Bnician interest, and, 
assisted by the French, restored David to his throne. This prince 
■was destined to sustain many reveises of fortune ; for, in a subse- 
quent invasion of tiie English territory by the Scots, he was taken 
prisoner i)i the battle of Durham, and conveyed to Ecndon. Ho 
remained eleven years in captivity, and witnessed a similar fate of 
a brother monarch, John kin,:? of France, tajteu prisoi^r by the 
black prince in the battle of loictiers. David was ransomed by 
his subjects, and restored to his lungdom in 1357 ; and^ended a 
turbulent reign in 1370-1. The crown passed at his demise to, his 
nephew Robert, tho high steward of Scotland, in virtue of a des- 
tination made by Robert L 

3. The reign of Robert II, which was of twenty years' duration, 
was ?pent in a s*ries of hostilities between the Scots and English, 
produ(^tive of no material consequence to either kingdom. The 
weak and indolent disposition cf his successor Robert HI, who 
found himself unequal to the contest with his factious nobler*,. 
prompted him to resign the government to his brother, the duke of 
Albany. 1 his ambitious man formed thu dcr>ign of usurping the 
throne by the murder of his nephews, the sons of Robert. The 
elder, Rothsay, a prince of high spirit, was imprisoned on pretence 
of treasonable designs, and starved to death. The younger, 
James, esca-jied a similar fate which was intended for him '; but on 
his passage to France, whither he was sent for safety by his father, 
he was taken by an Ens^dish ship of war, and brought prisoner to 
London. The weak K.ebert sunk midei? these misfortunes, and 
died, 1405, after a reign of filteen years. 

4. James I, a prince of great natural endowments, profited by a 
captivity of eighteen years at the court of England, in adorning" 
his mind with every valuable accomplishment. At his return tqi 
his kingdom, which in bis absence had been weakly governed by 
the regent Albany, and suiTcred under all the disorders of anarchy, 
he bent his whob- attention t« the improvement and civilization of 
his people, by the enactment of many excellent laws, enforced 
with a resolute authority. The factious of the nobles, their dan-t 
gerous combinations, and th<-ir domineering tyranny over their de-. 
pendents, the great sources of the people's miseries, were firmly, 
restrained, and most severely punished. But these wholesome in-« 
nova'.ions, while they procured to James the atfections of the na-4 
tion at large, excited the odium of the nobility, and gave birth tq' 
a conspiracy, headed by the earl of Athole, the king's uncle^ 
which terminated in the murder of this excellent prince, in the- 
44th year of his age, A. D. 1437. 

5. liis son James II. inherited a considerable portion of the tal* 
ents of his father ; aud, in the like purpose of icstraining the inor- 
dinate power of his n©bks, pursued the same maxims of govern-* 
lueut, which aa impttuous temper prompted hijn, ia some instan-*; 



MODERN HISTORY. 177 

ces, to carry to the most blameable excess. The earl of Douglas, 
trustirii^ to a powerful vassalas^e, had assumed an authority above 
the lawi, and a state and splendour rival to those of his sovereign. 
lie was seized^ and beheaded without accasation or trial. Hia 
.uccessor imprudently running the same career, and boldly justi- 
fying', in a conference, hia rebellious practices, was pwt to death 
by the king^s own hand. Thus were the factions of the nobles 
quelled by a barbarous rigour of authority. To his people Jame« 
■was beneiicent and humane, and his laws contributed materially 
to their civilization and prosperity. He was killed, in the 30th 
year of his a^e, by the bursting of a cannon, in besieging the cas- 
tle of Roxburgh, A. D. 1460. 

6. His son James III, without the talents of his predecessorsj 
affected to tread in the same steps. To humble his nobles he be- 
stowed his confidence on mean favourites, an insult which the for- 
mer avenged by rebellion. His brothers Albany and Mar, aidsd 
by Edward IV. of England, attempted a revolution in the kiugf^- 
dom, which was frustrated only by the death of Edward. In a 
second rebellion the confederate nobles forced the prince of Roth- 
say, eldest son of James, to appear in arms against his father. In 
an engagement near Baanockburn the rebels v/ere successful, and 
the king was slain in the 35Lh year of his age, 14'J8. 

7. James IV, a great and most ancompli.-hed prince, who«e tal- 
ents were equalled by his virtues, while Viiy measures of govern- 
ment v/erc dictated by a true spirit of patriotism, r/on by a well- 
placed confidence the alfeclions of his nobility, la hia marriage 
with Margaret, the daughter of Henry VII. of England, both sov^e- 
reigns wisely sought a b-nd of amity betv/sen the kingdoms ; but 
this purpose was frustrated in the succeeding reign of Henry VIII, 
The high spirit of the rival monarchs Avas easily inflamed by tri- 
fling causey of offence ; and France, theii at war with England, 
courted the aid of her ancient ally. James invaded England with 
a powerful army, which he wislied to lead to immediate action ; 
but the prudent delays of Surrey, the English general, wasted and 
weakened his force. In the fatal battle of llodden the Scots 
were defeated with prodigio;:s slaughter. The gallant James per- 
ished in the iigat, aud with him almost the whole of the Scottish 
nobles, A. D. 15 13. 

8. Under the long minority of his son James V, an infant at the 
time of his father''s death, the kingdom was feebly ruled by hia 
uncle Albany, i he aristocracy began to resume i{:s ancient spu'it 
of indepeidence, wnich was iil-brooiied by a prince of a proud 
and uncontroulabie mind, who feit the keenest jealousy of a iiigh 
prerogative. With a :ystematic policy he employed the church to 
abuse tha nobility, con-erring all the ofhces of sta e oa able eccle- 
siastics. The cardinal Oeaton o-operaied with great zeal in the 
desi^iis of his master, and uud^er him ruled the kmgdom. 

9. ileury "/Hi, embroiled wi'h the papacy, so.ight an alliance 
with the king of Scots; but the ecciesiasiical counsellors of the 
latLiU- defeated this beneficial purpose. A war was thus provoked, 
aa 1 a nt-s was rei ictantly compelled to court those nobles whom 
it had hitherto bma hia darling object to humiliate. I'hcy now 



173 MODERN HISTORY. 

determined on a disgraceful revenge. In an attack en the Scot 
tish border the English Avere repelled, and an opportunity olfercu 
to the Scots of cutting ofi' their retreat. The king gave his order" 
to that end, but his barons obstinately refused to advance beyond 
the frontier. One measure roore was wanting- to drive their sove- 
reign to despair. In a subsequent engagemeat witli the English 
10,000 of the iScots deliberately surrendered themselves prisoners; 
to 500 of the enemy. The high spirit of James sunk under his 
contending passions, and he died of a broken heart in the S3d 
year of his age, A. I). 1542, a few days after the birth of a daugh- 
ter, yet more unfortunate than her father, Mary queen of Scots. 



SECTION XXXIIL 

OF THE ANCIENT CONSTITUTION OF THE SCOTTISH 
GOVERNMENT. 

1. We have seen that it was a constant policy of the Scettish 
kings to abase the power of their nobles; and that the striiggie 
for poAver was the source of much misery and bloodshed. But 
this policy was necessary, from ihe dangerous ambition and law- 
less tyranny of those nobles, who frequently aimed at overturnin-r 
the throne, and exercised the severest oppression on all their de- 
pendent.?. Thp intercuts, therefore, of the people, no lefs than 
the security of the prince, demanded the repression of this over- 
weening and destructive power. The aristocracy was, however,^ 
preserved, no less by its own strength than by the concurrence of 
circumstances, and chiefly by the violent and unhappy fate of the 
sovereigns, Meant-ime, though the measures which the kings 
pursued were not successful, yet their consequences were bene!;- 
cial. lliey restrained, if they did not destroy, the spirit of feudal 
oppression, and gave birth to order, wise laws, and a more tranquil 
administration of government. 

2. The legislative power, though nominally resident in the par- 
liament, was virtually in the king, v/ho, by liis influcuce, er.tijeiy 
controuied its proceedings. The parliament con%iitod of three 
estates, the nobles, the dignified clergy, and the less barons, who 
were the representatives of the t»wus and shires. Ihe disposal 
of benefices, gave the crown the entire command of the church- 
men, who were equal to the nobles in number ; and at least a ma- 
jority of the commons were the dependents of the sovereign A 
committee, termed the lords of the articles, prepared every mea- 
sure that was to come before the parliament, iiy the mode of its 
election this committee was in effect nominated by the king. It 
is to the credit of. the Scottish princes, that there are few insiauce? 
of their abusing an authority so extensive a^ that which they con- 
stitutionaliy enjoyed. 

3. The king had anciently the supreme jurisdiction in all catises, 
civil and criminal, wlJch he generally exercised through the me- 
dium of his privy council ; but in 1425 James I. instituted tlie court 
of gessioivs, consisting of the chanceUor and certain judges cholera 



MODERN HISTORY. 179 

,'.jinHic three estates. This court was new-modelled by James 
V, and its jurisdiction limited to civil cause?, the cognizance of 
crimes being- committed to the i justiciary. The chancelW v,as the 
highest officer of the crown, and president of the parliament. To 
the chamberlain belon^jed the care of the finances and the public 
police'; to the high steward the charge of the king's hou-.,ehold ; 
the constable regulated all matters of military arrangement ; and 
the marshal was the king"'-« lieutenant, and master of the horse. 

4. The. revenue of the sovereign consisted of his domain, which 
was extensive, of the feu(^al casualties and forfeitures, fae profits of 
the wardships of his vassals, the rems of vacant benefices, the pe- 
cuniary lines for offences, and the aids or presents occasionally given 
by the subject ; a revenue a,t all times sufhcient for the purposes of 
government, and the support of the dignity of the crowu. 

5. The political principles which regulated the coi. luct of the 
Scots toward other nations were obvious and siruple. It had ever 
been an object of ambition to England to acquire the sovereignty 
ef Scotland, which was constantly on its guard against this design 
of its more potent neighbour. It was the wisest policy for Scot- 
land to attach itself to France, the natin-al enemy of Eni;land ; an 
ailiaiice reciprocally courted from similar motives. In those days 
this attachment was justly deemed patriotic ; while the Scot?, 
who were the pa?'ti2ans of England, were with equal justice re- 
gardf;d as traitors to their country. In the period of which we 
now treat, it was a settled policy of the English sovereigns to 
have a secret faction in their pay in Scotland, for the purpose of di- 
viding and thus enslaving the nation ; and to this source all the 
subsequent disorders of the latter kingdom are to be attributed. 



SECTION XXXIV. 

A VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF LITERATURE AND SCI- 
ENCE IN EUROPE, FROM THE REVIVAL OF LUTTERS 
TO THE END OF THE FIFl'EENTH CENTURY. 

1. The first restorers of learning in Europe were the Arabi- 
ans, who, in the course of their Asiatic conquests, becoming ac*- 
i^uainted with some of the ancient Greek authors, discovered and 
justly appreciated the knowledge and improvement to be derived 
from them. The caliphs procured from the eastern emperors co- 
pies of the ancient manuscripts, and had them carefully translated 
into Arabic ; esteeming principally those which treated of mathe- 
matics, physics, and metaphysics. They disseminated their 
knowledge in the course of their conquests, and founded schools 
and colleges in all the countries which they subdued. 

■2. The western kingdoms of Europe became tirst acquainted 
v/ith the learning of the ancients through the medium of those 
Arabian translations. Charlemagne caused latin translations to 
be made from the Arabian, and founded, after the example of the 
caliphs, the universities of Bononia, Favia, Osnaburg, and I'aris. 
Alfred w^th a similar spirit, and by similar means, introduced a 



180 MODERN HISTORY. 

taste for literature in England ; but the suli?equent jflisordcrs cf the 
kingdom rephmged it into barbari.«m. The Norman?, ho-vve\-cr, 
fcrouofht from the continent some tincture of ancient Ifearning-, 
which was kept alive in the monasteries, -where the monks ■vvere 
meritoriously employed in tranpcribing a few of the ancient au- 
thors, along with the legendary lives of the saints, 

3. In this dawn of literature in England appeared Henry of 
Huntington and Geoflrcy of Monmouth, names distinguished in 
the earliest annals of poetry and romance ; John of Salisbury, a 
moralist; Vvilliam of Malmesbury, annalist of the history of Eng- 
land before the reign of Stephen ; Giraldus Cambrensis, known in 
the fields of history, theology, and poetry; Joseph of Exeter, au- 
thor of tMO Latin epic poems on the Trojan war, and the war of 
Antioch, or the crusade, which are read with pleasure even in the 
present day. 

4. But this era of a good taste in letters was of short duration. 
The taste for classical composition and historical information 
yielded to the barbarous subtleties cf scholastic divinity taught by 
Lombard and Al»elard, and to the abstruse doctrines of the Koman 
law, which began to engage the general attention from the re- 
cent discovery of the };andects at Amalphi, 7 137. The amuse- 
ments of the vuh-^ar in those periods were metrical and prose ro- 
mances, unintelligible prophecies, and fables of giants and en- 
chanters. 

5. In the middle of the thirteenth century appeared a distin- 
guished genius, Roger Eacon, an English friar, whose comprehen- 
sive mind was filled with all the stores of ancient learning ; wh# 
possessed a discriminating judgment to separate the precious ore 
from the dross, and a pov.-er of invention fitted to ad^■ance in eve- 
ry science which was the object ofliis study. He saw the insuf- 
ficiency of the school philosophy, and f rst recommended the pro- 
secution of knowledge by experiment and the observation of na- 
ture. He made discoveries of importance in astronomy, optics, 
chemistry, medicine, and mechanics. He reformed the kalender, 
discovered the construction of telescopic glasses forgotten after his 
time, and revived by Galileo, and has left a plain intimation of his 
knowledge of the composition of gun-powder. Yet this superior 
genius believed in the possibility of discovering an elixir tor the 
prolongation of life, in the transmutation of metals into gold, and in 
judicial astrology. 

6. A general taste prevailed for poetical composition in the 
twelfth and thirteenth centuries. 1 he troubadours of Provence 
wrote sonnets, madrigals, and satirical ballads ; and excelled in 
extempore dialogues on the subject of love, which they treated in 
ft metyphysical and Platonic strain. 1 hey contended for thei^rize 
of poetiT^ at solemn meetings, where princes, nobles, and the most 
illustrious ladies attended to decide betv.'een the rival bv.rtls ; and 
some of those prlncep, as Richard I. of England, Frederick L em- 
peror of Germany, are celebrated as troubadours of eminence. 
Many fragments yet remain of their compositions. 

7. The transference of the papal seat to Avignon, in the four- 
teectJj century, familiarised the Italian poets with the songs of the 



MODERN HISTORY. 181 

troubadour?, and g^ve a tincture of the Provencal style to their 
compositions, which is very observable in the poetry of Petrarch 
and of Dante. The Divina Comedia of Dante ftrst introduced the 
machinery of angels and devils in the room of the pagan mytho- 
logy, and is a work containing many examples of the terrible sub- 
lime. The Sonnels and Cansoni of Petrarch are highly tender and 
pathetic, though vitiated with a quaintnes? and conceit, which is a 
prevalent feature of the Italian poetry. The Dtcamerone of Boc- 
cacio, a work of the same age, is a ma?ter-piece for invention, in- 
genious narrative, and acquaintance with human nature. These 
authors have fixed the standard of the Italian language. 

8. Cotemporary with them, and of rival merit, was the English 
Chaucer, who displays all the talents of Boccacio, through the 
medium of excellent poetry. The works of Chaucer discover an 
extensive knowledge of the sciences, an acquaintance both with 
ancient and modern learning, particularly the literature of France 
and Italy, and, above all, a most acute discernment of life and 
manners. 

9. Of similar character are the poems of Gower, but of a gra- 
ver cast, and a more chastened morality. Equal to these eminent 
men in every species of literary merit was the accomplished James 
I. o( Scotland, of which his remaining writings bear convincing 
testimony. The doubtful Rowley of Bristol is said to have adorn- 
ed the fifteenth century. 

10. Spain at this period began to emerge from ignorance and 
bacbarisn, and to produce a few of those works which 3re enume- 
rated with approbation in the whimsical but judicious criticism of 
Cervantes. (Don Quixote, b. 1, c. 6.) 

11. Though poetry attained in those ages a considerable degree 
of splendour, yet there was little advancement in general litera- 
ture and science. History was disgraced by the intermixture of 
miracle and fable ; yet we find much curious information in the 
writings of Matthew of Westminster, of Walsing;hara, Everard, 
Duysburg, and the Chranicles of Froissart and Monstrelet. Phi- 
lip de Commines happily describes the reigns of Lewis XI. and 
Charles Vfll. of France. Villani and Platina are valuable re- 
corders of the affairs of Italy. 

12. A taste for classical learning in the fifteenth century led to 
the discovery of many of the ancient authors. Poggio discovered 
the writings of Quintilian and several of the compositions of Ci- 
cero, which stimulated to farther research, and to the recovery of 
ma>iy valuable remains of Greek and Roman literature. But this 
taste was not generally diffused. France and England were ex- 
tremely barbarous. The library at Oxford contained only 600 
volumes, and there were but four classics in the royal library at 
Paris. But a brighter period was approaching. On the fall of the 
eastern empire, in the end of the fifteenth century, the dispersion 
of the Greeks diffused a taste for polite literature over all the west 
of Europe. A succession of popes, endowed with a liberal and 
enlightened spirit, gave every enco 'ragement to learning and the 
sciences; and, above all, the noble discovery of the art of print- 

16 



iS2 MODERN HISTORV. 

ing contributed to their rapid advancement atid disycmlnation, an^ 
g'ave a certain assurance of the perpetuation of every valuable 
alrt, and the prcg-ressive improvement of human knowledge. 

13. The rise of dramatic composition among the moderns is to be 
traced to the absurd and ludicrous representation, in the churches, 
©f the Bcripture histories, called in England mysteries, miracles, 
and moralities. These were first exhibited in the twelfth century, 
and continued to the sixteenth, when they were prohibited by law 
in England. Of these we have amusing specimens in Warton's 
History of English Poetry. Profane dramas were substituted in 
their place ; and a mixture of the sacred and profane appears to 
have been known in France as early as 1300. In Spain the farci- 
cal mysteries keep their ground to the present day, and no regular 
composition for the stage was known till the end of the sixteenth 
C'entury. The Italians are allowed by their own writers to have 
borrowed their theatre from the French and English. 

See Kelt's Elements of General Knowledge, vol. I. 



SECTION XXXV. 

VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF COMMERCE TN^ EUROPE 
BEFORE THE PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES. 

1. Before we give an account of the discoveries of the Portu- 
guese in the fifteenth century, in exploring a new route to India, 
we shall present a short view of the progress of commerce in Eu- 
rope down to that period. 

The boldest naval enterprize of the ancients was the Periplus 
of Hanno, who sailed from Carthage to the coast of Guinea, with- 
in four or five degrees of the equator, A. C. 570. The ancients 
did not know that Africa was almost circumnavigable. They had 
a very limited knowledge of the habitable earth. They believed 
that both the torrid and frigid zones were uninhabitable ; and 
they were very imperfectly acquainted with a great part of Eu- 
rope, Asia, and Africa. Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, Poland, the 
greater part of Russia, were unknown to them. In Ptolemy's de- 
scription of the globe the 63d degree of latitude is the limit of the 
earth to the north, and the equator to the south. 

2. Britain was circumnavigated in the time of Domitian. The 
Romans frequented it for the purposes of commerce ; and Tacitus 
mentions London as a celebrated resort of merchants. The com- 
merce of the ancients was, however, chiefly confined to the Medi- 
terranean. In the flourishing periods of the eastern empire the 
merchandize of India was imported from Alexandria; but, after 
the conquest of Egypt by the Arabians, it was carried up the In- 
dus, and thence by land t© the Oxus, which then ran directly into 
the Caspian sea ; thence it was brought up the Wolga, and again 
carried overland to the Don, whence it descended into the Euxine. 

3. After the fall of the western empire commerce was long at A 
stand in Europe. When Attila was ravaging Italy the V^eneti took 
reluge in the small islands at the northern extremity of the Adri- 



MO»ERN HISTORY. 183 

atic, and there founded Venice, A. D. 452, which began rery early 
to equip small fleets, and trade to the coasts of Egypt and the Le- 
vant, for spices and other merchandize of Arabia and India. Ge- 
noa, Florence, and Pisa imitated this example, and began to ac- 
quire considerable wealth ; but Venice retained her superiority 
over these rival states, and gained considerable territory on the 
•pposite coast of lilyricum and Dalmatia. 

4. The maritime cities of Italy profited by the crusades, in fur- 
nishing the armies with supplies, and bringing home the produce 
of the east. The Italian merchants established manufactures sim- 
ilar to those of Constantinople. Rogero king of Sicily brought ar- 
tizans from Athens, and established a silk manufacture at Palermo 
in 1130. The sugar-cane was planted in Sicily in thj twelfth cen- 
tury, and thence carried to Madeira, and finally made its way to 
the West Indies. 

6. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the Italians were the 
only commercial people of Europe. Venice set the first example 
of a national bank in 1157, which has maintained its credit to the 
present ti7nes. The only trade of France, Spain, and Germany, at 
this time, was carried on at stated fairs and markets, to which tra- 
ders resorted from all quarters, paying a tax to the sovereigns or 
the lords of the territory. The more enterprizing bought a privi- 
lege of exemption, by paying at once a large sum, and were thence 
.called frtt traders. 

6. In the middle ages the Italian merchants, usually called Lom- 
bards, were the factors cf all the European nations, and were en- 
ticed, by privileges granted by the sovereigns, to settle in France, 
Spain, Germany, and England. Ihey were not only traders in 
commodities, but bankers, or money dealers. In this last business 
they found a severe restraint from the canon law prohibiting the 
■taking of interest ; and hence, from the necessary priva-^y of their 
bargains, there were no bounds to exorbitant usury. The Jews, 
too, who were the chief dealers in money, brought disrepute on 
the trade of banking, and frequently sufiered, on that account, the 
most intolerable persecution and confiscation of their fortunes. 
^J'o guard against the?e injuries they invented hills of exchange. 

7. The Lombard merchants excited a spirit of commerce, and 
gave birth to manufactures, which were generally encouraged by 
the sovereigns in the different kingdoms of Europe. Among the 
chief encouragements was the institution of corporations or mono- 
polies, the earliest of which are traced up to the eleventh century ; 
a policy beneficial, and perhaps necessary, where the spirit of in- 
dustry is low, and manufactures are in their infancy ; but of hurt?' 
ful consequence where trade and manufactures are flourishing. 

8. Commerce began to spread toward the north oX Europe about 
the end of the twelfth century. The sea-ports on the Baltic tra- 
ded with France and Britain, and with the Mediterranean by the 
staple of the isle of Oleron, near the mouth of the Garonne, then 
possessed by the English. The commercial laws of Oleron and 
Wisbuy (on the Baltic) regulated for many ages the trade of Eu- 
l^ope. To protect their trade from piracy Lubtc,^ Hamburgh, and 
pjQst of tht; northern jjea-portsj^'omed in a confederacy, under ctsf 



284 MODERN HISTORY. 

-tain general regulations, termed the league of the hanse.-towna ; a 
uuion so btneficial in its nature, and so formidable in point of 
strength, that its alliance was courted by the predominant powers 
•f Europe. 

9. For the trade of the hanse-towns with the eouthern kingdoms, 
Bruges, on the coast of l landers, was found a convenient entre- 
pot, and thither the Mediterranean merchants brought the commo- 
dities of India and the Levant to exchange with the produce and 
manufactures of the north. 'J he Flemings now began to encour- 
age trade and manufactures, which thence spretid to the Eraban- 
ters ; but their growth being checked by the impolitic sovereigns 
of those provinces, they found a more favourable field in Englanc), 
which was destined to derive from them the great source of its na- 
tional opulence. 

10. Ihe Britons had very early seen the importance of com- 
merce. Bede relates that London was frequented by foreigners 
for the purpose of trade in 614; and William of Malmesbury 
spealcs of it, in 1041, as a most populous and wealthy cily. Ihe 
cinque ports, Dover, liastings, Ijylhe, Romney, and Sandwich, 
obtained in that age their privileges and immunities, on condition 
of furnishing each five ships of war. These ports are now eight 
in number, and send their members to parliament. 

11. The woollen manufacture of England was considerable in 
the twelfth century. Henry IL incorporated the weavers of Lon- 
don, and gave them various privileges. By a law passed in his 
reign, all cloth made of foreign wool was condemned to be burnt. 
Scotland at this time seems to have possessed a considerable source 
of wealth, as is evident from the payment of the ransom of Will- 
iam the lion, which was 10,000 merks, equal to 100,0001. sterling 
of present unjney. Ihe English found it difficult, to raise double 
that sum for the ransom of Richard I, and the Scots contributed a 
proper ion of it. Ihe F^nglish sovereigns at first drew^ a conside- 
rable revenue from the custom on wool exported to be manufac- 
tured abroad ; but becoming soon sensible of the benefit of encour- 
aging its home manufacture, they invited, for that purpose, the 
foreign artisans and merchants to reside in England, and gave 
them valuable immunities. Edward III. was peculiarly attentive 
to trade and manufactures, as appears by the laws passed in his 
rrign ; and he was bountiiul in the encouragement of foreign arti- 
sans. 'Ihe succeeding reigns were not so favourable. During the 
civil wars of York and Lancaster the spirit of trade and manu- 
factures greatly declined ; nor did they begin to revive and flour- 
ish till the accession of Henry VII. In that interval of their de- 
cay in England commerce and the arts w^ere encouraged in !• cot- 
laud by James I. and his successors, as much as the comparatively 
rude and turbulent state of the kingdom would permit, i he her- 
ring fishery then began to be vigorously promoted ; and the duties 
laid on the exportation of woollen cloth show that this mani.fac- 
ture was then cimsiderabie among the h'cots. Glasgow begai; to 
acquire wealth by the fisheries in 1420, but had little or n loi^iga 
trade till after the discovery of Amci ipa and thp VV 6?t lji4*e>. 



M^DEKN HISTORY. 1-^5 

12. Henry VII. gfare the most liberal enccwtragenient to trade 
•a.U'1 inannfacture?, particularly the woollen, by invitin? for<'iofn ar- 
tisans, and establishins^ them at Leeds, Wakefield, Halifax, and 
Other places. The navigation acts werc^ passed in his r'irn, and 
-eommercial treaties formed with the continental kingdoms for the 
protection of the merchant-shipping. Such was the state of com- 
merce at the time when the ]^orta;^nese made those great discove- 
ries which opened a new route to India, and gave a circulation to 
its wealth over most of the nations of Europe. 



biECTION XXX VI. 

-BISCOVFRIES OF THE PORTUGUESE IN THE FIFTEENTH 
CENTURY, AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE COMMERCE 
OF EUROPE. 

1. The polarity of the magnet had been known in Europe as 
•early as the thirteenth century-? but the eompass was not used in 
sailing- till the middle of the fourteenth ; and another century had 
jelapsed from that period, while yt t the European mariners scarce- 
•ly ventured out of the sight of their coasts. I'he eastern ocean 
•was little known ; and the \tla!)tic was supposed to be a bound- 
less expanse of sea, extending probably to the eastern shores qf 
Asia. In the belief tbat the torrid zone was uninhabitable, a pro- 
montory on the African coast, in the 20th degfree of north latitude,, 
was termed Cape Non, as forming an impassable limit. 

2. In the beginning of the fifteenth century John king of Por-'* 
tugal sent a few vessels to explore the African coast ; aijd those 
doubling Cape Non proceeded to Cape Boyador, within two de- 
grees of the northern tropic. Prince Henry, the son of John, 
-equipped a single sliip, which, being driven out to sea, landed on 
the island of Porto "^anto. 'Phis involrnitary experiment embold- 
ened the mariners to abandon thfir timid mode of coastin.jr, and 
launch into the open sea. In 1420 the Fortu£:uese discovered Afa- 
d^ira, where the> established a colony, and planted the Cyprus 
>vine, and the su.i^ar cane 

3. 'ihe spirit of enrterprize being thus. awakened, prance sHenry 
. obtained froai i'ugeae IV. a bull granting to the Portuguese the 
.property of all the countries which they might discover between 
Cape .%on and India. Under John 11. of I'ortngal th'' Cape V'erd 
islands were discovered and colonized ; and the fleets, advancing 
to the coast of Guinea, btot^.gbl home gold-dust, gums, and ivir^. 
Having passed the equator, the t oTtuguese entered a new hfrnis- 
phcre, and boldly proceeded to the extiemity of the continent. 
Jn 1479 a fleet under Vasco do Gama dcsibled the c:\pe of (iood 
Hope, aud, pailins: onwards beyond the mouths of the ,-rabian and 
Persian gvilphs, arrived at Calicut, on the Vlala ni' coast, a'ler a 
Toyagt' ol 1500 leagues, perf->rmed in thirieen months. 

4. '6 'iaaia eale ed into a) alliance wiih the rajah of '' a1;ci^ 
.■ft uibutary of tht Xvlogul empire, axid . returned .to Ligboo wuh sp.e- 

;h3* 



186^" 



MODERN HISTORY, 



cimens of the wealth and produce »f the country. A succeeding 
fleet formed settlemcj fs, and, vanquishing^ the opposition ol \\\e 
native princes, soon achieved the conquest of all the coast of !\ al- 
ahar. The city of Goa, taken by storm, became the residence of 
a Portuoruese viceroy and the capital of their Indian settlements. 

5. The Venetians, who had hitherto engrossed the Indian trade 
by Alexandria, now lost it forever. After an ineffectual project 
of cutting; through the isthmus of Suez, they attempted to inttr- 
cei't the Portuguese by their fleets stationed at the mouth of the 
Ked sea and Persian gulph, but were every where encountered V>y 
a superior force. 'J'he Portus:ue?e made settlements in both the 
gulphs, and vig-oronsly prosecuted their conquests on the Indian 
coast and sea. The rich island of Ceylon, the kino^doms <f Pegu, 
Sian, and Malacca, were speedily subdued, and a settlement es- 
tablished in Eeneal. They proceeded onward to China, hitherto 
scarcely known to the Europeans but by the account of a single 
Venetian traveller, Marco Paolo, in the thirteenth century; and 
th( y obtained the emperor''s permission -to form a settlement at 
Macao, thus opening a commerce with that immense empire, and 
the neighbouring islaiids of Japan. In the space of fifty years the 
Portuguese were maj'ters of the whole trade of the Indian ocean, 
and soverei;;ns of a large extent of Asiatic territory. 

6. These discoveries produced a wonderful effect on the com- 
merce of Europe. The produce of the spice islands was computed 
to be worth annually ^00,000 ducats to I isbon. The \'ene1ians, 
after every efi'ort to destroy the trade of the Portuguese, oflered to 
become sole j^urrharers of all the spice brought to P^urope, but 
were refused. Commercial industry was mused in every quarter, 
and manufactures made a rai'id progress. Lyons, '1 ouis, Abbe- 
ville, iVlarscilJes, Pordeaux, acquired imnjenso wealth. Antwerp 
and Amsterdam became the g-reat marts of the north. The for- 
mer owed its splendour totbe decline of Pruges, which was ruined 
by civil commotions; and the Portuguese made Antwerp their en- 
trepot for the J'lipj'ly of the northern kingdoms. It continued high- 
ly flourisbihg till the revolt of the JSetherlands, in the end of the 
sixteenth century, when it was taken by the Spaniards, and its 
port d(;stroye<l by blocking up the Scheld. 

7. The trade of Holland rose on the fall of Antwerp. Amster- 
dam become considerable after the decline of the hanseatic con- 
federacy in 1^28, but rose into splendour and high commercial op- 
ulence from the destruction of Antwerp, 'i he United Provinces, 
dependent on industry alone for their support, became a model of 
commercial activity to all nations. 

8. Britain felt the effect of that general stimulus which the Por- 
tuguese discoveries gave to the trade of Europe ; but other causes 
had a more sensible oj)erAtion to that end in England. 7 he refor- 
mation, by suppressing the convents, and restoring many thousands 
to society, and the cutting off the pa] al exactions, which drained 
the kingdom of its wealth, the politic laws passed in the reign of 
Iicnry \ III, and the active patriotism ol Llizabetbj "WW* vigorous 
iucexitives to national industry. 



^ MODERN HTSTORY. 187 

0. From the lime of Henry VIII. to the pr€i?rnt, the commcrco 
and manufactures of En»-land have been unifrmly progressive. 
The reital of Eng'laiid in lands and hou?es did not then exce^-d 
five iiiillions per annum ; it is now above eighteen millions. 'I'he 
unrnanufactuied wool of one year's growth is supposed to be worth 
two millions ; when manufactured, as it now is. by Kritish hands, 
it is worth ei.^ht millions. Above a million and a half of hands 
are employed in that manufacture alone ; half a million are em- 
ployed in the manufactures of iron, slecl, copp, r, bras«, lead ; the 
lin n manufactures of F^nji^land, Scotland, and Irelaud occ ipy 
nearly a million; and a number not m'ch inferior is f^nployed in 
the fisheries. It is presuma'de, on the wh >le, that nearly a fourth 
of the population of the united kingdoms is actually employed in 
commerce and manufactrn'es. 

10. The vast increase of the national weal'h of Britain appears 
chiefly, 1, from the increase of population, which is sujipos^d to 
be nearly five to one (at least in the largfc cities) since the reii^n 
of i;iizai)cth ; 2, from the great addition made (o the cultivated 
lands of the kingdom, and the hii;h improvement of a^itipnltiire 
since that ptiriod, whence more than qua 'ruj)le the quantity of 
food is produced ; 3, from the increase of the co nmcrcial ship- 
ping, at least sixfold within the same time ; 4, from the co.np.ara-' 
tive low rate of interest, which is demonstrative of the increase 
of wealth, 'i'he consequences of the ditfusion of the commercial 
spirit are most important to the national ^welfare. 1 rom general 
industry arises affluence, joined to a spirit of independence ; and 
on this spirit rests the freedom of the liriush constitution, and ail 
tlie blessings which we enjoy under its piotectioa. 



SECTION XXXVII. 

GERMANY AND FRANCE IN THE REIGNS OF CriARLES 
V. AND FRANCIS I. 

1. We resume the detail of the history of Europe at the be- 
ginning of the sixteenth century, previously remarking, that the 
Germanic empire continued for above fifty y ars in a state of lan- 
guid tranq'ullity, from tlie time of Albert i;, the successor of 8i- 
gismun^I, during the long reign of 1 rederick III, whose son .V'ax- 
iinilian acquired, by his marriage with Maiy durhess of }>urgundy, 
the sovereignty of the Netherlands. Maximilian was elected 
Fimpercr in 1493 ; and, by establishing a perpetual peace between 
the separate Germanic states, laid the foundation of the subse- 
quent grandeur of the empire. 

2. Philip archduke of Austria, son of Maximilian, married 
Jane, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella ; and of that n)ar- 
riaj^e the eldest son was Charles V, who succeeded to the throne 
of Spain in 1510, and, on the death of his grandfather iVlaxi ni- 
iian, preferred lis claim to the vacant im})erial throne, lie had 
for hi> c.impctilor J rancis 1. of i ranee, who liad distinguished 
liimseif by the conquest of the Milanese, and the adjustment o^ 



l^ , MODERN HlSTOR-t. 

the rrntendirg irtercsts of the Italian states. The C etDi an elect- 
■orf, afraid of the exorbitant pcTvcr both of Charles and oi 1 lan- 
ds, v.onld hare rf jert( d Vclh. ?rd r cr^erred th( in j evial cjr\Mi 
on rredericV duke of Faxony ; butthi? extraordinary man declin- 
ed the proffered dignity, and his council determined the election 
in favonr of Charles of Austria, 1519. 

3. Charles V. and Francis I v. ere now declared enemies, and 
their nniti' al clairj? on each other's dominions -were the suljtct 
of perpetual hostility. Ihe fmperor claic ed Artoisas part ot the 
JN^ttherlands. Francis prepared to make good his rii'-ht to the 
two Sicilies. Charles had to defend IN'ilan, and to support hi& 
title to P^avarre, which had been wrested from 1 ranee 1 y hi« 
grandfather Ferdirand. I'enry VIJI. of 1 ngland was courted by 
the rival monarchs, as the weight of Fngland was sv.fEcirnt t© 
■turn the scale, where the power of each was nearly balanced. 

4. 1 he first hostile ^attack was made 1 y 1 rancis on the king^dona 
of Navarre, which he won -and lost in the course of a fev months. 
■The emperor attacked Picardy, aivd his troops at the same time 
tliove the French out of the IV'ilanese.. On the death of Leo X. 
Charles placed cardinal Adrian on the papal throne, 1521 ; and 
by ihe promise of ele%'ating "\^ olsey, the miuisfer of F'enry \ IlL, 
tf' that dignity, on the death of Adrian, gained the alliance of the 
English monarch in his war against franco. 

5. At this critical time Francis im.prudtntly quarrelled with his 
Ibest general, the constable of Bourbon, who, in reven^re, desf ried 
th- emperor, and was by him investefi with the chief comniand 
of his armies. T he imperial generals were far superior in abili- 
ties to their opponents, 'ihe French were defeated at Eiagrassa, 
rand Charles was carrying every thing before him in Italy, when 
'Francis entered the Milanese, and retook the capital ; b».t, in the 
subsequent battle of 1 ai ia, his troope were entirely defeated, an{^ 
?thc French monarch became the constable of Bourbon's prisoner,,' 
1525. 

6. The emperor made no advantage of his good fortune. By 
'thf treaty of iViadrid Francis regained his liberty, on yielding to 

Charles the duchy of Burgundy, and the superiority of f landers 
.and Artois. Fie gave his two sons as hostages for the fultlmeat 
cf these ccnditioiifi ; but the states refi'sed to ratify them, anjd 
the failure was compromised for a sum of money. 

7. On the renewal of the war, Fienry VIll. took part with 
France, and t.:harles lest An opportunity cF obtainirg the sove- 
;reignty of taly. Ihe papal arrmy in the French .interest vas de- 
feated by tlie constable of iourbon., and the pope ^inistlf made 
jpvi«oner ; but Bor.rbon v>!a3 killed in the seige of I ome, and 
•Charles allowed the pope to purchase his release. 

8. After the conclusion of the peace of Cam'rray, 1525, Charley 
Tisited Italy, and received the imperial diadem from pope de- 
ment V^L the Turks having invaded t.ungary. the tn)pfcror 
■inarched against them in person,. and compeibd the sultan boly- 
•.anHn, with an a my <jf 300,000 ni-en, to evacuate the country. He 
:Soo)i after enibarked for ^frica, to replace the c( hroped fv uley 

^iaosau io.tbt.sov.ej-ei^nty oi Uvmis Aud Aljiers^ ^\hi.ch Jiad Jbtrfiia 



MODERN HISTORY. 31 SS 

usurped by Hayradin Barbarossa ; and he achieved the enter- 
pri-'ti with honour. His repiuation at this period exceeded that 
of all the sovereig-ns of Europe, for political ability, real power, 
and th*? extent and opulence of his doiniuions. 

9. Francid was glad to ally himself even with the Turks to cope 
with tlie ifnperialists, and Barbarossa invaded Italy; but the 
troops of Charles prevented the co-operation of the French, and 
separately defeated and dispersed the allied powers, while anoth- 
er army of the imperialists ravaged Champagne and Picardy. 

10. in the interval of a truce, which was concluded at Nice, for 
ten years between the rival rnonarchs, Charles passed through 
France to the Netherlands, and was entertained liy Francis with 
the most magnilicent hospitality. He had promised to grant to 
tho French king his favourite desire, the investiture of Milan ; but 
failing to keep his word, the war was renewed with double ani- 
mosity. The French and Furkish fleets attacked Nice, but were 
dispersed by the Gei:oese admiral, Andrea Doria. In Italy the 
French were victorious in the battle of Cerizoles, but dre-w no 
benefit from this partial adv\antage. The imperialists, on the 
whole, had a decided superiority, and France must have been un- 
done, if the disorders of Germany, from thf contending interests 
of thr^ catholics and prostestanid, had not forced the emperor to 
conclude the treaty of Crepi with i'raiicis, 1544. At the same 
time Francis purchased a peace with Henry VIII, who had again 
taken part with his rival. Francis died soon after, in 1547 ; a 
prince of great spirit and abilities, and of a generous and noble 
raind, uoibrtuuate only from the necessity of strugglijjg against a 
power which overmatched him both in policy and iu resources. 

11. A short tiiue before this period was founded the order of 
the Jesuits by Ignatius . oyola, 1535. The principle of the order 
was implicit obedience and submission to the pope. The bre- 
thren were not confined to their cloisters, but allowed to mix with 
the world ; and thns, by gaini g the confidence of princes and 
states;nen, they v/ere enabled to direct the policy of nations to the 
g^reat end of estal-iishing the suprem • authority of the holy see, 
Ihe wealth which they accumulated, the extent of their power, 
and the supposed cousequences of their intrigues to the peace of 
nations, excited at length a general hostdity to th ir oid r ; a id 
the institution has recently beeni abolished ia all the kingdoms of 
Europe. 

12. U Charles V. aimed at universal empire, he was ever at a 
di.-'tance from the object of his wishes. 1 he lonnidable confede- 
racy of the prolestants to preserve their liberties a.id thtir leii- 
gion, gave hi, a perpetual disquiet in GJ-ermany. He never co>tld 
foim his doiiinions into a well connected bo 1y, from the sepaiate 
national interests of the Spaniards, 1' lemisii, a.id ^jeriians ; and 
even the imperial states were divided by their jealousies, politu al 
and religious. Fho hostilities of foreign powers gave hnn con- 
tinual annoyance. e found in fleury II, the successor of 1 ran- 
cis, an antag>.iist ai formidable as his father. lis cares and dif- 
fic.)iti<;s increased as he adva iccd ii lii"-, a id n. length ntirely 
Ijioke the vi°;our of ais mind. la a state of melancholy despoiid- 



190 MODERN HISTORY. 

ency he retired from the "world at the age of fifty-six, resigning 
firat the kingdom of Spain to his son Philip II, 1556, and after- 
wards the imperial crown in favour of his brother Ferdinand, vrh9 
waa elected emperor on the 24th day of February, 1558* 



SECTION XXXVIIL 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GER* 
MAN EJVIFIB-E. 

1. Preriously to the reign of Maximilian T, the Germanic em- 
pire was subject to all the disorders of the feudal governments. 
The general diets of the state were tumultuous and indecisive, 
and their constant wars with one another kept the whole in anar- 
chy and barbarism, \^'enceslaus, in 1383, endeavoured to reme* 
dy those evils by the enactment of a general peace ; but no effect- 
ual measures were taken for securing it. Albert II. attempted 
to accomplish the same end, and had some success. He divided 
Germany into six circles, each regulated by its own diet ; but the 
jealousies of the states prompted them constantly to hostilities, 
which there was no superior power sufncient to restrain. 

2. At length Maximilian I. procured, in 1500, that solemn en- 
actment which established a perpetual peace among the Germanic 
states^ under the cogent penalty of the aggressor being treated as 
a common enemy. He established the imperial chamber for the 
settlement of all differences, 'i he empire was divided anew into 
ten circJes, each circle sending its rtpresentatives to the imperial 
chamber, and bound to eulorce the public laws through its own 
territory. A regency was appointed to subsist in the iatervals of 
the diet, composed of twenty members, over whom the emptier 
presided. 

3. These regulations, however wise, would probably have failed 
of their end, it ihe influence of the house of Austria, which has for 
three crnturies continued to occupy the in^.j ( rial throne, had cot 
enforced oledience to them. U he ambition and policy of Lbark.3 
V. would have betn dangerous to the freedom of the German prin- 
ces, if the new system ol" preserving a balance of power in Europe 
had not made tlu se princes find allies and protectors sufficient to 
traverse the emp^^ror's schemes of absolute dominion. He attained, 
however, an authority far bey- nd that of any of his predecessors, 
Qhe succeeding emperors imitated his policy ; but, as they did not 
possess equal talents, they found yet stronger obstacles to their en* 
croachraents on the freedom of the states. 

4. The Germanic liberties were settled for the last time by the 
treaty of Vestphalia, in 164o, which fxcd the eraperor^s preroga- 
tives, and the privii- ges of the siatts. 1 he constitution of the em- 
pire is not iramed for the ordinary ends of government,^ the prosper- 
ity and happiness of the people. It regard-s not the rights of the 
subjects, but only the independence of the several princes; and its 
§olc object is to mail -ain each in the enjoyment of hi.^ sovereignty, 
ajidjjrevent usurpations and eiicroachments on one aao.iher''s ter^ 



MdDERN HfSTORT. 191 

tit^rie.q. It has no relation to the particular gfovernment of th^ 
states, each of which has its own laws and constitution, some 
rtiore free, and others more despotic. 

5. The general diet has the power of enacting the public lawsr 
of the empire. It consists of three college?, the electors, the prin- 
ces, and the free cities. All such public laws, and all g'eneral 
m^jasures, are the subject of the separate deliberation of the elec- 
toral college and that of the princes. \\ hen jointly approved by 
them, the resolution is canvassed by the college of the free cities, 
and, if agreed to, becomes ?i placiticm of the empire. If approved 
finally by the emperor, it is a conchisum^ or general law. If disap- 
proved, the resolution is of no effect. Moreover, the emperor must 
be the proposer of all general laM's. Still farther, no complaint or 
request can be made by any of the princes to the diet withont the 
approbation of the elector archbi?hop of Mentz, who may refuse it 
at his pleasure. These constitutional defects are the more hurtful 
in their consequences, from the separate and often contending in 
terests of the princes, who have all the rights of sovereignty, the 
power of contracting foreign alliances, and ai-e frequently possessed 
of foreign dominions of far greater value than their imperial terri- 
tories. 

6. The Germanic constitution has, however, in some respects, 
its advantages. The particular diets of each circle tend to unite 
those princes in all matters of national concern, whatever may be 
the discordance of their individual interests. The regulations made 
in those diets compensate the want of a general legislative power, 
Reside the circular diets, the electors, the princes, the free 
cities, the catholics, and the protestants, hold their particular diets, 
when their common interests require it ; and these powers balance 
one another. Considered, therefore, solely in the light of a league 
of several independent princes and states, associating for their 
common benefit, the Germanic constitution has many advantages ; 
in promoting general harmony, securing the rights of its members, 
and preventing the weak from being oppressed by the strong. 



SECTION XXXIX. 

OF THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY AND SWITZER- 
LAND, AND THE REVOLUTION IN DENMARK AND 
SWEDEN. 

1. The age of Charles V. is the era of the reformation of reli- 
gion, of the discovery of the new world, and of the highest splen- 
dour of the fine arts in Italy and the south of Europe. We shall 
treat in order of each of these great objects ; and, first, of the re-- 
formation. 

The voluptuous taste and the splendid projects of pope Leo X. 
demanding large supplies of money, he instituted through all the 
chrisiian kingdom?) a sale of indulgences, or remittances from the 
pains of pur.'ratofy. This traffic being abused to the most shocking: 
•purposes, Martin Luther, an Augustine friar, \entured to preacii 



192 MODERN HISTORY. 

against it, and to inveigh with acrimony against the power which 
a.'i*^l'0 ized it. He found many willing hearers, particularly in the 
electorate of Saxony, of v/hichthe prince Frederick was his Iriend 
and protector. Leo X. condemned hi? tenets by a papal hull, which 
on'v increa.sed the zeal and indignation of the preacher. In a book 
which he published, entitled the Babylonish CapHtiiy^ he applied 
all the scriptural attributes of the whore of Babylon to the papal 
hierarchy, and attacked with equal force and virulence the doc- 
trines of travsnbstantiation, purgatory, the celibacy of the priests, 
and the refusal of wine to the people in the corarounion. 1 he book 
beina: condemned to the flumes, Luther burned the pope's bull and 
the decretals at \Mttemberg:, 1550. 

2. One of the first champions, who took up the pen against 
Luther, was Henry VITI. of England ; whose book, presented to 
pop' Leo, procured him the title now annexed to his crown, of 
defend; r of the faiih. The rtst of Europe seemed to pay little at- 
tention to these rising c-^ntroversies. Charles V, studious of the 
fi-iendsbip of the pope, took part against Irther, and summoned 
him to answer for his doctrines in the diet of Worms. The reformer 
defended himself with great spirit, and, aided by his friend the 
elector, made a safe escape into Saxony, v/here the mass was 
novv^ uniyrrsally abolished, the images destroyed, and the convents 
shut up. The friars and nuns returned to the world, and Luther 
took a nun for his wife. Nor did these secularized priests abuse 
their new freedom, for their manners were decent, and their life 
exemplary. 

3. Erasmus has justly censured the impolicy of the catholic 
clergy in their modes of resisting and suppressing the new doctrines. 
They allowed them to be discussed in s«;rmons before the people, 
and employed for that purpose furious and bigoted declaimers, who 
only increased and widened differences. They would not yield in 
the most insignificant trifle, nor acknowledge a single fault ; and 
they persecuted with the utmost cruelty all whose opinions were 
not agreeable to their own standard of faith. How wise is the 
counsel of lord Bacon ! " 'Jhtre is no better way to stop the rise of 
new sects and schisms, than to reform abuses, compound the les- 
ser differences, proceed mildly from the first, refrain from sanguinary 
persecutions, and rather to soften and win the principal leaders, by 
gracing and advancing them, than to enrage them by violence and 
bitterness.'" Bac. Mor. Ess. Sect. 1. Ess. 12. 

4. Switzerland followed in the path of reformation. Zuinglius 
of Zurich preached the new tenets with such zeal and effect, that 
the whole canton was converted, and the senate publicly abolished 
the mass, and purifie* the churches, Berne took the same mea- 
sures with greater solemnity, after a discussion in the senate which 
lasted two months. Basle imitated the same example. Other 
cantons armed in defence of their faith ; and in a desperate en- 
gagement, in which the protestants were defeated, Zuinglius was 
slain, 1531. 

5. Lutheranism was now making its progress towards the north 
of Europe. Sweden, Denmark, and Norway were at this time gov- 
erned by Christiern II, the Nero of the north* The Swedes, re- 



MODERN HISTORY. 193 

luctantly cubnuttinc; to the yoke, were kept in a-we by Troll, arch* 
bishop of Upsal, a faithful minister of the tyrant in all his schemes 
of oppression and cruelty. On intellitrence of a revolt, the king' 
and his primate, armed with a bull from pope Leo X, massacred 
the whole body of the nobles and senators, amidst the festivity of a 
banquet. Gustavus Vasa, grand nephew of Charles Canutson, 
formerly kinj^ of Sweden, escaped from this carnage, and concealed 
himself in the mines of Dalecarlia. By degrees assembling a small 
army, he defeated the generals of Christicrn, whose cruelties at 
length determined the united nations io viudicate their rights, by a 
.solemn sentence of deposition. The tyrant fled to Flanders, and 
Frederick duke of Holstein was elected sovereign of the three 
kingdoms ; but Sweden, adhering to her heroic deliverer, and the 
heir of her ancient kings, acknowledged alone the sovereignty of 
Gustavus Vasa, 1521. The bull of Leo X, and its bloody conse- 
quences, were sufficient to convert Sweden and Denmark to the 
tenets of the reformed religion. Gostavus enjoyed his sceptre ma- 
ny years in peace, and contributed greatly to the happiness and 
prosperity of hia kingdom. 

6. As early as 1525, the states of Saxony, Brunswick, Hesse 
Cassel, and the cities of Strasburgh and Frankfort, had embraced 
the doctrines of the reformation. Luther had now a species of 
spiritual control, which he exercised by means of a synod of six 
reformers. His successful example gave rise to reformers of differ- 
ent kinds, whose doctrines were less consonant to reason or good 
policy. Two fanatics of Saxony, Storck and Muncer, condemned 
infant baptism, and therefore were termed anabaptists. They 
preached universal equality and friedom of religious opinion, but, 
with singular inconsistency, attempted to propagate their doctrines 
by the sword. They were defeated at Mulhausen, and Muncer 
died on a scaffold ; but the party seemed to acquire new courage. 
They s,urprised Munster, expelled the bishop, and anointed for their 
king a tailor named Jack of Leyden, who defended the city with 
the most desperate courage, but fell at length, with his party un- 
der the superior force of regular troops. The anabaptists, thus san- 
guinary in their original tenets and practices, have long ago be- 
come peaceable and harmless subjects. 

7. The united power of the pope and emperor found it impossi- 
ble to check the progress of the reformation. The diet of Spires 
proposed articles of accommodation between the Lutherans and 
catholics. Fourteen cities of Germany, and several of the electors, 
protested formally against those articles ; and hence the Lutheran 
party acquired the name of protest anfs. They presented to the 
assembly at Augsburg a confession of their faith,^ which is the 
standard of the protestant doctrines. 

8. The virtuous lives and conduct of the protestant leadert, 
compared with those of the higher clergy among the catholics, 
formed a contrast very favourable to the progress of the reforma* 
tion. The solemn manner in which the states of Switzerland, and 
particularly Geneva, had proceeded, in calmly discussing every 
point of controversy, and yielding only to the force of rational con- 
riction, attracted the respect of all Europe. John CaJvin, a 

17 



19-4 MODERN HISTORY. 

Frenchman, becoming a zealous convert to the new doctrines, wa» 
the first who gave them a systematic form by his Institutions^ and 
enforced their authority by the establishment of synods, consisto- 
ries, and deacons. The magistracy of Geneva gave these ordinan- 
ces the authority of law ; and they were adopted by six of the Swiss 
cantonsj by the protestants of France, and the presbyterians of 
Scotland and England. The ablest advocates of Calvin will find 
it difficult to vindicate him from t]ie charge of intolerance and the 
spirit of persecution ; but these, which are the vices or defects of 
the individual, attach not in the least to the doctrines of the refor- 
mation, which are subject to the test of reason, and can derive no 
blemish or dishonour from the men who propagated them, or even 
from the motives which might influence some of their earliest sup- 
porters. This observation applies more particularly to the subject 
of the ensuing section. 

See Kett''s Elements of General Knowledge, Vol. I. 



SECTION XL. 

OF THE REFOJIMATION IN ENGLAND UNDER HENRY 
VIII, AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 

1. "VVicklifF, in the middle of the fourteenth century, by an at- 
tack on the doctrines of transnbstantiation, indulgences, and auricu- 
lar confession, and still more by a translation of the scriptures into 
the vernacular tongue, had prepared the minds of the people of 
England for a revolution in religious opinions ; but his professed 
tbllowers were not numerous. The intemperate passions of Henry 
Vlll. were the immediate cause of the reformation in England. He 
bad been married eighteen j^ears to Catharine of Spain, aunt of 
Charles V, by whom he had three children, one of them, Mary, af- 
terwards queen of England ; when, falling in love with Anna Eullen, 
he solicited Clement VII. for a divorce from Catharine, on the score 
of her former marriage to his elder brother Arthur. The pope found 
himself in the painful dilemma of either affronting the emperor, or 
mortally offending the king of England. In hope that the king's 
passion might cool, he prptracted the time by preliminaries and 
negotiations, but to no purpose. Henry was resolutely bent on 
accomplishing his wishes. The Sorbonne and other French uni- 
versities gave an opinion in his favour. Armed with this sanction, 
he caused Cranmer archbishop of Canterbury to annul his mar- 
riage. The repudiated queen gave place to Anna Bullen. On 
this occasion Wolsey, the minister of Henry, lost the favour of his 
master, by opposing, as was believed, his darling measure. 

2. Clement VII, from this specimen of the wayward temper of 
Henry, resolved to keep well with the emperor, and issued his bull, 
condemnatory of the sentence of the archbishop of Canterbury. 
Henry immediately proclaimed himself head of the church of Eng- 
land ; the parliament ratified bis title, and the pope's authority 
was instantly suppressed in all his dominions, 1534. He proceed- 
ed to abolish the monasteries, and confiscate their treasures auci 



MODERN HISTORY. 195 

revenues, electing out of the latter six new bishoprics and a col- 
lege. The itnmoraUtie3 of the monks were sedulously exposed, 
the forgery of relics, false miracles, &c., held up to the popular 
scorn. 

3. Yet Henry, though a reformer, and pope in his own king- 
dom, had not renounced the religion of Rome : he was equally au 
enemy to the tenets of Luther and Calvin as to the pope''s jurisdic- 
tion in England. Inconstant in his affections, and a stranger to all 
humanity, he removed Anna Bullen from the throne to the scaf- 
fold, to gratify a new passion for Jane Seymour, a maid of honour, 
who happily died about a year after. To her succeeded Anne of 
Cleves, whom he divorced in nine months, to make way for Cath- 
arine Howard. She imderwent the same fate with Anna Bullen, 
on a similar suspicion of infidelity to his bed. His sixth wife, Cath- 
arine Parr, with difficulty retained her hazardous elevation, but 
had the good for|:ane to survive the tyrant. 

4. On the death of Henry VIII, 1547, and the accession of his 
son Edward VI, the protestant religion prevailed in England, and 
was favoured by the sovereign ; but he died at the early age of 
fifteen, 1553 ; and the sceptre passed to the hands of his sister Ma- 
ry, an intolerant calholic, and most cruel persecutor of the protes- 
taats. In her reign, which was of five years' duration, above 800 
miserable victims v/ere burnt at a stake, martyrs to their religious 
opinions. Mary inherited a congenial spirit with her husband, 
Philip II. of Spain, whose intolerance cost him the loss of a third 
part of his dominions. 

5. Mary was succeeded in 1558 by her sister Elizabeth, the 
daughter of Anna Bullen, a protestant, the more zealous from an 
abhorrence of the character other predecessor. In her reign the 
religion of Engl ah. 1 became stationary. The hierarchy was estab- 
lished in its present form, by archbishops, bishops, priests, and dea- 
cons, the king being by law the head of the church. The liturgy 
had been settled in the reign of Edward VI. The canons are agreea- 
ble chiefiy to the Jjutheran tenets. 

Of the reformation ia Scotland we shall afterwards treat under 
a separate section. 



SECTION XLI. 

OF THE DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST OF AMERICA BY 
THE SPANIARDS. 

1. Among those great events which distinguished the age of 
Charles V. was the conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortez, and 
of Peru by the two brothers, Francis and Gonzalo Pizarro. The 
discovery of America preceded the first of these events about 
twenty-seven years ; but the account of it has beea postponed, 
that the whole may be shortly treated in connection. 

Christopher Columbus, a Genoese, a man of an enterprizing 
spirir, having in vain solicited encouragement from his native state, 
iiom Portv-gal, and fxom England, to attempt discoveries in the 



1S8 MODERN HISTORY. 

■western ocean, applied to Ferdinapd and Isabella ©i' Spain, U»- 
der the patronage of Isabella, as queen of Castile, he was furnish- 
ed -with three small ships, ninety men, and a few thousand ducats 
for the expense of his voyage. After thirty-three days' sail from 
the Canaries he discovered Pan Ir'alvador, September, 1492 ; and 
«oon after the islands of Cuba and hispaniola. He returned to 
v^p^ain, and brought a few of the natives, some presents of gold, 
-and curiosities of the country. He was treated by the Spaniardi 
with the highest honours, and soon supplied with a suitable arma- 
ment for the prosecution of his discoveries. In his second voyage 
he discovered the Caribbees and Jamaica. In a third voyag^e 
he descried the continent of America, within ten degrees of the 
jequalor, toAvard the isthmus of Panama. 1 he next year the geo- 
grapher Ariicricuf followed the track of Columbus, and had the 
undeserved honour of giving his name to this continent. 

ii. The inhabitants of America and its islands were a race of 
men quite new to the Europeans. They are of the colour of cop- 
per. In some oiiarteis, as in Mexico and I'eru, the Spaniards are 
said to have found a flouiif^hing empire, and a people polished, re- 
iined, and luxurious ; in others, man was a naked savage, the mem- 
ber of a wandering- tribe, v/hose sole occuj'a'ion was hunting or 
war. The savag^cs of the continent were characterized by their 
cruelty to their enemies, their contempt of death, and their gene- 
rous aiicction lor their friends. 1 he inhabitants of the islands 
were a miider race, of gentler manners, and less hardy conforma- 
tion of body and miud. The larger animals, as the horse, the 
cow, were unknown in America. 

3. 'i hose newly-discovered countries were believed to contain 
inexhaustible treasures. Ihe Spaniards, under the pretence of 
religion and policy, treated the inhabitants with the most shock- 
ing inhumanity. The rack, the scourge,. the faggot, were employ- 
ed to convert them to Christianity. They were hunted like wild 
beasts, or burnt alive in their thickets and fastnesses. Hispanio- 
la, containing three millions of inhabitants, ar^ Cuba, containing 
above 60t?,U00, were absolutely depopulated in a fev/ yea.r3. It 
was now resolved to explore the continent; and lernando Cortez, 
with eleven ships and 617 men, sailed for that purpose from Cuba 
irj 1519. Landing at Tabasco, he advanced, though with a brave 
opposition from the natives, into the interior of the country. The 
state of Tlascala, after ineffectual resistance, become the ally of 
the Spaniards. On the approach of the Spaniards to Mexico, the 
larror of their name had paved the way for an easy conquest. 

4. The Mexican empire, though founded little more than a cen- 
tm-y before this period, had arisen to great splendour. Its sove- 
reig::;, Montezuma, received the invaders wiih the reverence due 
to superior beings. But a short acquaintauce opened the eyes of 
the Mexicans. Finding nothing in the Spaniards beyond what 
was human, they were daring enough to attack and put to death 
a few of them. The intrepid Cortez immediately marched to the 
palace with fifty men, and putting the emperor in irons, carried 
him off prisoi er to his camp ; where he afterwards persuaded him 
to acknowledge himself a vassal of the kin^ of Cas^tile^ .tpholdiiis 



MODERN HISTORY. 197 

crown of the king^ as his superior, and to subject his dominions to 
the payment of an annual tribute. 

5. Velasquez, governor of Cuba, jealous of Cortez, attempted 
to supersede him, by dispatching a superior army to the continent ; 
but Cortez defeated his troops, and compelled them to join his 
own banners. In an attack by the Mexicans for the rescue of their 
sovereign, Montezuma, havini^ ol/ered to mediate between them 
and their enemies, was iudiijnantly put to death by his own sub- 
jects. The whole empire, under iti new sovereign, Guatimozin, 
was now armed against the Spaniards ; and while ihe plains were 
covered with their archers and spearnica, the lake of Mexico Wcia 
filled with armed canoea. To oppose the l&ttcr the Spaniards 
built a few vessels under the walls of their city, and soon evinced 
their superiority to their feeble foe on both elements.. The mon- 
arch was taken prisoner by the officers of Cortez, and was stretch- 
ed naked on burning coals, because he refused to discover hia 
treasures. Soon after a conspiracy against the Spaniards was dis- 
covered, and the wretched Guatimozin, with all the princes of hia 
blood, were executed on a gibbet. This wa^ the last blow to the 
power of the Mexicans ; and Cortez was now absolute master o£ 
the whole empire, 15'25. 

6. In the year 1531 Diego D^'Almagro and Francis Pizarro, witi> 
250 foot, 60 liorse, and 1,2 small pieces of cannon, lauded iu Peru, 
.a large -and flourishing empire, governed by an ancient race of mo- 
narchs named Incas. The Inca Atabalipa receiving the Spaniarda 
with reverence, thej immediately required him to embrace the. 
christian faith, ar^d surrender all his dominions to the emperor 
Charles V, who had obtained a' gift of them from Llie pope. I'he 
proposal being misunderstood, or received with hesitation, Pizair© 
seized the monarch as his prisoner, while his troops massacretj 
13000 of the Peruvians on the spot. The empire was nov/ plun- 
dered of prodigious treasures in gold and precious stones ; and 
Atabalipa, being suspected of concealing a part from his insatia- 
ble invaders, was solemnly tried as a criminal, anrd atrax^gled at ^ 
stake. 

7. The courage of the Spaniards surpassed even their inhumg,^ 
nity. D'Almagro marched 500 leagues, through continual oppo- 
sition, to Cusco, and penetrated across the Cordilleras into Chili, 
two degrees beyond trie southern tropic. He was slain in a civiji 
Tvar between him and his assrjciate lYancis Pizarro, who was sooigi 
after assassinated by the party of his rival. A few years alter the 
Spaniards discovered the inexhaustible silver mines of Potosi, 
%vnich they compejled the Peruvians to work for their advantage. 
They are now wrought by the negroes of Africa. 'Ihe native Pe^ 
ruvians, who are a weakly race of men, were soon ,aimoi;t ex!er- 
riiinated by cruelty' and intolerable labour. The humane bii>bop 
of Chiapa remonstrated with success to Charles V. on this siibject^ 
and the residue of this miserable people have been since tjrt.ateU 
with more indulgence. 

8. The Spanish acquisitioas in Amejica belong to the crown^ 
;azid.oo.t to the atate ; they are the absolute propertj of tiie^oy^ 

22* 



198 



MODEEN HISTORY, 



reign, and regfiilated solely by his will. They consist of fliree ^ 
provinces, Mexico, Peru, and Terra Firma ; and are governed by 
three viceroys, who exercise supreme civil and military authority 
over their respective provinces. There are eleven courts of audi- 
•ence for the administration of justice, M'lth whose judicial pro- 
ceedings the viceroys cannot interfere-; and their judgments are 
subject to appeal'to the royal council of the Indies, whose juris- 
diction extends to every department, ecclvsiaslical, civil, military, 
■and commercial. A tribunal in .Spain, called Cam de la Contrata- 
C'ion^ regulates the departure of the fleets, and their destination 
•and equipment, under the control of the council of the Indies. 

9. The gold and silver of Spanish America, though the exclu- 
sive property of the crown of Spain, has, by means of war, mar- 
riages of princes, and -extension of Commerce, come into general 
circulation, and has greatly increased the quantity of specie, and 
diminished tlie value of money over all Europe. 



SECTION XLIL 

POSSESSIONS OF THE OTHER EUROPEAN NATIONS IN 
AMERIC.i. THE UNITED STATES. 

1. The example of the Spaniards excited a desire in the other 
n&tions of Europe to participate with them in the riches of the 
new world. The French, in 1557, attempted to form a settlement 
on the coast of }'''azil, where the Portuguese had already estab- 
hshed themselves from the beginning of the century. Tiic colony 
%vas divided by faction, and was soon utterly destroyed by the Por- 
tuguese. It is one of the richest of the American setllementSj 
both from the produce of its soil, and its mines of gold and pre- 
<ious stonesu 

2. The Spaniards Vv^ere in possession of Florida when the French 
attempted to colonize it in 1564, withoirt success. The French 
established a settlement in Acadie in 1604, and founded Quebec 
in Canada in 1G08. But these settlements were perpetually sub- 
ject to attack from the English. In Id'iO the pTench had not a 
foot of territory in America. Canada has been repeatedly taken 
by the English, and restored, by different treaties, to tbe French ; 
but since the peace of 17t>3 it has been a British settlement. The 
Preixh drew ihi/v greatest a-h^^ntages bom the islands of St. Do- 
ni'ngo, Guadaloupe, and Martinico. From their continental pos- 
isessljus of Lo'iisiana, and the settlements on the Missisippi, which 
they have now lost, they never derived any solid benefit. 

S. The Dutch huvt- no settlement on the continent of America, 
but Surinam, a part of Guiana ; and, in the West-Indies, the isl- 
ands of Currassoa and St. Eustatius. The Danes possess the in- 
considerable islands of St. Thomae and Santa Cruz. 

4. The British have extensive settlements on the continent ©f 
America, and in the "West-India islands. England derived her 
:j:ght to her settlements in North America from the first discovery 
«f Uie couatiT hj Sebastian Cabot in ^497^ the ^ear bisXw* iks 



MODERN HISTORY, 1B9 

discovory of the continent of South America by Colunjfeus ; but 
no -aLteinpts were made by the Enj^lish to colonize any part of the 
country till nearly a century afterward. This remarkable neg-lect 
is in some measure accounted for by the frugal maxims of Henry 
VII, and the unpropitious circumstances of the reigns of Henry 
Vni, of Edward VI, and of the bigoted Mary : r.'iig-ns peculiarly 
adverse to the extension of industry, trade, and navigation. 

5. In 1585 sir Walter Raleigh undertook to settle a colony in 
Vir£,i!iia, so named in honour of his queen ; but his attempts were 
fruitless. Tvi'o colonies, destined for settlement, were successively 
sent over to tiie Virpriuiau territory; but the first was reduced to 
-great distress, and taken back to England by sir Francis Drake ; 
the second, left unsupported, could never afterward be found. 

6. In lfi06 king James granted a patent for settling two planta- 
tions on the main coasts of North America. Dividing that portion 
of the country, which stretclies from the thirty-fourth to the forty- 
fifLh degree of latitude, into tAvo districts nearly equal, he granted 
the southern, calh'd the first colony, to the London company, and 
the northern, called the second, to the iiymouth company. On 
Ihtf reception ol" this patent several persons of distinction in the 
English nation undertook to settle the southern colony ; and ia 
1G()7 the first permanent colony was settled in Virginia. 

7. '['he first settlement in the northern district was made at Ply- 
iTKMjth in 1020, by a number of puritans, who, having a few years 
"before loft England to liberate themselves from the oppressions of 
the episcopal hierarchy, had found a temporary a.^ylum in Hol- 
land. In 1629 the patent of Massachusetts was confirmed by king 
Charles I ; and in the following year a large body of English non- 
conformists settled that tej-ritory. The settlement of Connecticut 
was begun in 1636 by emigranLs from Massachusetta. The settle- 
ment of Providence, in Rhode Island, was begun the same year 
by a clergyman, who, for his heresy, and offensive conduct toward 
the government of Massachusetts, had been expelled from tliat 
colony. New York, critically settled by tVie Dutch, and by theaa 
called New Netherlands, was taken from th^^m by the English in 
U)G4, at which tune it was subjected to tiie British crown, and 

.settled by English colonists. New Jersey was settled in 1677^ 
principally by quakers from England. The charter of Pennsylva- 
nia was given in 1681 by king Ch&rles IL to William Penn ; and 
.a settlement was begun the same year by a colony consisting prin- 
cipally of quakers. The patent of Maryland was given by king 
Charles I. to lord Baltimore in 1632 ; and two years afterward the 
colony v/as settled by a body of Roman catholics from England* 
The charter of Carolina was granted by Charles II. to the earl of 
Clarendon and several associates in 1663 ; 2.nd that colony was 
soon after settled by the English. In 1729 the province was di^'i- 
^ided into two distinct governments, one of which was called North, 
-and the other South Carolina. The eharter of Georgia was given 
an 1732 by king George II. to a number cf persons in England^ 
•5vho, from motives of patriotism and humanity, projected a settle^ 
cnent in that wild territory. By this measure it was intended to 
'4u.'tam.. Arst; jjos^egjdoa of .an e^tea^ye traot of.couati^ j to-strec^tii- 



200 MODERN HISTORY. 

en the province of Carolina ; to rescue a ^reat number of peopl-e 
in Great Britain and Ireland from the miseries of poverty ; to open 
an asylum for persecuted protestants in different parts of Europe ; 
and to attempt the conversion and civilization of the natives. Un- 
der the guidance of general 0;^lethorpe a colony was settled here 
in 1733. Nova Scotia was settled in the rei°n:i of James I. The 
Floridas were ceded by Spain to Groat Britain at the peace of 
1763 ; but they were reduced by the arms of his catholic majesty 
-during the American war, and guaranteed to the crown of Spain 
by the definitive n-eaty of 1783. 

8. All the British colonies in North America were subject to the 
government of Great Britain from Vac time of their settlement un- 
til the year 1775. Opposition to certain measures of the British 
parliament, which the colonies deemed injurious to their interest, 
having induced the government to send troops to America to en- 
force submission to the laws, hostilities commenced in April, 1775. 
In 1776 the American congress declared the United States inde- 
pendent. In September 1783^ a definitive treaty of peace was 
concluded, by which his Britannic majesty acknowledged the Uni- 
ted States of America to be free, sovereign, and independent states. 
In 1789 the government of these states v/as organized, conforma- 
bly to the federal constitution ; and George Washington, who had 
been commander in chief of the revolutionary army, was inaugu- 
rated the first president. 

9. The British colonies in America, and the United States, are 
greatly inferior to the Spanish American colonies in natura.1 riches, 
as they produce neither silver nor gold, nor cochineal ; yet they 
are in general of fertile soil, and conr^iderably improved by indus- 
try. They afford a profitable market for European manufactures. 
Canada furnishes for exportation wheat, flour, flax-seed, lumber, 
fish, potash, oil, ginseng, furs, pelts, and various other commodi- 
ties. The produce of the West India islands (Jamaica, Barba- 
does, St. Christoplaer^s, Antigua, the Granadas, and other islands), 
in sugar, coffee, cocoa, rum, molasr^es, cotton, and other articles, 
is of very great value to the mother country. The northern states 
-in the federal union furnish masts, ship timber, lumbei', potash, 
furs, pelts, fish, beef, pork, butter, cheese, rye, and maize ; the 
middle states, flour, maize, flax-seed, peas, deer skins, and other 
jpelts ; and the southern states, rice, flour, indigo, .cotton, tobaccOj 
pork, live oak, tar, pitch, and turj)eritine^ 



SECTION XUII. 

OF THE STATE OF THE FINE ARTS IN EUPvOPE IN THE 
AGE OF LEO X. 

1. In enumerating ^oee great objects which .characterized the 
end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century, 
we remarked the high advancemejat to which the fine arts attained 
in Europe in the age of Leo X. I'he strong bent which the hu- 
miaja. -miad ^eems to take^ ia ceitaia perigdsj to quq cia»* jof ^itf* 



MODERN HiSTORir. 201 

inits in preference to all others, as m the ag-e of Leo X, to the fine 
au'ts of painting, sculpture, and architecture, may be partly ex- 
plained from moral causes ; such as the peaceful state of a coun- 
try, the genius or taste, and the Ubera4 encouragement of its sove- 
reigns, tl'ie general emulation that atvisea where one or two artists 
are of confessed eminence, and the aid which men derive from the 
f studies and v/oiks of one another. These causes have doubtless 
fjreat intiucace, but do not seem entirely sufficient to account for 
the fact. 1 lie operation of such causes must be slow and gradu- 
al- In the case of the fine arts, tho transition from obscurity to 
cpleudour v.'as rapid and instantaneous. I rora the contemptible 
mediocrity in which they had remained for ages, they rose at one 
step to the highest pitch oi excellence. 

2. The arts of painting and sculpture were buried In the west 
under the ruins of the lioman empire. They gradually declined 
in the "latter a^es, as we may perceive by the series oi the coins 
of the Jower empire. The Ostrogoths, instead of destroying, sought 
to preserve the monuments of taste and genius. They were even 
the inventors of some of the arts dependent on design, as the com- 
position of Mosaic. But, in the middle ages, those arts were at a 
very low ebb in flurope. They began, however, to revive a little 
about the end of the thirteenth century. Cimabue, a Florentine, 
from the sight of the paintings of some Greek artists in one of the 
churches, isegan to attempt similar performances, and soon excel- 
led his models. Piis scholars v/ere Ghiott-", Gaddi, 1 assi Caviliini, 
and 6tephano Fiorentino ; and they formed an acadejoy at Flo- 
rence in looO. 

3. Ihe works of those early painters, with some fidelity of imi- 
tation, had not a si.-aik of grace or elegance ; and such cantiaued 
to be the state of the art tiii toward tiie end of the iifteenth cen- 
tury, when it arose at once to the summit of perfection. Raphael 
painted at first in the hard manner of his master Perugino ; but 
soon de'^fcrted it, and struck at once into the noble, elegant, and 
graoefui ; in short, the imitation of the antique. This change v/as 
the result of genius alone. The an<:ient sculptures were familiar 
to the early painters, but they had iookbd on them with coift indif- 
ierenco. They were noAV surveyed by other eyes. Michael Auge- 
io, Raphael, and Leonardo da V^inci, were animated by the srune 
genius that forxued the Grecian Apposes, ZeuxitJ, Glycon, Phidias, 
and FraxitLiles. 

4. Is'or was Faly alone thus distinguished. Germany, Flanders, 
and Switze-rland, produced in the s.«mt; age artists of consummate 
merit. Befor*^ the notice of these we shall brieily characteriie the 
schools of Italy. 

5. liist in order is the school of Florence, of which the most 
eminent master was Michael Angelo, bjrn in 1474. Lis works are 
characterized by a profound knowledge of the anatomy of the hu- 
man figure, periiaps chieiiy formeU on the contemplation of the an- 
cient sculptures. His paintiugs exhibit the grand, the sublime, 
,and terrinle ; but he drew not from the antic^ue its simple grace 
And beauty. 



202 MODERN HISTORY. 

6. Tlie Roman school was founded by Raphael d'Urbino, bora 
in 1483. This great painter united almost every excellence of the 
art. In invention, grace, majestic simplicity, forcible expression 
of the passions, he stands unrivalled, and iar beyond all competi- 
tion. He has borrowed liberally, but without servility, from the 
antique. 

7. Of the school of Lombardy, or the Venetian, the most emi- 
nent artists were Titian, Giorgioue, Correggio, and Parmeggiano. 
Titian is most eminent in portrait, and in the painting of female 
beauty. Such is the truth of his colouring, that his figures are 
nature itself. It was the testimony of Michael Angelo to the mer- 
its of Titian, that, if he had studied at Rome or Florence, amidst 
the master-pieces of antiquity, he would have eclipsed all the 
painters in th^ world. Titian lived to the age of a hundred. Gi- 
©rgione, with similar merits, was cut off in the flower of his 3'outb. 
Correggio was superior in colouring, and in the knowledge of light 
and shade, to all who have preceded or followed him. This know- 
ledge-was the result of study. In other painters those tSects are 
frequently accidental, as we observe that they are not uniform. 
Parmeggiano imilaied the graceful manner of Raphael, but carried 
it to a degiee of affectation. 

8. Such were the three original Italian schools. The character 
of the Florentine is grandeur and subb'mity, withg^reat excellence 
of design, but a want of grace, of fkill in colouring, and ellect of 
light and shade. The character of the Roman is equal excellence 
of design, a grandeur tempered with moderation and simplicity, a 
high degree of grace and elegance, ||nd a superior knowledge, 
though not an excellence, in colouring. The character of the V e- 
netian is the perfection of colouring, and the utmost force of light 
and shade, with an inferiority in every other particular. 

9. I'o the school of Raphael succeeded the second Roman 
school, or that of the Caraccis, three brothers, of whom Annibal 
Vv'as the m.ost famous. His scholars were, Guercino, Albano, Tan- 
franc, L)omenichino, and Guide. Of thete eminent painters the 
jfirst and last were the best. The elegant contours of Guercino, 
and the strength, sweetness, and majesty of Guldo, are the admi- 
ration of all true judges of painting. 

10. In the same age the 1 lemibh school, though of a quite dif- 
ferent character, and inferior to the Italian, shone with great lus- 
tre. Oil painting ^\ as invented by the ITemings in the fifteentii 
century;, and, in that age, lleemskirk, Frans Floris, Quintin Mat- 
^ys, and the German Albert Durer, were deservedly distinguished. 
Of the Flemish school, Rubens, though a painter of a much later 
age, is the chief ornament. His figures, though too corpulent, are 
<iiawn Avilh great truth and nature. He possesses inexhaustible 
invention, and great skill in the exprcF^iion of the passions. Swit- 
zerland produced Hans Holbein, a painter of great eminence in 
portrait, and remaikable for truth of colouring. From his resi- 
dence at the court of Henry VIIL there are more specimens of his 
works in Fritain than of any other foreign painter. Holland had 
likewise its painters, whos.c chief merit was the faithful represeik- 



MODERN HISTORY. 203 

tation of vulgar natiire, and perfect knowledge of the mechanism 
of the art, the power of colours, and the effect of li^ht and shade. 

11. With the art of paiating, sculpture and architecture were 
likewise revivexl in the same age, and hrought almost to perfection. 
The universal genius of Michael Angelo shone equally conspicuous 
in all the three departments. His statue of Bacchus was judged 
by Raphael to be the ivork of Phidias or Praxiteles. The Grecian 
architecture v/as f.rst revived by the Florentines in the fourteenth 
century ; and the cathedral of Pisa was constructed partlj'' from 
the materials of an ancient Greek temple. The art arrived at 
perfection in the a.g"e of Leo X, wben the church of St. Peter's at 
Rome, under the direction of Bramante, San Gallo, Raphael, and 
Michael Angelo, exhibited the noblest specimen of architecture ia 
the world. 

12. The invention of the art of engraving on copper by Tomaso 
Finiguerra, a goldsmith of llorence, is dated about 1460. From 
Italy it travelled into Flanders, where it was first practised by 
Martin Schot-n of Antwerp. His scholar was the celebrated Al- 
bert Durer, who engraved excellently both on copper and on wood. 
Etching on copper by means of aquafortis, which gives more ease 
than the stroke of the graver, was discovered by Parmeggiano, 
who executed in that manner his own beautiful designs. i\o art 
underwent, in its early stages, so rapid an improvement as that of 
engraving. In the coursd of loO years from its invention it attain- 
ed nearly to its perfeotiob ; for there has been little proportional 
impi'ovement in the last century, since the days of Audran, Poilly, 
and Fdelinck. 

13. The art of epgraving in mezzotinto is of much later date 
than the ordinary mode of engraving on copper. It was the in- 
vention of prince Rupert about 1650. It is characterized by a 
softness equal to that of the pencil, and a happy blending of light 
and shade, and is therefore peculiarly adapted to portrait, where 
those requisites are most essential. 

14. The age of Leo X. was likewise an era of very high lite- 
rary splendour ; but of the distinguished writers of that period 
we shall afterwards treat, in a connected view of the progress of 
literature and the sciences during the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries. 



SECTION XLIV. 

OF THE OTTOMAN POWEP. IN THE SIXTEENTH CEN- 
TURY. 

1. From the period of the taking of Constantinople, in the mid- 
dle of the fifteenth century, the Turks were a great and conquer- 
ing people. In the sixteenth century, Selim I, after he had sub- 
dued Syria and Mesopotamia, undertook the conquest of Egypt, 
then governed by the Mamelukes, a race of Circassians, who had 
seized the country in 1250, and put an end to the government of 
the Arabian princes, the posterity of Saladin. The conquest of 



204 MODERN HISTORY. 

Fs-ypt hy Selim Tnade little chaDS-o in the form of its g-overnmeiit. 
It professes to own the sovereigr.ty of the Turks, hut is in reality- 
still governed by the Mameluke h<^ys. 

2. Solyman (the magnificent) son of Solim, was, like his prede- 
cessors, a ,?reat conqueror. The isla>id ofBhodes, possessed hythe 
knig^hts of St. John, was a darlinc; object of his ambition. These 
knia;hts had expelled the Paracens from the island in 1310. Soly- 
man attacked Khodes v/ilb 140,000men and 400 sliips. TheKbo* 
dian knighis, aided by the English, Italians, and Spaniards, made 
a noble defence ; but, after a siege of many months, were forced 
to capitulate and evacuate the island, in 1522. Since that time 
Rhodes has been the property of the Turks. The" commercial laws 
of the ancient Uhodians were adopted by the Romans, and at this 
day are the foundation of the maritime jurisprudence of all ihe 
nations of Europe. 

3. Solyman subdued the greater part of Hung-ary, Moldavia, 
and VValachJa : and took from the Persians Georgia and Bagdat. 
His son Selim II. took Cyprus from the Venetians in 1571. They 
applied to the pope for aid, who, together with Philip II. of Spain, 
e?)tered into a triple alliance against the Ottoman power. An ar- 
wanent of 250 ships of war, commanded by Philip''s t atural broth- 
er, Don John of Austria, was opposed to 250 Tu'-kish g-allcys ia 
the gulph of Lepanto, near Corinth ; and the Turks were defeat- 
ed, with the loss of 150 ships and 15,000 men, 1571. This great 
victory was soon after followed by the taking of Tuni? by the same 
commander. 

4. But these successes were of little consequence. The Otto- 
man power continued extremely foimidable. Under Ami<rath II. 
the Turks made ercroachments on Hungary, and sulidued a part 
of Persia. Mahomet III, though a 1 arharian in his private charac- 
ter, supported the dignity of the empire, and extended its domin- 
ions. The Ottoman power declined from bis time, and yielded to 
that of the Persians under Schah-Abbas the great, wlio wrested 
from the Turks a large part of their late-acquired domiuions. 



SECTION XLV. 

STATE OF PERSIA AND OTHER ASIATIC KINGDOMS IN 
THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. 

1. The great empire of Persia, in the end of the fifteenth cen- 
turj', underwent a revolution on account of religion. Playdar o-r 
Sophi, a religious enthusiast, established a new sect of Mahome- 
tans, which held Ali to be the successor of Mahomet instead of 
Omar, and abolished the pilgrimages to Mecca. The Persians 
eagerly embraced a doctrine which distinquished them from their 
enemies the Turks ; and Isniael, the son of Sophi, following Ihe 
example of Mahomet, enforced his opinions by the sword. He 
subdued all" Persia and Armenia, and left tliis vast empire to his 
descendants. 



MdDERN HTSTORT. 2Q5 

2. Schah-Abbas, surnamed the ,?reat, was the ^eat-srandson 
01 Ismael Sophi. He ruled his empire with despotic sway, but 
with most able policy. He regained the provinces which had 
been taken by the Turks, and drove the Portuguese from their 
"ettleraent of Ormuz. He rebuilt the fallen cities of Persia, and 
contributed greatly to the introduction of arts and civiiizatiou. 
His son Schah-Sesi reig-ned weakly and uniortunaiety. la his 
*inie Schah-Gean, the great 3Iog-ul, deprived Persia of Candahar ; 
md the Turks took Bagdat in 1638. From that period the Persian 
nouarchy gradually declined. Its sovereigns became the most 
lespicable slaves to their own ministers ; and a revolution in the 
5eginnin^ of the eighteenth century put an end to the dynasty of 
he Sophis, and gave the throne to the Afghan princes, a race of 
Partars. 

3. The government of Per=ia is almost as despotic as that of 
rurkey. The sovereign draws a small yearly tSLS from every sub- 
ect, and receives likewise stated gifts oa particular occasions, 
rhe crown is hereditary, with the exclusion of females ; but the 
ons of a daughter succeed in their course. There is no other 
ank in Persia than that annexed to olEce, wLrich is held during 
he monarches pleasure. The national religion is the Mahometan, 
LS reformed by Sophi. The sect of the Guebres preserve the reli- 
"ion of Zoroaster, as contained in the Zendavesta and Sadder, and 
:eep alive the sacred fire. (Part I, S«ct. XL) « 

4. T^e poetry of the Persians displays great fancy and luxuri- 
.nce of imagery. The epic poet Firdousi is said to rival the vari- 
us merits of Homer and Ariosto ; and the writings of Sadi and 
lafez, both in prose and poetry, are admired by all who are con- 
ersant in oriental literature. 

5. Tarlary. From this vast tract of country sprang tL -se con- 
uerors who produced all the great revolutions in Asia. Tartary 
« no more than a vast desert, inhabited by wandering tribes, who 
illow the life of the ancient Scythians. The Turks, a race of 
'artars, overwhelmed the empire of the caliphs. r»Iahmoud, a 
'artar, conquered Persia and great part of India in the tenth cen- 
iry. The Tartar Gengiscan subdued India, China, Persia, and 
.siatic Russia, in the beginning of the thirteenth century. Ba- 
3ucan, ene of his sons, ravaged to the frontiers of Germany, 
amerlane, the scourge of the Turks, and the conqueror of 'a 
reat part of A.sia, was of the race of Gengiscan. Babar, great- 
randson of Tamerlane, subdued all the coimtry between Samar- 
and and Agra in the empire of the Mogul. The descendants of 
lose conquerors reigu in India, Persia, and China. 

6. .Thibet. The southern part of Tartary, called Thibet, exhi- 
its the phenomenon of a kingdom goverr.ed by a living god, the 
>alai Lama, or Great Lama, whose divinity is acknowledged not 
ily by his own subjects, but over China and a part of India, 
his god is a young man, whom the priests educate and train to 
is fuuction, and in whose name they in reality govern the king- 
em. 

IS 



206 MODERN HISTORY* 

SECTION XLVI. 

HISTORY OF INDIA. 

1. The earliest accounts of this great tract of civilized country 
are those of Herodotus, who lived about a century before Alexan- 
der the great ; and it is remarkable that the character given of 
the people by that early writer, corresponds perfectly with that of 
the modern Hindoos. He had probably taken his accounts Irom 
Scylax of Cariandria, whom Pariiis Hystaspes had sent to explore 
the country. But till the age of Alexander the Greeks had no 
particular knowledge of that extraordinary people. Alexander 
penetiated into the Panjab. where his troops refusing to proceed, 
he embarked on the Hydaspes, which runs into the Indus, and 
thence pursued his course for above ItiCO miles to the ocean. The 
narrative given by Arrian of this expeditirn was taken from the 
verbal accounts of .41eiander"'s ctficen- ; a^-*d its particulars agree 
yet more remarkably than those of Herodotus with the modern 
manners of the Hindoos, 

2. India was visited by Seleucus, to whose share it fell in the 
partition of Alexander's empire ; and Antiochus the great, 200 
years afterward, made a short expedition thither. It is probable 
too that-isome small intercoiu'se subsisted between the Greek em- 
|)ire of Eactriana and India ; but, till the fifteenth cent*iry, no 
European power thought of forming any establishment in that 
country, from the age of Alexander dov/n to the period of the 
Portuguese discoveries there had constantly been some commercial 
intercourse between Europe and India, both by sea and across the 
desert. 

3. The Mahometans, as early as A. D. 1000, had begun to es- 
tablish an empire in India, iiahmcud, a Taitar, conquered a 
great part of the country, and established his capital at Ghazna, 
near the sources of the Indus, extirpating, wherever he came, the 
Hindoo religion, and establishing the Mahometan in its stead, 
Mohammed Gori, in 1194, penetrated to Benares ; and one of his 
successors fixed the seat of his empire at Delhy, which has con- 
tinued to be the capital of the Mogul princes. The sovereignty 
founded by Mahmoud was overwhelmed in 1222 by Gengiscan, 
as was his empire in the following century by Tamerlane, whose 
posterity are at this day on the throne of the Mogul empire. 

4. The Mogul empire was, even in the beginning of the 18th 
century, the most powerful and dourishing of all the Asiatic mo- 
narchies. The emperor Aurengzebe, the son of Shah-Gean, 
though a monster of cruelty, and a most despotic tyrant, enjoyed 
a life prolonged to a hundred years, crowned with uninterrupted 
prosperity and success. He extended his empire over the whole 
peninsula of India within the Ganges. 

5. The dominion of the Mogul is not absolute over all the coun- 
tries which compose his empire. Tamerlane allowed the petty 
princes, rajahs or nabobs, to retain their territories,, of which their 
d&scendants are at this day in possession. They pay a tribute t» 



MODERN HISTORY. 207 

the great Mogul, as an acknowledgment of his sovereignty, and 
observe the treaties agreed to by their ancestors ; but they are in 
other respects independent princes. 

6. Bengal became a part of the Mogul's empire by conquest iu 
the end of the sixteenth century, and was commonly governed by a 
son of the great Mogul, who had under him several inferior nabobs, 
the former princes of the country. Such was its conditio) i when 
the British East India company, between 1751 and 1769, con- 
quered and obtained possession of that kingdom, together with Ba- 
har and part of Orissa, a large, populous, and most flourishing 
country, containing above ten millions of inhabitants, and produ- 
cing an immense revenue ; and these territories have since that 
period received a considerable addition. The East India company 
has the benefit of the whole commerce of the Mogul empire, with 
Arabia, Persia and Thibet, as well as with the kingdoms of Azi^ra, 
Aracan, Pegu, Siam, Malacca, China, and many of the oriental 
islands. 

The fixed establishments of the British in the country of Indos- 
tan have afforded opportunity of obtaining much instructive know- 
ledge relative to the ancient sta.te of that country, of ♦which we 
diall o^ive a short sketch in the foliowin"; section. 



SECTION XLVII. 

ANCIENT STATE OF INDIA. MANNERS, LAWS, ARTS, 
SCIENCES AND RELIGION OF THE HINDOOS. 

1. The remains of the ancient knowledge of the Hindoos have 
been preserved by a hereditary priesthood, in the Sanscrit lan- 
guage, long since extinct, ?aid only known to a few of the Bramiiis. 
The zeal of some learned Europeans has lately opened that source 
of information, whence we derive the most interesting particulars 
of this extraordinary people, perhaps the first cultivators of the 
sciences, and the instructors of all the nations of antiquity. We 
shall briefly notice their singular division into casts, their civil pol- 
icy, laws, progress in the arts and sciences, and religion. 

2. The whole body of the people was divided into four orders, 
or casts. The highest cast, that of the Bramins, was dev^oted to 
religion and the cultivation of the sciences ; to the second belonged 
the preservation of the state ; they were its sovereigns and its ma- 
gistrates in peace, and its soldiers in war ; the third were the hus- 
bandmen and merchants ; and the fourth the artisans, labourers, 
and servants. These are inseparable distinctions, and descend from 
generation to generation. Moreover, the individuals of each class 
follow invariably the professions of their forefathers. Every man, 
from his birth, knows the function allotted to him, and fulfils with 
ease and satisfaction the duty which he cannot avoid. Hence ises 
that permanence of manners and institutions which so singu'arly 
characterizes this ancient nation. 

3. Tliis clafsification is an artificial arrangement, which could 
feaye ori|;inated only from the mind of a legislator among a polished 



208 MODERN HISTORY. 

people, completely obedient to government. It is therefore a proof 
of the highly civilized state of tlie Hindoo nation in the most re- 
mote periods of antiquity. 

4. The civil policy of the Hindoos is another proof of their an- 
cient civilization. At the time of Alexander the great India was 
divided into large and powerful kingdoms, governed by sovereigns 
whose dominion was not absolute, but controlled by the superior 
authority of the Bramins. A system of feudalism has ever pre- 
vailed in India. The rights to land flow from the sovereign, to 
•whom a ccrtran duty is payable by the class of the husbandmen, 
who traxismit their possessions to their children under the same 
leniire. Strabo and Diodoms remarked three classes of officers 
among the Indians : one class whose department was the regula- 
tion of Sfrricalture, tanks, highways ; another which superintended 
the police of the cities ; a third which regulated the military de- 
partment. The aame policy prevails at this day under the Hindoo 
princes. 

6. The jurisprudence of Hindostan is an additional proof of great 
antiquity and civilization. The Ayen-Akbery, and still more the 
compilation of Hindoo lav/s from the ancient SanEcrit records, made 
by order of Mr. Hastings, contain the jurisprudence of a refined 
and commercial people, among whom law had been a study and 
profession. 

6. Many monuments exist in India of the advanced state of the 
useful and elegant arts in the remotest periods of antiquity. The 
ancient pagodas, of vast extent and magnificence, whether cut in 
the solid rock, as in Elephanta aiad Salsette, or in the open air, as 
at Chillambrum and Seringham ; the sumptuous residences of the 
Bramins ; and the ancient hill fortresses, constructed with prodi- 
gious strength and solidity, evince a great advancement in the 
arts. The resort of the most polished nations of antiquity to India 
for cotton cloths, fine linen, and v/orks in metal and ivory, proves 
these manufactures to have been superior to all known at that 
time in Europe. 

7. The late translations from the Sanscrit of several ingenious 
compositions of high antiquity, as the dramatic piece Saconlala^ 
the Hitopadesa^ a series of moral apologues and fables, the Maha- 
barat, an epic poem, composed above 2000 years before the Chris- 
tian era, all concur in proof of a similar advancement in literature. 
We have reason to believe from such works as are of a philosophi- 
cal nature, that there is scarcely a tenet of the Greek philosophy 
which has not been antecedently the subject of discussion among 
the Bramins of India. 

8. The numeral cyphers first introduced into Europe by the Ara- 
bians were, as those authors confess, borrowed from the Indians. 
Above a century ago, the PYench mathematicians evinced, by the 
evidence of a Siamese manuscript, containing tables for calcula- 
ting the places of the heavenly bodies, the astonishing advance- 
ment made by this ancient people in the science of astronomy. A 
set of astronomical tables obtained lately from the Bramins by M. 
Gentil goes back to an era termed Calyougham^ commencing 3102 
years before the birth of Chri,st. These tables axe used by Jthe m^ 



MODERN HlSTOJlY. 



209 



d©rn Bramins, who are quite ignorant of the principles on which 
they have bftgu constructed. M. Bailly haa proved that they are 
the same as those employed by the moderns, with which the Greeks 
and Chaldeans were utterly unacquainted. 

9. Lastly, from the relii;ious opinions and worship of the Hin- 
doos we must draw the same conclusion as from all the preceding 
facts. One uniform system of superstition pervades every relii^ion 
of India, which is supported by the most sagacious policy, and by 
every thing that can excite the veneration of its votaries. The 
Bramins, elevated above every class of men, and exclusively ac- 
quainted with the mysteries of that religion, which it is held impi- 
ous for any other class to attempt to penetrate ; the implicit reli- 
ance on the authority of these Bramins ; the ceremonies of their 
worship, adapted to impress the imagination and to aflect the pas- 
sions ; all concurred to fortify this potent superstition, and to give 
its priests a supreme ascendancy over the minds of the people. But 
those priests, enlightened as they were, rejected that false theolcf- 
gy. Their writings demonstrate that they entertained rational and 
elevated conceptions with regard to the Supreme Being, and the 
support of the universe. 

10. On the whole, there is a high probability that India was the 
great school from which the most early polished nations of Europe 
derived their knowledge of arts, sciences, and literature. 

Persons who want more particular information respecting India 
are referred to Maurice's Indian Antiquities, and Tennant's Indiaj* 
Recreations. 

SECTION XLVIIL 

OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 

1. As we proceed eastward in the survey of the Asiatic continent, 
the great empire of China next solicits our attention. In the end 
of the tenth century, China, Persia, and the greater part of India 
v/ere ruled by the Tartar descendants of Gengiscan. The Tartar 
family of Yven, who conquered China, made no change in its laws 
and system of government, which had been permanent from time 
immemorial. Of this family there reigned nine successive monarchs, 
Y/ithout any attempt by the Chinese to throw oiT the Tartar yoke. 
The odious and contemptible character of the last of these sove- 
reigns at length excited a rebellion, v>^b-'ch, in 1357, drove the 
Tartars from the throne ; and the Chines -for 276 years, obeyed 
their native prin The Tartars, taking advantage of an insur- 
rection in one of ti ices, invaded China in 1641, and made 
an easy conquest. '1. peror siaut himself up in his palace, and, 
after putting to death u lis family, finished the scene by hanging 
himself. The same Tarta/s occupy the throne of China at this day, 
and observe the same wise policy of maintaining inviolate the Chi- 
nese laws, policy and manners. Of these wo shall give a brief ao- 
count in the subsequent section. 

2. The empire of Japan was discovered by the Portuguese about 
the middle of the sixteeuth century. The open and unsuspicioua 

1 Q* 



^i^ Sa.UDEB.fi HISTORY. 

character of this industrious and polished people led> them to en- 
courage the resort of foreigners to their ports ; and t"^p Spaniards, 
after they had obtained the sovereignty of Portugal, "carried on a. 
most beneficial trade to the coasts of Japan. Tlie emperor zeal- 
ously promoted this intercourse, till the insatiable ambition of the 
Spaniards gave him alarming conviction of its danger. Under the 
pretenre of converting the Japanese from idolatry, a vast number 
of priests was sent into the country ; and one half of the people 
were speedily set at mortal variance with the other. It now be- 
■came necessary to prohibit this work of conversion by an imperial 
edict. However a free trade was allowed till 1637, when a con- 
spiracy of the Spaniards for dethroning the emperor and seizing the 
■government was discovered. An edict was issued for the expulsion 
of all the Spaniards and Portuguese, who resisted till they were 
overpowered by force of arms. Since that period all the European 
natiojis have been excluded from the ports of Japan. The Dutch 
only, who had been the diecoverers of the conspiracy of the Span- 
iards, are allowed the privilege of landing on one of the small 
islands, for the purposes of trade, after making oath that they are 
aaol of the P©rtuij;u€5e reli^rion. 



SECTION XLIX. 

OF THE APrnQCJITY OF THE EMPIRE OF CHINA. STATE 
OF THE ARTS AND SCIENCES, MANNERS, GOVERN- 
MENT, LAWS. 

1. The antiqiiity of this vast emprre, and the state of its govern- 
anent, laws, manners, and attainments in the arts and sciences, 
Jiave furnished an ample field of controversy. Voltaire, Raynal, 
and other writers have given to the Chinese empire an immense 
antiquity, and a character of such high civilization and knowledge 
of the sciences and arts at a very remote period, a? to be vitterly 
irreconcileable to the state and progress of man as described in the 
tooks of Moses. On the other hand, it is probable that the desire 
of invalidating those opinions has induced other writers of ability 
to go to an opposite extreme ; to undervalue this singular people^ 
^and to give too little weight to any accounts which we have re- 
ceived either of the duration of their empire, of the economy of 
their government and roHce, or of their attainments in the arts 
and sciences. Amid t this contrariety of sentiments we shall 
«nd(avoar to form such opinion as.appears most consonant to the 
truth. 

2. The panegyrists of the Chinese assert that their empire has 
rsubsisted above 4000 years, without .any material alteration in its 
laws, manners, language, or even fashion of dress; in evidence of 
■which they appteal to a series of eclipses, marJking -cotemporary 
=€ vents, all accurately calculated, for 2155 years beferethe birth 
of Christ. As it is easy to calculate eclipses backwards from the 
jjresent day'to any given period of time, it is thus possible to giv* 
-to .a iiistjorv, iictitious from be^inniiig to end. Us chronolojy of x&ai 



MODERN HISTORY 211 

'eclipses. This proof therefore amounts to nothing, unless it were 
likewise proved that all those eclipses were actually recorded at 
the time when they happened ; but this neither has been nor can be 
done ; for it is an allowed fact, that there are no regular historical 
records beyond the third century before the christian era. The 
present Chinese are utterly ignorant of the motioas of the celestial 
bodies, and cannot calculate eclipses. The series mentioned has 
therefore in all probability been calculated by some of the Jesuits, 
to ingratiate themselves with the emperors, and flatter the national 
vanity. The Jesuits have presided in the tribunal of mathematics 
for above 200 years. 

3. But if the authentic annals of thi? empire go back even ,to 
the third century before Christ, and record at that time a high 
state of civilization, we must allow that the Chinese are an an- 
cient and early polished people, and that they have possessed a 
•singular constancy in their government, laws and manners. Sir 
William Jones, no bigoted encomiast of this people, allows their 
great antiquity and early civilization, and, with much apparent 
probability, traces their origin from the Hindoos. He appeals to 
the ancient Sanscrit records, which meation a migration of certain 

-«f the military class termed Chinas^ from India to the countries 
east from Bengal. The stationary condition of the arts and sci- 
ences in China proves that they have not originated with that peo- 
ple : and many peculiarities of the manners, institutions, and pop- 
ular religion of the Chinese, have a near alfinity to those of the 
IHindoos. 

4. The goverament of China is that of an absolute monarchy. 
The patriarchal system pervades the whole, and binds all the 
Biembers of this vast empire in the strictest subordination. Every 
'father h absolute in his family, and may inflict any punishment 
•short of death upon his diildren. The mandarin of the district is 
rabsolute, Avith the power of life and death over all its members ; 
but a capital sentence cannot be inflicted without the emperor'g 
-approbation. The emperor's power is absolute over all the man- 
darins, and every subject of the empire. To reconcile the people 
■to this despotic authority the sovereign alone is entitled to relieve 
Ihe waixts of the poor, and to compensate public calamities, as 
well as the misfortunes of individuals. He is therefore regarded 
-as the father of his people, and even adored as a benevolent di- 
vinity. 

5. Another circumstance which conciliates the people to their 
government is, that all honours in China are conferred according- 
vto merit, and that chiefly literary. The civil mandarins, who ar« 
the magistrates and judges, are appointed ,to ofiice according to 
•their measure of knowledge and mental endowments. No ofiice or 
rank is hereditary, but may be aspired to by the meanest of the 
people. The penal laws of China are remarkably severe ; but 
their execution may be remitted by the emperor. The judicial 
tribunals are regulated by a feody of written laws of great g.ntiqui- 
5ty, and founded on the basis of universal justice and equity, Th€ 
!€mperor's opinion rarely differs from the sentences of those courts, 
Ciae -trihuaal Judges »jf the qualifications of the mandarins ; aa» 



212 

other regulates the morals of the people, and the national man- 
ners ; a third is the tribunal of censors, which reviews the laws, 
the conduct of the magistrates and judges, and even that of the em- 
peror himself. These tribunals are filled by an equal number of 
Chines'e and Tartars. 

6. It has been observed that.the sciences have been statio^iary 
in this empire for many ages. They are at this day extremely low, 
though far beyond the attainments of a barbarous people. The 
language of China seems to oppose the prosecution of speculative 
researches. It has no regular inflections, and can with difficulty 
express abstract ideas. We have remarked the ignorance of the 
Gliinese in mathematics and astronomy. Of physics they have no 
acquaintance beyond Uie knowledge of apparent facts. They nev- 
er ascend to principles, nor form theories. Their knowledge of 
medicine is extremely limited, and is blended with the most con- 
temptible superstition. Of anatomy they know next to nothing ; 
and in surgery they have never ventured to amputate a limb, nor 
to reduce a fracture. 

7. The state of the useful and elegant arts has been equally 
stationary as that of the sciences. Many ages ago they have at- 
tained a certain point of advancem.ent, which they have never ex- 
ceeded. The Chinese are said to have manufactured glass for 
2000 years ; yet at this day it is inferior in transparency to the 
European, and is not used in their windows. They are reported 
to have known gun-powder from time immemorial ; but they neier 
employed it in artillery or fire-arms till they v/ere taught by the 
Europeans. They are said to have invented printing in the age 
of Julius Cfcsar, yet they know not the use of moveable types, and 
print from, blocks of wood. "When first shown the use of the com- 
pass in sailing, they affirmed that they were well acquainted with it, 
but found no occasion to employ it. The art of painting in China 
is mere mechanical imitation, without grace, expression, or even 
accuracy of proportions. Of the rules of perspective they have 
not the smallest idea. In sculpture, as in the figures of their idols, 
the Chinese artists seem to delight in distortion and deformity. 
Their music is not regulated by any pinciples of science. They 
have no semitones, and their instruments are imperfect and untuna- 
ble. The Chinese architecture has variety, lightness, and sometimes 
elegance ; but has no grandeur, nor symmetrical beauty. 

8. In some of the arts the Chinese have attained great excel- 
lence. In China agriculture is carried to the highest pitch of im- 
provement. There is not a spot of waste land in the whole em- 
pire, nor any land which is not highly cultivated. The emperor 
himself is the chief of the husbandmen, and annually holds the 
plough with his own hands. From the high state of agriculture, 
and the modes of economizing food, is supported the astonishing 
population of 333 millions, or 260 inhabitants to every square mile 
of the empire. The gardening of the Chinese, and their admirable 
embellishment of rural nature, have of late been the object of im- 
itation in Europe, but with far inferior success. The manufacture 
of porcelain is an original invention of this people ; and the Euro* 
p£aa5j though excelling theiji iu the forai aad oni9,iijeiit of the 



J 



MODERN HISTORY. 213 

utrnsils, have ncrer been able to attain the excellence of the ma- 
terial. 

9. The morals of the Chinese have furnished a subject both of 
praise and censure. The books of Confucius are said to contaia 
an admirable system of morality. But the principles of morals 
have their foundation in. human nature, and must, in theory, he 
tvery where the same. The moral virtues of a people are not 
to be estimated from the books of their philosophers. It is pro- 
bable that the manners of the superior classes are In China, as 
elsewhere, much influenced by education and example. The 
morals of the lower classes, are said to be extremely loose, and 
their practices most dishonest. They are reg-ulated by no prin- 
ciple but selfish interest, and restrained only by the fear of punish- 
ment. 

10. The reiiejion of the Chinese is different in the different ranks 
of society. There is no religion of the state. The emperor and 
the higher mandarins profess the belief of one Supreme Being, 
Ckangti^ whom they worship by prayer and thanks-giving, without 
any mixture of idoiairous practices. They respect the lama of 
Thibet as the high-priest or prophet of this religion. A prevalent 
sect is that of Tao-sse^ who believe in the power of magic, the 
agency of spirits, and the divination of future events. A third is 
the sect of Fo, derived from India, whose priests are the Bonzes, and 
whose fundamental doctrine is, that all things rose out of nothing, 
and must finally return to nothing ; that all animals are first to 
undergo a series of transmigrations ; and that as man's chief hap- 
piness is to approach as near as possible to a state of annihilation 
in this life, absolute idleness is more laudable than occupation 
of any kind. A variety of hideous idols is worshipped by this 
sect. 

11. The Chinese have their sacred books entitled Kings ; as the 
Ykbig^ Chouking^ &c. ; which, among some good moral precepts, 
contain much mystery, childish superstition, and absurdity. These 
are chiefly resorted to for the divining of future events, which 
seems the ultimatum of research among the Chinese philosophers. 
The observation of the heavenly bodies is made for that purpose 
alone. The changes of weather, the performasce or omission of 
certain ceremonies, the occurrence of certain events in particu- 
lar times and places, are all believed to have their influence on 
futurity, and are therefore carefully observed and recorded. The 
rules by which those omens are interpreted are said to have been 
prescribed by the great Confucius, the father of the Chinese philoso- 
phy, 500 years before the christian era. 

12. We conclude, on the whole, that the Chinese are a very 
remarkable people ; that their government, laws, policy, and know- 
ledge of the arts and sciences, exhibit unquestionable proofs of great 
antiquity and early civilization ; that the extraordinary measure of 
duration assigned to their empire by some modern writers rests on 
no solid proofs ; that their government, laws, manners, arts, and 
scientific attainments, are not deserving of that superlative praisie 
which has been bestowed on them. 



214 MODERN HISTORY. 



SECTION L. 

M. BAILLY'S THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE SCIEN- 
CES AMONG THE NATIONS OF INDIA. 

1. The striking resemblance in many points of character between 
the Chinese and the ancient Eg-yptians, has led to the conjecture, 
either that they were originally the same people, one bei»ig a col- 
ony of the other, or have had, at some remote period, such inter- 
course, either by conquest or by commerce, as to occasion a re- 
ciprocal communication of manners and the knowledge of arts and 
sciences. M. de Mairau has remarked the following' points of sim- 
ilarity. The Egyptians and the Chinese had the same j»ermanence 
of manners, and abhorrence of innovations; they were alike re- 
inarka"ble for the respect entertained by children to their parents ; 
they were equally averse to war ; they had the same general su- 
per/icial knov»dedge of the arts and sciences, without the ability to 
make g;reat attainments ; they both^ in the most ancient times, 
iised hiero;^lyphic3 ; the Egyptians had a solemn festival, called 
the feast of the lights ; the Chinese have the feast of the Ian- 
terns ; the ftatures of the Chinese are said to resemble the ancient 
Egyptian statues ; certain characters engraven on an Egyptian bust 
cf Isis were found to belong to the Chinese language. 

2. M. Baillyhas taken a wider range of observation, and from a 
review of the manners, customs, opinions, and attainments of the 
Indiins, Persians, Chinese, Chaldfeans, and Egyptians, has discov- 
ered many circumstances of similarity between all those nations, 
equally remarkable as the foregoing. He has thence formed the 
singular hypothesis, that the knowledge common to all those na- 
tions has been derived from the same original source, a most ancient 
and highly cultivated people of Asia, of which every trace is now 
extinct. If we find, sayg he, in the scattered huts of peasants, frag- 
ments interspersed of sculptured columns, we conclude for certain 
that they are not the work of the rude peasants who reared those 
huts, but that they are the remains of a magnificent building, 
the work of able architects, though we discover no other traces of 
the existence of that building, and cannot ascertain its precise sit- 
uation. 

3. The sciences and arts of the Chinese have been stationary 
for 2000 years. The people seem never to have availed themselves 
of the lights of their ancestors. They are like the inhabitants of 
a country recently discovered by a polished people, who have 
taught them some of their arts, -and left their instruments among 
them. The knowledge which they possess, seems to have been 
imported, and not of original growth, for it has never been pro- 
gressive. 

4. The Chaldaeans were an enlightened people at the com- 
mencement of the Babylonish empire, 2000 years before the Chris- 
tian era. They were astronomers, and understood the revolutions 
of the celestial bodies. The Clfald'ceans were probably the re- 
mayisojf this ancient people. The Bramins of India believe ir* 



MODERN HISTORY. 2l5 

t'le unity of God, and the immortality of the soul ; hut with these 
sublime tenets they intermix childish absurdities. They derived 
the former from wise instructors ; the latter were the fruit of their 
own ignorance. The Sanscrit, a copious and elegant language, 
and tlie vehicle of all the Indian knowledge and philosophy, has 
been a dead tongue for thousands of years, and is intelligible only 
to a few of the Bramins. It was probably the language of that 
greai. ancient people. 

5. ''i'he coincidence or similarity of customs concurs to establish 
the belief of an original nation. The custom of libation was com- 
mon to the Tartars and Chinese, and to the Greeks and Romans. 
All the Asiatic nations had festnals of the nature of the R.oman 
saturnalia. The tradition of the deluge is diffused among all those 
nations. The tradition of the giants attacking heaven is equally 
general. The doctrine of the metempsychosis was common to the 
Egyptians, Greeks, Indians, Persians, Tartavians and Chinese. 
The religion of all those nations is founded on the profound but 
erroneous doctrine of the two principles, a universal soul perva- 
ding all nature, and inert matter on which it acts. A conformity 
in a true doctriu'? is no proof of mutual communication or concert ; 
but it is ir^genioiuly remarked, that a conformity in a false doc- 
trine comes vtry near to such a proof. ' 

6. The Egyptians, Chaldaeans, Indians, Persians, and Chinese, 
all placed their temples fronting the east, to receive the first rays 
of the sun. Hence the worship of the sun has been the religion 
of the ancient people from which these are descended. All these 
nations had a cycle, or period of sixty years, for regulating their 
chronology. They ail divided the circle into 360 degrees ; the 
zodiac into twelve signs ; and the week into seven days. The 
Chinese, Indians and Eg-ypfians designed the seven days of the 
week by the names of the seven planets ranged in the same order. 
The long measures of the ancient nations had all one common 
origin. 

7. These singular coincidences, says M. Eailly, can be ex- 
plained only upon three suppositions : 1. that there was a free com- 
munication between all those ancient nations ; 2, that those cir- 
cumstances of coincidence are so founded in human nature, that 
the most unconnected nations could not fail to hit upon them ; or, 
3, that they have been all derived from a common source. He 
rejects the two former suppositions, as contrary, in his opinion, to 
fact, and adopts the last. 

8. The precise situation of this great ancient people, M. Eailly 
does not pretend to fix with certainty ; but offers probable reasons 
for conjecturing that it was about the 49th or 50th degree of north 
latitude, in the southern regions of Siberia. Many of the European 
and Asiatic nations attribute their origin to that quarter, which 
thence appears to have been extremely populous. Nitre, a pro- 
duction from animal substances, is more abundant there than in 
any other region. The observations of the rising of the stars, col- 
lected by Ptolemy, must have been made in a climate where the 
longest day was sixteen hours, wliich con'esponds to the latitude 
ef 50 degrees. No European nation in that latitude uudeptood 



216 KODERN HISTORY. 

astronomy in those early periods. The veneration of the Indiaiss 
and Chinese for the Lama of Thibet is a proof that the religion of 
those nations originated in that quarter. 

9. But does that region exhibit any traces of having beeri ever 
inhabited by a polished people ? Here the theory of M. Bailly seem.s 
to be least supported by proof. He observes, that ancient mines 
have been discovered in those parts of Siberia, which hare been 
■wrought to great extent in a period beyond all record or tradition ; 
that ancient sepulchres have been found, in which there were or- 
naments of gold of skilful woi kmanship ; but the facts specified 
are so few as to warrant no positive inference. 

10. This theory is an amusing specimen of the author's ingenu- 
ity ; but it has not the force to draw our assent to his conclusions. 
"VVe have noticed it as specifying man}"^ curious facts relative to the 
manners and attainments of the ancient nations, and as furnishing 
strong evidence of the common origin of mankind. The nations 
above mentioned, though many of them remote from one another, 
were all connected, as links of a chain, by proximity ; whence it 
is easy to conceive that knowledge should diverge frojn a centre 
to a very distant circumference. M. Bailly has g'ven no reasona- 
ble ground for fixing that centre in the position which he has as* 
signed to it. 



SECTION LI. 

RriGX OF PHHJP II. OF SPAIX. REVOLUTION OF THE 
JNETIIERLANDS, AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE RE- 
PUBLIC OF HOLLAND. 

1. After a short survey of the Asiatic kingdoms, we return to the 
history of Europe in the sixteenth century. 

In the time of Philip II, the successor of Charles V, the balance 
of power in Europe was sustained by Spain, France, Englund, and 
Germany, all at this time highly flourishing and respectable, either 
from the talents of their sovereigns, or their internal strength. Eli- 
zabeth, Henry IV, and Philip II, were all acute and able politi- 
cians ; though the policy of Philip partook more of selfish craft, 
and had less of the manly and Vieroic, than that of either of his rival 
monarchs. Philip was at this time sovereign of Spain, the Two 
Sicilies, Milan, and the Netherlands. He had likewise, for a few 
years, the power of England at his command, by his marriage with 
Mary, the elder sister and predecessor of Elizabeth. 

2. Pope Paul I\% jealous of the power of Philip, formed an alli- 
ance with Henry II. of France to deprive the Spaniards of Milan 
and the Two Sicilies. Philip, with the aid of the English, defeated 
the French at St. Quintin in Picardy, and hoped from this signal 
victory, to force the allies into a peace ; but the duke of Guise 
recovered the spirits of the French, by the taking of Calais from 
the English, which they had nov.' possessed for two hundred years. 
Another great victory, however, obtained by Philip near Grave- 
lines, brought on the treaty o{ Calteau-Cambresis m 1559, by which 



MODERN HISTORY. 217 

the French Burreudered to Spain no less than eighty-nine fortified 
towns in the Low Countries and in Italy. 

3. Philip, nuw at ease from foreign disturbances, began to be 
disquieted on the score of religion. An intolerant bigot by nature, 
he resolved to extirpate every species of heresy from his domin- 
ions. The Netherlands, an assemblage of separate states, were 
all subject to Philip, under various titles ; and he had conferred the 
government of Holland, Zealand, Friesland, and Utrecht, on Wil- 
liam, prince of Orange, a count of the German empire. The Lu- 
theran and CalvinisUc opinions had made great progress in those 
quarters ; aud Philip, determining to repress them, established 
the inquisition with plenary powers, created new bishops, and pre- 
pared to abrogate the ancient laws, and give the provinces a new 
political institution. These innovations created alarm and tumult ; 
and the duke of Alva was sent into Flanders to enforce implicit 
submission. 

4. The inquisition began its bloody work, and many of the prin- 
cipal nobility of the provinces were its victims. The minds of the 
people were completely alienated, and a chief was only wanting 
to give union to their measures. The prince of Orange, who was 
under sentence of the inquisition, found no difficulty to raise au 
army ; and having easily reduced some of the most important gar- 
risons, he was proclaimed stadtholder of Holland and Zealand in 
1570. Eighteen thousarsd persons perished by the hands of the ex- 
ecutioner in the course of the duke of Alva's government, v/hich 
was of five years' duration. His place was supplied by Re- 
quescns, a man of humanity, but bound to obey his inhuman mas- 
ter, who, on the death of Requesens, sent his own brother don 
John of Austria, to endeavour to regain the revolted states ; but 
the attempt was fruitless. The whole seventeen provinces had 
suffered alike from the tyranny of their sovereign ; but particular 
jealousies prevented a general union, and only seven of them as- 
serted their independence, by a solemn treaty formed at Utrecht, 
on the 23d of January, 1579 ; by which it was agreed that they 
should defend their liberties as one united republic ; that they 
should jointly determine in matters of peace and war, establish 
a general legislative authority, and maintain a liberty of con- 
science in matters of religion. These seven united provinces 
are, Guelderland, Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Utrecht, Overys- 
sel, and Groningen. William prince of Orange was declared 
their chief magistrate, general and admiral, by the title of Stadt- 
holder. 

5. Philip vented his indignation by a proscription of the prince 
of Orange, offering 25,000 crowns for his head ; and he compassed 
his revenge; for this illustrious man was cut off by an assassin in 
1584. His son Maurice was elected stadtholder in his room, and 
sustained his important office with great courage and ability. With 
a slender aid from Elizabeth of England, who delighted to traverse 
the plans of Philip, this infant commonwealth accomplished an<f 
secured its independence, which it has maintained till its subjuga- 
tion in the present times. 

19 



CIS MODERN HISTORY. 

6. The other ten province?, whose discontents trere expressed 
only by murmur and complaint, -were soothed by a new charter 
from Philip confirmingf tlieir privileges ; while at the same time he 
took every possible measure to prevent auy attempt on their part 
to throw off the yoke. 



SECTION LIT. 
OF Th£ constitution and government of the 

UNITED PROVINCES. 

1. The treaty of confederation of the Seven United Provinces, 
framed in 1579, and solemnly renewed in 1583, is declared to be, 
hy its nature, indissoluble. Each province thereby preserved its 
rwn laws, magistrates, sovereignty and independence. They 
form, however, one body politic, having renounced the right oi 
making separate alliances or treaties, and established a general 
council, with power of assembling the states, and regulating the 
common affairs of the republic. The assembly «f the states-general 
was originally held only twice a year, but became afterwards a 

■perpetual council. 

2. In all matters which rr-gard not the general interest of the 
Bation, each of the states or provinces is in itself a republic, gover- 
ned by its own )aws and magistrates, and possessing a supreme 
legislative authority. The deputies from each of the towns form 
the council of the province, in whicli is vested its separate go* 
vernment ; and these deputies arc regulated by the instructions of 
their constituents. I'he votes of the majoriry of deputies decide 
in the provincial council in all matters which regard not the gen- 
eral interest of the nation. 

3. The great council of the states-general always met in as- 
sembly at the Hague, and is composed of the deputies from the 
«even provinces, of which Holland sends three, Zealand and 
Utrecht two, and the others one ; each deputy being regulated by 
the council of his province. A majority of voices is here decisive, 
unless in the great questions of peace, war, and alliance, in which 
unanimity is requisite. The di^^ad vantage of this constitution is 
the delay and difficulty in the execution of public measures. All 
the towns and all the nobles of a province must deliberate and 
instruct their deputy, before the states-general can take the mat- 
ter under consideration. This great defect is parily corrected by 
the power and influence of the stadtholder. 

4. The stadtholder is commander in chief of the sea and land 
forces, and disposes of all the military employments. He pre- 
sides over all the courts of justice, and has the power of pardoning 
crimes. He appoints the magistrates of the towns, from a i;st 
made by themselves ; receives and names ambassadors, and is 
charged with the execution of the laws, lie is supreme arbiter 
in ail differences between tlie provinces, cities, or other member? 
of the state. 



MODERN HISTORY. 219 

5. ^Villiam, the first stadtholder, did not abuse these high pow- 
ers ; nor did his successors, Maurice and Henry-Frederick. But 
under William II. the states became jealous of an exorbitant au- 
thority in their chief magistrate, and on his death the office was 
for some time abolished. In that interval the republic was almost 
annihilated by the arms of Lewis XIV ; and, sensible of their er 
ror, they restored the office of stadtholder in the person of Wil- 
liam III, who retrie\'ed the fortunes and honour of his country. 
In gratitude for his services, the dignity was made hereditary in 
his family, a solecism in the government of a republic. On the 
death of William without issue, the office was once more abolish- 
ed for twenty years, when it was again restored, declared hered- 
itary in the family of Orange, and descendible even to the issue 
of a d'^aghter. The only restrictions are, that the succeeding 
prince shall bo of the protestant religion, and neither king nor 
elector of the German empire. 



JffcN 



SECTION LIII. 

OF PHILIP II. CONTINUED. 



1. The loss of the Netherlands was in some degree compensated 
to Philip II. by the acquisition of the kingdom of Portugal. Mu- 
ley Mahomet, ki»ig of Fez and Morof co, dethroned by his uncle 
Muley Moluc, solicited the aid of don Sebastian king of Portugal 
to regain his throne. Sebastian landed with an army in Africa, 
but was defeated by the Moors and slain ; and the contending 
Moori=h princes perished in the same engagsment. Sebastian was 
succeeded by his granduncie don Henry, who died after a reign of 
two years. The competitors for the crown were don Antonio 
prior of Grato, and Philip II, pa.!f:rnal and maternal uncles of the 
last sovereign. Philip defeated his rival in a »^ccisive engagement 
at sea, and, without further opposition, took possession of the throne 
of Portugal, 1580. 

2. Elizabeth of England had warmly espoused the cause of the 
revolted Netherlands, and her admiral sir Francis Drake had taken 
s'>me of the Spanish settlements in Ainerira. To avenge these 
i«juries, the invincible armada, of 150 ships of war, 27,000 men, 
and 3000 pieces ef cannon, was equipped by Philip for the inva- 
sion of England. The English fleet, oi 108 ships, attacked them in 
the night, and bnrnt and destroyed a great part of the squadron. 
A storm, v/hich drove them on the rocks and sands of Zealand, 
completed their discomfiture, and only 50 shattered vessels, with 
6000 men returned to Spain, 1588. 

3. Phe restless spirit of Philip II. was enjjaged at the same time 
in the reduction of the Netherlands, the project for the invasion 
of England, and the dismembering of the kingdom of France. The 
last scheme was as ineffectual as the two former. It was defeated 
at once by the conversion of Henry IV. to the catholic religion. 
The policy of Philip had nothing in it great or generous. His 
jrestlcHS a,uibitio^ w^s fitteij to embroil JEurope ; but he had not 



220 MODERN HISTORY* 

the judgment to turn the distresses -which he occasioned to his 
©-vrn advantag-e. In his own kingdoms, as is his domestic life, he 
Tvas a gloomy and inhuman tyrant. Yet, from the variety and 
magnitude of his designs, the power by which they were sup- 
ported, and the splendour of his dominic-m, the character of 
Spain was high and respectable in the scale of the nations of 
Europe. 



SECTION Liy. 

STATE OF FRANCE IN THE END OF THE SIXTEEN^'!! 
CENTURY ; UNDER HENRY II, FRANCIS II, CHARLES 
LX, HENRY III, AND HENRY IV. 

1. The reformed religion had made the greater progress in 
France from the impolitic persecution which it sustained from 
Heniy II, the son and successor of Francis I, who, though he 
aided the protestants of Germany in resisting the despotism of 
Charles V, showed no mercy to their brethren in^is own king- 

2. On the death of Henry II. the conspiracy of Amboise wag 
planned by the prince of Conde, for the destruction of the duke 
of Guise, who ruled the kiagdom under Francis II, and to whose 
intolerance and cruelty the protestants attributed all their calami- 
ties. Guise OT/ed his ascendancy chiefly to the marriage of his 
»iece, Mary queen of Scots with the young monarch : and the de- 
tection of this conspiracy, the massacre of its principal leaders, 
and the barbarous punishment of all who partook in it^ while they 
confirmed his power, served only to increase the rancour of the 
contending parties. 

3. Francis II. died after a reign of one year, 1560, and was suc- 
ceeded by his brother CTiarles IX, a boy often years of age. The 
queen-mother, Catharine de Medicis, who had no other prin- 
ciple but the love of pov/er, was equally jealous of the influence 
•f the Condes and the Guises. An ecclesiastical assembly, held 
by her desire at Poissy, gave toleration to the protestants to exer- 
cise their worship through all France, without the walls of the 
towns^ The zeal or the imprudence of the duke of Guise infringed 
this ordinance, and both parties Cew to arms. The admiral Co^ 
iigni commanded the troops of the protestants, who were aided by 
10,000 Germans from the Palatinate. Philip of Spain, to increase 
the disorders, sent an army to the aid of the catholics. 

4. The horrors of civil war were aggravated by murders and 
assassinations. The duke of Guise was the victim of the frantic 
zeal of an enthusiast. After many desperate engagements, with 
various success, a treacherous peace was agreed to b}' the catho- 
lics ; and Coligni, with the chiefs of the protestant party, were in- 
vited to court, and received by the queen mother and her son 
with the most extraordinary marks of favour : among the rest Hen- 
ry of Navarre, to whom the young monarch had given his sister in 
marriage. Such were the preparatives to the inleriial massacre of 



MODt:RN iilSTOrxY. 221 

St. llartholoiYiew. On the nio^ht of the 23d of August, 1572, at 
the ringing of the matin bell, the catholics uiade a general massa- 
cre of all th^ protestants throughout the kingdom of France. 
Charles IX, a monster of cruelty assisted in the murder of his own 
subjects. * 

5. Amid those horrors Tienry duke of Anjou, brother of Charles 
IX, was elected king of Poland ; but liad scarcely taken possession 
of his throne, when he was called to that of France by the death 
of its execrable sovereign, 1574. The weakness of the new mon- 
arch, Plenry III, was unfit to compose the disorders of the king- 
dom. Equally bigotted and profliga.te, he became the scorn of hia 
subjects, and the dupe &f the contending factions. , 

G. The protestant party was now supj>orted by the prince of 
Conde and young Henry of Navarre, descended from Robert of 
Bourbon, a younger son of Lewis IX. The duke of Alencon, the 
king''s brother, had likewise joined their party. The catholics, to 
accumulate their strength, formed a bond of union, termed the 
league^ nominally for defence of the state and its religion, but in 
reality for usurping all the powers of government, and suppressing 
the protestant faith. Of this dangerous association lienry liT, witii 
the weakest policy, declared himself the head, and thus the avow- 
ed enemy of one half of his subjects. lie saw his error when too 
late, and, dreading the designs of the duke of Guise, and his bro- 
ther the cardinal of Lorraine, whose authority had superacdi'd hia 
own, he basely rid himself of his foars by procuring their assassina- 
tion. This vicious and contemptible tyrant, after a reign of fifteen 
years, was assassinated by Jaques Clement, a jacobin monk, from 
the frenzy of fanaticism, 1589. 

7. The next heir of the crown was Henry of Navarre, who had 
teen educated a protestant by his mother, the daughter of Henry 
d''Albret king of Navarre. At the age of sixteen he had been de- 
clared head of the party of the Huguenots; his uncle the prince 
of Conde and the admiral Coligni acting as his lieutenants. His 
first military enterprises were unsuccessful. Invited to Paris, at the 
peace of 1572, to marry the sister of Charles IX, he narrowly es- 
caped from the massacre of St. Bartholomew, but remuinud three 
years a prisoner. On the d^^ath of Charles he again took the fieli 
against the army of the league, which he defeated in the battle of 
Coutras, 1587, and still more signally in that of Arques, 1589. 
After the death of Henry Hi, he won the celebrated battle of Iv- 
ry ; and, being acknowledged sovereign of France by all but the 
party of the league, then ia pos^session of Paris, he laid siege to the 
city, which must have capitulated if Philip II. had not sent suc- 
cours. Religien was the sole cause of the disunion of France, and 
the only obstacle to the acknowledgment of Henry's title by the 
greater part of his subjects. By the earnest persuasion of Rosni 
(duke of Sully), a protectant, Henry was prevailed on to declare 
himself a catholic. He abjure^ af St. Denis, and was crowned 
king at C'hartrcs, 1594. He soon after took possession of Paris ; 
but it took him several years, both of war and negoiiation, before 
he gained the whole of his kingdom, exhausted .;?.s it wsts, and rvi- 
iiied by ciyil discord. 



^^"^'^ MODERN HISTORY. 

8. The subseqcient life of this excellent prince was devoted to 
the reparation of those misfortunes. After forcing Philip II. to 
conclade the advantageous peace of Vervins, 1598, his whole at- 
tention was bestowed on the improvement of his king-dom, by re- 
forming its laws, regulating its finances, encouraging agriculture 
and manufactures, enlarging and embellishing the cities, and final- 
ly by successfully reconciling the partisans of the contending reli- 
gions. In all his beneficial schemes, he found an able assistant in 
his minister the duke of Sully, who has beautifully depicted the 
life and character of his master. In his memoirs we see not only 
the great designs, but the private virtues, the engaging and amia- 
ble manners of this illustrious man, who, while he was the arbiter 
of the contending powers of Europe, was the indulgent father of a 
happy people. 

■9. The period of the splendour and happiness of France was of 
short dirration. Henry IV, worthy to be immortal, was assassina- 
ted at the age of fifty -seven, May 4, 1610, by K.avail]ac, an insane 
fanatic. At the time of his death, he meditated the great project 
of a perpetual peace between the states of Europe, a design highly 
characteristic of the benevolent mind of its author. But the weak- 
nesses of mankind, and the impossibility of reasoning with nations as 
with wise individuals, must certainly have rendered this design 
abortive. 



- SECTION LV. 

HISTORY OF ENGLAND AND OF SCOTLAND IN THE 
REIGNS OF ELIZABETH AND MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS. 

1. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII, by Anna Bullen, succeed- 
ed to the throne on the death of her sister Mary, 1558 ; and Eng- 
land attained a high degree of splendour, under the rule of this 
great and politic princess, whose talents enabled her to pursue 
the true interests of her people, while her vigorous and intrepid 
mind led her to take an important part in maintaining the balance 
of power in Europe. While she encouraged at home every useful 
art and manufacture, she colonized a great part of North America, 
supported the infant republic of Holland against its tyrannical en- 
*my, humbled the pride of Spain in the defeat of its invincible 
armada, and assisted Henry IV. in the recovery of his kingdom. It 
was her fortune to have the aid of most able ministers, and her 
merit to place her confidence in their counsels. 

?. If Elizabeth had been equally endov/ed with the virtues of 
ihe heart as with the powers of the mind, she would have shone the 
most illustrious character in the annals of modern Europe. Her 
conduct to her cousin Mary queen of Scots has fixed an indelible 
stain on hsr character. Mary, the daughter of James V, andgreat- 
.-grand-daughter of Henry VII, educated in France, and married, 
•when very young, to the dauphin, afterwards Francis II, had im- 
prudently assumed the arms and title of queen of England, by the 
I)£r9uasioa of Jiier maWmal ^n^es Uie Q^use3. The pr^te&c^ w^s 



MODERN HISTORY. 223 

the illegitimacy of Elizabeth, declared by Henry VIIT, on his di- 
vorce IVorn Anna Bullen. This false step laid the foundation of all 
the miseries of the queen of Scots. 

3. The reformation was at this time going forward in Scotland 
with the most ardent zeal. The earls of Argyle, Morton, Glen- 
cairn, and other?, its chief promoters, had, by their own authority, 
suppressed the worship of the mass over a great part of the king- 
dom. The catholic bishops, by an ill-jndg'cd persecution of the 
refonners, greatly increased the number of their proselytes. They 
began to muster their strength, and, headed by John Knox, a dis- 
ciple of Calyin, a virtuous man, but of the most furious and in- 
temperate zeal, threv/ down the altars and images, expelled the 
priests, and demolished the churches and monasteries. The pro- 
testants were now acting in arms, and in open defiance of govern- 
ment ; and the queen-mother, Mary of Guise, attempted, by the 
aid of French troops, to reduce her subjects to submission. They 
applied for aid to Elizabeth the protestant<jueen of England, who 
sent an army and a fleet to their assistance. TTie death of the 
queen-mother was followed by a capitulation, by which it was 
agreed that the French should evacuate Scotland, and that Mary 
should renounce all pretension to the crown of England. Ihe 
protestant religion, under presbyterian forms, was now established 
in the room of the catholic. 

5. In this situation of Scotland, Mary, at the age of eighteen, on 
the death of ht-r mother, and of her husband Francis II, returned 
to her hereditary kingdom ; having fortunately escaped an English 
fleet, which Elizabeth had dispatched to take her prisoner on her 
passage. Her misfortunes began irom that hour. Her protestant 
subjects regarded their catholic queen with abhorrence, and look- 
ed up to her enemy Elizabeth as their support and defender. That 
artful princess had secured to her interest the very men on whom 
the unsuspecting Mary placed her utmost confidence, her bas- 
tard brother the earl of Murray, the earl of Morton, and secre- 
taiy Lelhinglon. The views of Murray aimed at nothing less 
than his sister's Crown, and the obstacles which opposed his crim- 
inal ai:>ibition served only to render his attempts more daring and 
ilagitiovis. 

5. The marriage of Mary with her cousin lord Darnley, son 
of the earl of Lennox, who stood in the same relation to Eliza- 
beth, was not agreeable to that princess. Encouraged by Eliza- 
beth's ministers, Randolph ?aid Cecil, Murray formed a conspira- 
cy to seize and imprison Mary, to put to death her husband, and 
usurp the government ; and on the detection of his designs, at- 
tempted to support them by open rebellion. Defeated, exiled, par- 
doned, and loaded with beneiits by his injured sovereign, he per- 
severed in the same atrocious purposes, till he at length accom- 
plished them. 

6. The spouse of Mary had incurred her resentment by his vices 
and follies. Taking advantage of the weakness of his mind, Mur- 
ray, Morton, and Lethington, had rendered him jealous of the par- 
tiality of Mary for her foreign secretary, the aged llizzio, and en- 
gaged him iii the barbarous act of nxwrdeji'ing this ill-fa.tegl wretch 



224 MODERN IIISTORV. 

at the feet of the queen, to whose garments he clung; for protection. 
The purpose of this shocka^g outra^ie was to procure the abortion 
of Mary, then big v/ith child, and possibly her death ; or, if she 
should survive, to alienate compli tely her affections from her hus- 
band, and thus to render her suspected of the design which they 
had projected of cutting him oft' by assassination. In the latter 
purpose they succeeded. The house which Darnley inhabited was 
blown up by gunpowder : his body was found strangled near the 
place, and a report immediately prevailed, that Mary had been ac- 
cessory to his murder- 

7. A most imprudent ftep, to which she was conducted by the 
same band of traitors, gave countenance to this suspi-cion. At the 
earnest recommendation of ivlorton and some of her chief nobility, 
1 she married the carl of Bothwell, a man openly stigmatized as one 
of the murderers of her husband. He had, it is true, been absol- 
ved on trial for that crime, and had by force made himself master 
cf her person. 'Jlie plans of Murray and his associates, success- 
ful to the utmost of their v/ishes, Avere now ripe for consummation. 
On the pretext of the queen''s guilt of murder and adultery, she 
was confined by Murray in the castle of Lochleven, and there 
compelled to resign her crown into the hands of her unnatural 
l)rother, who was to govern the kingdom as regent during the 
minority of her infant son, now proclaimed king by the title of 
James VI, 1567. Bothwell cscapeil beyond sea, and died ia Den- 
mark. 

3. A great part of the nation reprobated those Infamous pro- 
ceedings. Mary escaped from her confinement, and at the head 
•of an army gave battle to the rebels at Langside ; but, being de- 
feated, she fled for shelter to the north of F.ngland. Elizabeth, 
who had secretly encouraged all the machinations of her ene- 
mies, had now gained a great object cf her ambition ; she had 
in her hands a hated rival, aihd, by her support of Murray and 
his party, the absolute command of the kingdom of Scotland. 
Yet policy required some show of friend, hip and humanity to the 
queen of Scots, who claimed, as a suppliant, her protection and 
aid. She professed her desire to do her justice, but fust requi- 
red that she should clear herself of the crimes alleged against her 
To this Mary agreed, with the intrepidity of conscious innocence. 
In a conference held for that purpose xVIurray openly stood forth 
as the accuser of his sister and queen, appraling to certain letters 
said to have been written by her to Bothwell, plainly intimating 
her guilt. Copies of these letters were produced. Mary demanded 
the originals, boldly declaring them to be the forgeries oi her ene- 
mies ; but they were never produced. She retorted on Murray 
and Morton the charge of Darnley\s murder ; and the conference 
was broken off at the command of the queen of England, who de- 
tained Mary, in close in^prisoumeat. 

9. The ungenerous policy of Elizabeth was condemned by her 
own subjects. The duke of Norfolk, the first of her nobility, and, 
Ihoi.gh a protestant, favo'ired by the catholic party in England, 
-eecrelly projected to many the queen of Scots. The discovery rjf 
iru3Tie:v/siiayin^ given alarm to Elizabeth, bjougiil that iil-iat|f«l 



MODERN IIISTOIIY. 225 

nobUman to the block, and hastened the doom of the unfortunate 
Mury. Worn out with the miseries of her confuicment, she pri- 
vately solicited the aid of foreign princes for her deliverance. Her 
cause was cppousedby all the catholics of England v and some of 
the most iT.temperate of the se had formed a plot to deliver her 
froni captivity, and to place her on the throne, by the murder of 
Elizabeth. This danjjerous conspiracy was discovered, and its au- 
thors deservedly suffered death. 'J'he schemes of Mary for her 
own deliverance were held presumptive of her acquiescence in the 
whole of the plot. Though an independent sovereign, she was 
brou^^ht to trial before a foreign tribunal which had Mready decreed 
her fate ; and, being condemned to suffer Heath, she was beheaded 
at Fotheringay castle, 1587, in the forty-fifth year of her age, and 
tiie nineteenth of her captivity in England. Freviously to this 
event Murray had fallen the victim of the private revenge of a 
gt'Titlcn^rrii whom he hp.d injured ; Eethingtou poisoned ium^olf in 
piiion, to escape, the sentence of his enemies; and Morton, sorao 
time rep^ent of the kingdom, was afterwards tried and suffered 
death for his concern in the murder of Darnloy. 

10. VV'e have mentioned t!ie formidable preparations of Philip 
II. for the invasion of England, and their disastrous issue in the to- 
tal dcitruction of the invincible armada. The English, in their 
tarn, madedescents on the Spanish coasts; and the glory of the 
nation Avas nobly sustained by those grea.t admirals, Rafeigh, How- 
ard, Drake, Cavendish, and Hawkins. The carl of Essex distin- 
guished hiiriseifin those expeditions, and won the favour of Eiizg.- 
bf'th, both by his prowess and personal accomplishments. The 
death of Leicester, her former favourite, and of her minister Bur- 
leigh left Essex unrivalled in her affections, and of chief authority 
in the direction of her councils. Haughty, and impatient of con- 
trol, he disgusted the nobles; and hia failure in quelling a re- 
Ijellion in Ireland gave them ground to undermine him in the 
favour of his sovereign. In the madness of inordinate ambition, 
he proposed to possess himself of the person of the queen, and 
compel her to remove his enemies, and acquiesce in all his mea- 
s jres. This treasonable enterprise brought him to the scafi'old, 
1600. 

11. From that time Elizabeth fell into profound melancholy, and 
soon after died in the seventieth year of her age, 1603, having na- 
med for her successor James \T. of Scotland. Her talents were 
great, and th« firmness of her mind was unequalled ; but her pri- 
vate character was tarnished by cruelty, hypocrisy, and an insa- 
tiable desire of admiration. Iler maxims of government were 
despotic, and she had little regard for the liberties of her people, 
or the privileges of her parliaments, to whom she never allowed 
the liberty of disputing her commands, 'i'he actual government 
of England in those days was little diflerent from an absolute 
monarchy. 



226 MODERN HISTORY, 



SECTION LVJ. 

HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE REIGNS OF JAMES 
I. AND CHARLES I. 

1. James VI. of Scotland succeeded by hereditary right to the 
throne of England, thus uniting the two crowns ; a prince of con- 
siderable learning' and talents, but of little vigour of mind or po- 
litical energ-y. He became unpopular from his notions of an un- 
controlable prefogative, to which unwisely proclaiming his title, 
he proTcked his subjects to question it. The current of public 
opinion was now strongly turned to an extension of the rights of 
the subject, and to a retrenchment of the powers of the crown ; 
Tiud during this reign the seeds were sown of that spirit of resis- 
tance cu the part of ibe people, '..vilcli "ivas destined i« the nc:st to 
overturn the constitution. 

2. Domestic events were such as chiefly distinguished the reign 
of James I. A conspiracy was discovered in 1603 for subverting the 
government, and placing the king's cousin, Arabella Stuar^, on the 
throne, in which the lords Cobham and Grey, and sir Vv alter Ra- 
leigh were principaliy concerned. '1 be two former were pardoned, 
and Raleigh was condemned, but reprieved. On the ground of 
his infringement of the peace with ?pain, by unwarrantably at* 
tacking one of her American settlements, he was beheaded on hi» 
former sentence, afttr an interval of fifteen years. 

3. Another conspiracy followed, of a still more dangerous na- 
ture, the gunpowder treason ; a plot of the catholics to destroy at 
one Ijiow the king and the whole body of the parliament, 1604. 
It vv-as discovered from a circurustance of private friendship, oq 
t'ne very eve of its accomplishment ; and the principal conspira- 
tors suiiered capital punishment. "^I'he public indignation now 
raged against the catholics ; and the humanity of James, which 
s^ought to mitigate this fury, was as ungenerously as absurdly con- 
strued into a favour which he entertained for their religious prin- 
ciples. 

4. It was a peculiar weakness of the king to attach him^self to 
undeserving favourites. Such was Carre earl of Somerset, who 
had no other recommendation but a handsome person, a.nd who, 
sftcr several years' exercise cf ful the insolence of power, fell 
into disgrace, on conviction of his concern in an infamous mur- 
der, ilis place was supplied by Viiliers, afterv.aids duke of 
Buckingham, a man devoid of every talent of a minister, and 
odious to all mnks of the state, lie planned a journey of Charles 
prince of Wales into Spain to couri, the infanta, and by his 
folly and insolence frustrated U^e treaty en the brink of its con- 
clusion. 

5. Elizabeth the daughter of James, was married to the protes- 
tant elector Palatine, who was dispossessed of his electorate by 
the emperor Ferdinand 11, for imprudently accepting the crown of 
Bohemia, till tlien an appanage of the empire, James was urged 
,by parliament to s. war in defence of his spu-in-law, which touched 



MODERif HIST0Rlr* 227 

the nation both as a point of hcnoiir and as the cause of the pro- 
testant interest. He sent a feeble armament, which was of no 
service, the only military enterprise of his reign. His favourite 
project was a complete union of the king-doms of England and Scot- 
land ; a measure which, however beneficial, the mutual prejudices 
of the two nations were as yet too violent to bear. As a prepara 
tory step, the episcopal hierarchy was introduced into Scotland ; 
but this served only as the incentive of future commotions. James 
L died in 1625, iu thcyOth year of his age, and the 22d of his reign 
over Endand. 

6. On an impartial estimate of the character of the succeeding 
monarch, Charles I, it may be allowed, that this unfortunate 
prince would have reigned with high popularity, if the nation in 
his reign had entertained the same opinions of the regal preroga- 
tive, of the powers of parliament, and of the liberty of the subject, 
which had prevailed for the two preceding centuries. But it was 
his lot to mount the throne at that critical period when Ihe public 
opinion had undargoue an entire revulution on thoye topics ; and, 
with many excellent endowments both of head and heart, he want- 
ed that political prudence which should have taught him to yield 
to the necessity of the times. 

7. Charles was otrej:»ded with his first parliament, on their rcfu- - 
sal of adequate supplies for the war in support of his broth cr-in- 
law, the elector Palatine. Engaged to his allies, the king, dissol- 
ving the parliament, issued warrantsf^r borrowing money of the 
subject. A new parliament was found equally uncomplying, and 
evinced its jealousy of the king by the impeachment of his minis- 
ter, Buckingham. Charles avenged the insult by imprisoning two 
members df the house of commons. A dissension thus begun was 
continually aggravated by new causes of offence. The levying of 
money from the subject was enforced by billeting soldiers on those 
who refused to lend to ^he crown ; and some were even imprisoned 
on that account. A war was undertaken against France, by Buck- 
ingham's instigation, a suiFicient cause of its unpopularity ; and it 
ended in a fruitless attempt on Rocbelle. The kin^ again dissolved 
his parliament, 162G. 

8. A new parliament exhibited a spirit of determined reforma- 
tion. A Petition of Right was passed by both houses, which de- 
clared the illegality of raising money without their sanction, or of 
enforcing loans from the subject, annulled all taxes imposed v/ith- 
out the consent of parliament, and abolished the exercise of the 
2nar(ial law; and Charles was obliged, with much reluctance, to 
give his assent to this great retrenchment of prerogatives, sanction- 
ed by the usage of the most popular of his predecessors. 

0. Tlie taxes of tonnage and poundage had usually been con- 
tinued from one reign to another. On this ground the king con- 
eta' .d that he was warranted to levy them wilhort a nev/ grant ; 
and a member of the house of commons was imprisoned on refusal 
to })ay them. This arbitrary measure excited an ovitrag-eous fer- 
me>it iii tliat assembly, and the eoui-t^quence was a new dissolutloa 
•f thcJ' pari lament, W^' ^. 



228 MODERN HISTORt. 

10. It was now a measure of necessity to make peace v/ith 
France sud Spain. The king peisevered in levying the tonnage, 
poundage, and ;<hip-money ; and high fines were imposed for vari- 
ous offences, without trial, hy authority of the star-chamber. 
The legality of the tax of ship-money was disputed by John 
Hampden, v/ho was rcndemned by the court of exchequer, con- 
trary, as was generally thought, to justice and the laws of the 
realm. 

11. Those discontents were increased by religious enthusiasm. 
Charles, by the advice of Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, had 
relaxed the penalties against catholics, and countenanced some 
JKnovatioMs in the ceremonials of church worship, preludes, a3 
they Wijre termed, to the popish idolatries. He had likeAvise im- 
prudently attempted to introduce the liturgy of the church of 
England among the Scots. These measures excited in Scotland 
very general discontent, and produced the most violent commo- 
tion. A bond, termed the Js''ational Covenant^ containing an oath 
of resistance to all religious innovations, was subscribed in Scot- 
land by all ranks and conditions ; and in a general assem.bly at 
Glasgow the episcopal hierarchy was solemnly abolished, 1638. 
To maintain this violent procedure the Scots reformers took up 
arms, and, after seizing and fortifying the most important places 
of strength in the kingdom, boldly marched into the heart of 
Eni:land. 

12. It was now absolutej^Wnecessary to assemble aparllamo-nt^ 
and the king at length saw^at the torrent was irresistible, and 
resolved, though too late, to yield to it. A bill passed for abolish- 
ing the tonnage and poundage without consent of parliament, and 
received the royal assent. Monopolies of every kind wete abolish- 
ed. A parlia)nent was agreed to be summoned every third year, 
Unsatisiied with these coneessions, the commons impeached the 
earl of Strafford, the king's first minister, of high treason, togetlier 
with Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, who were charged, as the 
chief counsellors of the crown, with a design of subverting the laws 
and constitution of the realm. The fate of Strafford, whose trial 
by his peers would have terminated in his acquittal, was secured 
by a bill of attainder, to which the king was, with the greatest 
reluctance, forced to give his assent. The commons seized that 
moment of anguish to obtain his consent to a decisive measure, a 
bill which rendered the parliament perpetual, by declaring that 
it should not be dissolved nor adjourned except by its own decree, 
1641. Straflbrd and Laud were both beheaded. 

13. This last measure of the commons evinced a determined pur- 
pose to overturn the constitution. 1 heir proceedings hitherto had 
the show of justice, and most of them might be vindicated on the 
principles of true patiiotism. But from this period their conduct 
was treason to their country and its government. The last bio de- 
stroyed the equal balance of the constitution of England, and ev- 
ery subsequent measure was a step toward its anniliilation. 

14. The Irish catholics took advantage of those disorders, and, 
with the purpose of assuming the entire c "^imand of that kingdoci, 
and shakino; off its dependence on England, attempted, in one 



MODEilx\' HISTOHY. 229 

day to massacre all the protcstants In Ireland. To extinguish this 
horrible rebellion Charles consigfned to the parliament the charg-e 
of the war, which they interpreted into a transference to them of 
the whole military powers of the crown. Under this authority a 
g-reat force was levied, and supplied Avith arms from the royal 
magazines. 

15. The bishops having complained that their lives were in dan- 
ger from the populace, and having protested against the proceed- 
ings of the lords in their absence, were impeached of treason by the 
commons, and committed to the Tower. The patience of Charles 
was exhausted. He caused five of the commons to be impeached, 
and went in person to the house to seize them ; a breach of the 
privileg'e of parliament, for which he fouud it necessary to atone 
by a humiliating message. 

16. Anew bill of the commons, naming the commanders of all 
the fortified places, who should be responsible to parliament alone, 
was understood to be a declaration of war. The next step was to 
assume the whole legislative power, by declaring it a breach of 
privilege to dispute the law of the land promulged by the lords and 
commons. But the lords Avere merely a name, being entirely un- 
der the control of the commons. 

17. The sword was now to decide the contest. The royal cause 
was supporf«ed by a great proportion of the landed interest, all 
the friends of the established church, and all the catholics in the 
kingdom. On the side of the parliament were the city of London 
and most of the greater towns, with all the dissenters and sectaries. 
The first campaign was favourable to the royalists, who defeated 
the parliamentary forces at Worcester and Edgehill, but lost the 
battle of Nev/bury. 

18. The parliament now entered into a strict confederacy with 
the Scots, both in the articles of politics and religion ; and the 
Solemn League and Covenant^ a new bond more specific in its ob- 
jects than the former, and more treasonable in its purpose, was 
framed at Edinburgh, for the purification of both churches, the 
reformation of both kingdoms, the maintenance of the privileses of 
king and parliament, and bringing to justice all malignants. In 
consequence of this confederacy 20,000 Scots took the field to co- 
operate with the forces of the parliament. 

19. At this time Oliver Cromwell commanded a regiment of 
horse under I airfax, general of the parliament ; but in reality di- 
rected all the measures of the army. In Scotland the royal cause 
was gallantly sustained by the marquis of Trlontrose ; but all Avas 
lost in England by the defeat at Naseby, in 1645. The troops of 
the royalists being entirely dispersed, the king threw himself into 
the hands of the Scots, who basely delivered him up to the com- 
missioners of parliament, from whom he was taken by Crom- 
well's orders, and conducted to the army, which v/as now master of 
the kingdom. Cromvi'ell entering London assumed an absolute con- 
trol oyer the parliament, and imprisoned all who disputed his/ 
authority. Charles, escaping from his confinement, fled to the' 
isle of Wight ; but was there detained a prisoner in Carisbrook 
castle. 

20 



230 MODERN HIST OK Vr 

20. The parliament, suffering under tliis military usurpation, 
were now sincerely desirous of terminating- a miserable anarchy 
by a treaty with the king^, and, after a lono; negotiation, all terms 
were finally adjusted. Charles agreed to resign to parliament the 
military power, the disposal of all the offices of state, and the right 
of creating peers without the consent of parliament : he agreed to 
abolish th-c episcopal hierarchy, and to i^stablish the presbyteriaa 
discipline. These concessions the parliament accepted by a ma- 
jority of suffrages, and declared them to be a sufficient basis for the 
settlement of the lvi)igdoin. Cromwell instantly surrounded the 
house of commons, and, excluding all but l\is own partisans (about 
sixty in number), a second vote was passed, rescinding the former, 
And declaring it treason in a king to levy war against his parlia- 
ment. A conrt of justice was then appointed to try the king for 
this act of treason. Tho house of lords, having unanimously re- 
jected this decree, were immediately voted, by this junto of inde- 
pendents, to be a useless branch of the constitution. 

21. Charles was brought to trial, and, refusing to acknowledge 
♦ he authority of his judges, was condemned to suffer deatli. He 
was beheaded on the oOth of January, 1649. The arbitrary pro- 
ceedings of this monarch in the beginning of his reign were cer- 
tainly sufficient to justify that resistance on the part of the people 
which at length produced its effect, in confining the regal autho- 
rity within its just bounds, and securing the rational liberties of 
the subject. But from the period when this end was attained, re- 
sistance ceased to be lawful. Its further operations were criminal 
in the extreme. The subsequent usurpations of the commons can 
no more be justified on any constitutional principle, than the mur- 
der of the king can be defended on the score of legality, justice, or 
humanity. 



SECTION LYII. 

Tin: CorvIMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND. 

1. The parliament of Scotland had taken no part in these latter 
scenes, and had formally protested against the trial of the king. 
On his death they proclaimed Charles II. their sovereign, but on 
the express condition of his signing the covenant, and ratifying 
their confession of faith. Ireland recognized him without any con- 
ditions. The heroic marquis of Montrose landed in the north of 
Scotland with a few foreign troops, and ?atempted to reduce the 
oarty of the covenanters, and to establish the legal authority of the 
king, independent of the servile restrictions with which they had 
fettered it. Ueing attacked by a much superior force, he was de- 
fuated, and betrayed into the power of his enemies, who put him 
t^ death by the hands of the executioner, 1650 ; displaying in the 
c'rcumstances of his punishment all the insolence of cruelty which 
distinguishes revenge in the meanest of souls. Charles retired to 
:!;cotiand, and was obliged, however reluctantly, to acquiesce in 
H.]\ the terms that were imposed on him. 



MODERN HISTORY, 231 

2. Cromwell, with 16,000 men, marched into Scotland against 
the royalist covenanters, whom he defeated in the battle of Dun- 
bar. He then followed the royal army, which retreated into En,^- 
Jand, and destroyed it In the decisive battle of Worcester, Septem- 
ber 3, 1651. Charles fled in disguise through the western and 
southern counties, till he found an opportunity of escaping to 
France ; and Cromwell returned in triumph to London. 

3. The republican parliament formed and executed great de- 
signs. A war with Holland was most ably maintained on both 
sides by three great naval commanders, Blake, the British admiral, 
and Van Tromp and de Ruyter, the Dutch admirals ; but tlie ad- 
vantage was greatly in favour of the English, who took above 1600 
Dutch ships. The parliament, elated by these successes, justly 
conceived that, while the nation was thus powerful at ^ea, the 
army was an unnecessary burden, and determined to reduce it. To 
prevent this measure Cromwell framed a remonstrance of the ai- 
my, demanding the election of a new parliament. This rcmor»- 
strance being disregarded, he entered the house of communs, which 
he had surrounded with his trootos, and declaring the parlia- 
ment dissolved by his authority, forcibly turned the members out of 
doors. The republic of England, which had subsisted four years 
and three months, was thus annihilated in one moment, April 20, 
1653. 

4. It was necessary, however, that there should be the appear- 
ance of a pariiameiit. A few mean persons, of fanatical character, 
were chosen by CicmwelPs partisans, I'rom the diilerent counties 
of England, with five from Scotland, and six from Ireland, to hold 
their junction for fifteen mo»ths. This assembly, termed Bare-' 
bone''s parliament^ from its leading member, a kathci'-seiier, be- 
came the scorn of the public, and was dissolved, by its own vote, 
after five months. 

5. The government was now vested in the council of ofTic&rr, 
who nominated Oliver Cromwell lord protector of the three kint;- 
doms, invested him with M\c power of making peace, war, and alli- 
ance, and authorized a standing army of 30,000 men to be kept up 
for the support of government. His administration was despotic, 
vigorous, and spirited. He maintained the honour of the nation in 
the war v/ith the Dutch, compelling them to'yield the honour of the 
flag, and to compensate to the India company all its losses. Ho 
was successful likewise in his negotiations with France and Spain, 
But in his domtstic goverument he was traversed by his parlia- 
ments, v.'hom it cost him a continual struggle, and even, violence, 
to keep in order. One parliament, propt^rly prcpareil, voted hiui 
the regal title, which, by the counsel of his best friends, he was 
forced, most unwillingly, to refuse. In recompense of this self- 
denial, the parliament confirmed his title of protector, with a fixed 
revenue, and decreed his right of appointing a successor. He wa^s 
king in all but the name. 

6. By consent of parliament Cromwell appointed a house of 
lords ; but all the ancient peers declined the proffered honour. He 
was forced to choose peers from the commons. ; and thus he io.>f. 
the majority ia> the lower house. His temper sQured with disan- 



232 MODERN HISTORY. 

pointment, a prey to chagrin, and in rontinual fear of HssftsSfination, 
he fell at length into a mortal disease, and died in the fifty-ninth 
year of his age, September ii, 1652. 

7. 'Richard Cronnvell, sou of Oliver, succeeded to the protec- 
torate by his father's appointment. lie %vas a man of weak un- 
derstandiiig- and facile temper, utterly unfit for his hazardous situ- 
ation, which accordingly he maintained only for a few months, re- 
si.cnin-- his otiice on the 22d of April, 1G59. His brother Henry, 
viceroy of Ireland, immediately followed his example. The fami- 
ly of the Crom wells, wliich the talents of one man had elevated 
above the sovereigns of their country, returned to its original ob- 
scurity. 

8. 'i he remains of that nominal parliament which had put the 
king to death, termed, in derision, the rump^via.s now dissolved by 
the council of officers. Of these every aspiring individual had his 
own separate views of ambition. Intrigue, cabal and anarchy were 
uiaversiil ; and the nation, looking forward with horror to a series 
of calamities, began earnestly to desire the restitution of its ancient 
government. George Monk, commander of the army in Scotland, 
judged tho-e symptoms favourable tor restoring the exiled monarch 
to the throne of his ancestors. Marching his army into England, 
he declared nis resolution to bring about the election of a free par- 
liament, v/liich ail men knew to be synonymous with the restora- 
tion of the king. It was of course violently opposed by the repub- 
lican party, who even attempted to excite a new civil war ; but 
they were forced at length to acquiesce in the measure. A free 
pariiainent v*'as assembled, and a message was presented from 
Charles, offering a full indemnity, complete liberty of conscience, 
and payment of all arrears to the army. The message was re- 
ceived v/ith transports of joy, and Charles II. was proclaimed king 
on the 29th day of May, 1600. 



SECTION LVIII. 

THE REIGNS OF CHARLES II. AND JAMES IL 

1. The nation, without imposing any terms on their new sovereign, 
trusted implicitly to his good dispositions. Charles was humane 
and complacent, but indolent, luxurious and prodigal ; and there- 
fore was neither able to support the national honour abroad, nor 
to ccmmand obedience and respect to his domestic government. The 
sale ot Dunkirk was a measure offensive to the pride of the na- 
tion. A war with Holland, supported at a vast expense, and main- 
tained in many desperate but indecisive engagements, was attend- 
ed finally with no material benefit. By the treaty of Breda, con- 
cluded in 1C67, New York was secured to the English, the isle of 
Volerone to the Dutch, and Acadia in North America to the 
French. 

2. The salt of Dunkirk, and the unsuccessful issue of the war, 
attributed to the counsel of the earl of Clarendon, procured the 
rlisgrace and banishment of that illustrious man, 1667* The 



MODERN HisToay. 233 

p«ace was scarcely concluded with Holland, when rng:land joined 
with her and S'.veden in a triple alliance, to oppose the progress 
of th-^, arms of Lewis XIV. in the Low Countries ; and that object 
hein^ attained by the treaty of .\ix-la-Chapolle, in 1GC8, the 
French monarch trained the Ens^lish over to his interest in a new 
war a:;-ain?t the Dutch, which brought their republic to the brink 
of destruction. 

3. The domestic admiaistration of Charles Avas embroiled from 
%^arious causes, oris^iuatins; in the personal character and disposi- 
tions of the sovereign. He trusted to profligate and worthless coun- 
sellors. His arbitrary notions of g-overnmeut, and the partiality 
which he showed to the catholics, gave perpetual alarm and unea- 
siness to a great proportion of his subjects. Complaints resounded 
from every quarter ; and the parliament required a test-oath, ab- 
juring popery, from all persons in public employment. On refusal 
to take this oath, the king's brother, James duke of York, was de- 
prived of his office of high admiral. 

4. Titus Gates, a worthless impostor, pretended to have discov- 
ered a plot of the catholics for assassinating tlic king, burning Lon- 
don, massacring the protestants, and placing the duke of York ou 
the threne. Auother villain, named Bedloe, joined his evidence 
to that of Gates • and on their perjured testimony, afterward fully 
exposed, a few miserable priests suffered death. A new test was 
■imposed, which excluded all papists from both houses of parlia- 
ment. The treasurer Danby was impeached for advising the last 
peace with France, tliough it was proved that he had acted by his 
sovereign's orders ; and a bill passed tiie hou^e of commons, exclu- 
ding the duke of York from the succession to the crown. A more 
important bill for the general liberty, the act of habeas corpus.^ 
was the work of the same session of paidiament. (Sect. LIX, 
J 14.) 

5. The distinguishing epithets of ivliig and tory v/ore now £i\'?± 
known ; the former, the opposers of the crown, against the latter, 
its partisans ; and each party, as in all factions, carried its princi- 
ples to an extreme. The v/higs, predominant in the next parlia- 
ment, raged with fury ag'ainst the catholics, and insisted on the 
king's assent to the bill for the exclusion of his brother. His only 
expedient was to dissclve the parliament, but he found their suc- 
cessors equally violent. After various fruitless attempts to concil- 
iate their favour to his measures, a dissolution of this parliament 
ensued, the last which Charles assembled. 

6. But the great cause of dissatisfaction remained. The duke 
of York was at the bottom of all the measures of government. A 
conspiracy was formed by Shaftesbury, Russel, Sidney, and the 
duke of Monmouth, natural son of the king, on the pretence of vin*- 
dicating the national liberties. It was discovered by one of the 
.associates, and Russel and Sydney suffered capital punishment.. 
The detection of this conspiracy strengthened the autiiority of the 
sovereign. The duke of York was restored to his office of high 
admiral, and tacitly acknowledged as the successor to the crown. 
OharleelL died on the 6th ef February, 1685, in the 5gthjyearof 
^is age, juid -the 2&th of his reign. 

■2B* 



234 MODERN HISTORY* 

7. The dnke of York succeeded to the throne by tlie title of 
J-ames 11, His reign was short and inglorious. He was the instru- 
ment of his own misfortunes, and ran headlong to destruction. 
The catholics at this time were not the hundredth part of the na- 
tion, yet James was weak enough to make the desperate attempt 
of substituting the popish faith in room of the protestant. Discard- 
ing the nobility from his councils, he was directed solely by Romish 
priests. In the very outset of his reign he expressed his contempt 
of the ai^thority of parliament, and a firm purpose to exercise an 
unlimited despotism. 

3. The duke of Monmouth, having excited a new rebellion, 
•was defeated, made prisoner, and beheaded ; and the most inhu- 
man rigour was exercised in the punishment of all his partisans. 
The parliament was in general submissive to the king's will, which 
for a while met with no opposition nor control. A declaration was 
published, establishing full liberty of conscience in matters of 
religion ; and several bishops, who refused to publish it in their 
dioceses, were committed to prison. A catholic president was ap- 
pointed to one of the c">lleges at Oxford. An ambassador was 
sent to the pope, and a papal nuncio received in London. The 
catholics openly boasted that theirs would soon be the religion of 
the state. 

6. James had three children ; Mary, the wife of the stadtholder 
William prince of Orange ; Anne, married to prince George of 
Denmark ; aiul Jarnes, an infant. The stadtholder had consider- 
ed his right to the crown of England as certain before the birth of 
this infant, and, alter that event, projected still to gain it by arms 
or intrigue ; the infatuation of the king and tlie general discontent 
of the peo})Ic giving him the most flattering invitation. James was 
informed of those views of his son-in-law, but would give them no 
credit, till av?tually apprized of his landing with an army, Novem- 
ber 15th, 1GG8. 

10. The principal nobility and officers immediately joined the 
standard of the prince of Orange ; and James was at once aban- 
doned by his people, ministers, favourites, and his own children. 
Leaving Londwi in disguise, he v/as discovered and brought back 
by the }'opulace ; but the prince of Orange wisely favoured his 
escape, and he found means a few elays after, to convey himself to 
France. 

11. I'he throne being declared vacant, it was proposed in a con- 
vention-parliament, that the crown should be settled on the prin- 
cess Mary and her issue, her husband governing as regent, whom 
failing, on the piincess Anne. The stadtholder declining the office 
of regent, it was finally resolved to confer the crown on the prince 
and pj uacess of Orange, the former to have the sole administration 
cf the government. 

12. To this settlement was added a declaration fixing the rights 
©f tlie subject and the royal prerogative. Of this the most im- 
portant articles are the following. The king cannot suspend the 
laws, ncr their execution ; he cannot levy money without consent 
of parliament ; the subjects have right to petition the crown; a 
standing army carjnot be kept up in time of peace but by consent 



MODERN HISTORY. 235 

of parliament ; elections and parliamentary debate miiet be free, 
and parliaments must be frequently assembled, &c. Such was 
the final settlement of the British government at the great era of 
the rerolution. At this period, when the constitution became 
fixed and determined, we finish the sketch of the history of our 
own country. 



SECTION LIX. 

ON THE BRITISH CONSTITUTIOIV. 

1. The rudiments of the constitution of Ensland may be traced 
-as far bac*!?: as the Norman conquest. William distributed a great 
proportion of the lands amon^ his Norman follov/ers, subjecting' 
these, as well as the Anglo-Saxons who retained their property to 
the feudal tenures, and thus extinguishing at once the ancient 
liberties of the people. England was divided into 60,215 military 
fiefs, all held of the crown, under the obligation of the vassal's 
taking arms for his sovereign whenever required. In the conti- 
nental kingdoms of Europe, as in France, the feudal system arose 
by slow degrees, nor was there of consequence the same union of 
the fabric as in England. The feudal lords were independent of 
one another, ever at variance from thtir mutual pretensions, and 
often owning but a very slender allegiance to the crown. Their 
vassals suffered from oppression, and often struggled for their free- 
dom ; but those efforts being partial produced no consequence fa- 
vourable to the liberty of the nation. In England all were op- 
pressed by the enormous weight of the crown ; it M-as a common 
grievance, and produced at times a violent effort for the general 
liberties of the people. 

,2. The forest-iaws imposed by the conqueror (Sect. XV, { 2, 
11,) were a grievance felt by the whole nation, as rendering eve.y 
mau''s property precarious, and subject to the arbitrary encroach- 
ments of the crown. It was no wonder that the barons and their 
vassals should cordially unite to lid themselves of so intolerable a 
luirdship. lienry I. found it necessary to conciliate his subjects, 
l)y mitigating the most rigorous of the feudal laAvs. A greater ad- 
vance was made under Henry il, by the institution of the trial by 
jury. But John imprudently resisting this natural progress to- 
ward a rational freedom, v»-as soon compelled into those important 
concessions, the Charia de Forest a and .Magna Charta. From that 
time the constitution of England was that of a limited monarchy, 
whatever we may judge of the actual government, which was of- 
ten most arbitrary and despotical. 

3. The next memorable era in the progress of the English con- 
stitution was the reign of that weak prince Henry III, when the 
parliament received a new form, by the admission of the repre- 
sentatives of the people, the deputies of the counties and bo- 
roughs. (Sect. XXII, } 2.) His successor Edward I. acknowledged 
their authority in obtaining all his subsidies, and ratified a new 
law, which declared, that no tax should be levied without th« 



23 G MODERN IIISTOIIY.* 

consent of lords and commons. The Maizna CharfayviaiS cont^rmcd 
no less than eleven thnes in the course of this reign. 

4. Thus the constitution continued advancing- till its pros;rcss 
■was suspended hy the civil wars of York and Lancaster. The 
rights of both prince and people seemed then to be entirely for- 
gotten ; and the race of Tudor found no resistance from parlia- 
ment to their vigorous and despotic sway. The talents of Fliza- 
heth, and the high character which her governm.ent sustained 
with foreign powders, extinguished all domestic disquiets, while 
the predominaiit feeling was the maintenance of the poverand 
dignity of the crown. 

5. But under the succeeding prince, when his power and dignity 
■were abased by his own weakness, the nation began to a^i^akefrom 
its lethargy ; and that spirit of opposition, which in this reign con- 
fined itself t© complaints, in the next broke forth M'ilh alarming 
violence. Charles I, endowed with superior energy of character, 
acted, as he conceived, on a principle of duty, which obliged him 
to maintain the prerogative of his predecessors, and to transmit it 
unimpaired to his posterity ; but he was im.prudent in exerting 
with rigour an authority which he wanted ultimate resources to 
support. IJe was compelled to sign the Petition of Mights^ a 
grant more favourable to liberty than Magna Charta. The true 
patriots were satisfied with this corM:ession, which conferred the 
most ample -constitutional freedom. But the popular leaders 
made patriotism the cloa.k of insatiable ambition; and adA'anced 
in their demands with every new compliance. The last appeal 
was made to the sword, and the contest end-ed in the destruction 
•of the constitution. 

6. The despotism which suc<?eeded, and the fiuctuation of pow- 
.er from the long parliament to the protector, and finally to the 
leaders of a standing army, afforded demonstrative evidence how 
vain was the project of a republic, under which the demagogues 
had masked their designs. Weary of anarchy^ the nation returned 
with high satisfaction to the best of all constitutions, a limited 
•monarchy. 

7. New encroachments uJitaer Chales II. produced new limita- 
tions ; and the act of Uabeas Corpus gave the utmost possible se- 
curity to personal liberty. The violent and frantic invasion of the 
►constitution by James II, banished himself and his posterity from 
the throne, and produced a nev/ and solemn contract between 
the king and the people. Regarding, therefore, the revolution as 
the final settlement of the English constitution, we shall endea- 
vour briefly to .delineate the .chief features of that great political 
.structure. 

i). The constitution of Great Britain may be viewed under two 
distinct heads, the legislative power, and the executiTe ;power 5 
the last comprehending the prerogative of the crown. 

The power of legislation belongs to parliament, whose constitu- 
ent parts are, the king, lords, and commons. The house of lords 
consists of t^e tempo)'al peers of England, trnd of the spiritual, 
.0r the two archbishops and tweniy-fbur bishops. 'T& these, since 
3^ uniojos svith Scotland and Lrelajid^, are added .sixt&en .d£jy&- 



.MODERN HISTORY. 237 

*-ates from the peerage of the former kingdom, and thirty-tv/o from 
th'j laltcr. The house of commons consists of the deputies of the 
counties and principal towns of England, and the two universities, 
amounting in all to 513 members ; to whom, since the unions, aie 
added 45 from Scotland and 100 from Ireland. These deputies are 
chosen by the freeholders who possess a properly yielding a certain 
yearly rent. The chancellor generally presides in the house of 
lords ; the speaker is president in the house of commons. 

9. The king is the moit essential component part of parliament, 
because he alone has the power to convoke, prorogue and dissolve it. 
He. has likewise a negative on all its acts, which are invalid with- 
out his approbation ; and each house has a negative on the de- 
crees of the other. It is likewise competent to the king to propose 
any measure to be laid before the parliament. 

10. All questions regarding public affairs and national meMures 
may originate in either house of parliament, except grants of mo- 
ney, wiiich must always take their rise in the house of commons, 
and cannot be altered, though they may be rejected, by the lords. 
Any matter must be primarily diacussed in that house in wliich it 
originates, and, until it is there decided, cannot be received by the 
other house, unless a conference should be demanded. A bill re- 
fused by either house is utterly void ; and a bill passed by both hou- 
ses is void, if refused by the king. 

11. The executive power of government is vested in the king. 
(1.) The Jirst branch of his oiTice is the administration of justice. 
The judges of all courts of judicature are the king's substitutes. 
He is the prosecutor of all crimes, and has the power of pardoning 
and suspending the execution of all sentences. (2.) He is the 
fountain of all honour, the giver of all titles and dignities, and the 
disposer of all the offices of state. (3.) He is the superintendant 
of commerce, and has the power of regulating weights and mea- 
sures, and of coining money. (4.) He is the head of the church, 
and names the archbishops and bishops. (5.) He is commander in 
chief of all the sea and land forces, and can alone equip fleets, levy 
armies, and appoint all their officers. (6.) He has the power of 
making war, peace, and alliance, and of sending and receiving am- 
bassadors. (7.) He is above the reach of all courts of justice, and is 
not responsible to any judicature for his conduct in the administra- 
tion of government. 

12. These high powers of the sovereign, which, at first sight, 
would seem to render him an absolute monarch, are thus admira- 
bly controlled. The king is dependent on parliament for all sub- 
sidies, without which he can neither maintain his fleets and armies, 
nor pay the salaries of officers. The parliament indeed settles a 
revenue on the king for life, but this is merely sufficient for the 
maintenance ot" his household, and for supporting a proper dignity 
of eslablishment. As the king''3 revenue must be renewed by par- 
liament at the beginning of every reign, it is in their power to 
withhold it till ail abuses shall be remediei. At those periods 
therefore the constitution may be brought back to its first princi- 
pies, and all encroachments oi the prerogative may be restrained. 



238 MODERN IirSTOIlY. 

13. The king can never reig-n withoiit a parliament. It must 
"by law be assembled once in three years, on a notice of forty days 
before its meeting-. Though the king is the head of the church, 
yet he cannot alter the established religion, nor frame ecclesiasti- 
cal regulations. These must be made by the assembly of the cler-. 
g-y. The king cannot interfere in the ordinary f-d ministration of 
justice, nor refuse his consent to the prosecution of crimes. He 
may pardon offences, but cannot exempt the offender from pecunia- 
ry compensation to the party injured. He cannot alter the stand- 
ard qf money, either in -weight or alio}'. He cannot raise an army 
without the consent of parliament ; and though a racdcrate stand- 
ing force is kept up -with their consent, yet the funds for its pa}'- 
ment require an annual renewal hy parliament. Though the 
sovereign is not amenable to any judicature, yet his ministers are 
responsible for all the measures of government, .and are impeacha- 
ble by the commons at the bar of the house of lords, for every spt- 
cies of misconduct or misdemeanour. 

The freedom of parliamentary discussion is secured, because no 
member can be questioned for any opinions or words, except in that 
house of parliament in which they were uttered. 

14. The personal security and the rights of the subject arc fur- 
ther guarded by these three peculiarities of the British constitu- 
tion, the habeas co;7)i/."f,, trial by juries, and the lilortj- of the press. 
By the act of habeas corpus^ every prisoner must be brought before 
a judge, the cause of his detainer certified, and the judge's autho- 
rity interposed to it. Ihe violation of this statute ispr.nishal le by 
•the highest penalties. The habeas corpus m.ay be suspended in 
times of danger to the state, as during the existence of a conspira- 
cy or rebellion. Though this act does not extend to Scotland, yet 
the subjects of that part of the united kingdoms are eqxuiily secured 
by their own laws. (Statute ITOl, c. 6.) 

15. All crimes must be tried by a jury of twelve men in Fug- 
land and Ireland, and. fifteen in Scotland. The prisoner isas a 
right of challenging or objecting to the jurors ; and (except in 
Scotland), wi'thout showing any cause, he may challenge twenty 
successively in ordinary cases, and thirty-five in cases of treason. 
The jury are judges both of the law and the fact; ncr has the 
opinion of the court any weight in their decision, bwt such as they 
choose to give it. 

IG. The liberty of the press is a guardian of the constitulicn, 
because it is competent for any indi-\ idual to convey to the public 
his opinion of the whole conduct of government, laid the merits of 
its conductors ; to canvass every counsel of tlate, and to examine 
every public measure ; thus loicibly restraining all minitters and 
magistrates within the limits of their duly. It i's fuvther the guar- 
dian 01 injured innocence, and the rcdresser of all wrongs that 
evade the cognizance of law. Yet this most valuable right, if 
unrestrained, would be the source of the greatest mischiel. If it 
were allowable with impunity to assail tlie established govern- 
ment, to convulse society, to disseminate atheism, to injure the 
reputation, cr to endanger the life and property, of individuals, by 
lahe accusations, there would be an end of all liberty and civil 



MODERI>i IIISTORV, 239 

happiness. Tiie liberty of the press consists in this, that there is 
no examination of writings previous to the printing and publishing- 
of theai ; But, after publication, such writia;j3 as offend in any of 
the above particulars are punishable by law, on trial of the otTenco 
tyjury. Thus the public is properly constituted the judge and 
censor of all writings addressed to itself. 

17. Such arc briefly the outlines of the admirable fabric of tlio 
British constitution. Esto perpctua I {niciy il exist forcvtr /) 



SECTION LX. 

OF THE PUBLIC REVENUE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

1. The property belonging to the cro\vn ox Orcat Britaiii, which 
was anciently very great, and fully adequate to the maintenance 
of government, consisted of domain-lands, the first fruits and tenths 
of church-benefices, the rents of vacant bishoprics and abbeys, the 
profits of military tenures, fines imposed in courts of justice, for- 
feitures, &c. From alienations made by the sovereigns, and re- 
trenchments of their prerogative, the property of the crown is now 
become so inconsiderable, that the king may be regarded as entire- 
ly dependent on the people for the support of his dignity, and the 
means of carrying on the business of the state. The public reve- 
nue, destined for these two purposes, arises now from the subsidies 
granted by the people. The supplies are voted by the commons, 
and the means of furnishing them, by taxes proposed by the chan- 
cellor of the exchequer, must receive their sanction. 

2. Of these taxes some are annual, as the laod tax and malt tax • 
others are perpetual, as the customs, excise, salt duty, post-office 
duty, stamps, house and window tax, duties on seiwants, hackney 
coaches, pensions, kc. The customs are a tax paid by the mer- 
chant on all imported and exported commodities ; the excise is an 
hiland imposition, laid sometimes on the consumer, and sometimes 
on the retail seller. 

3. The produce of these taxes is, in the first place, destined to 
the payment of the interest of the national debt, and afterward to 
the ordinary support of government. 

The national debt arose soon after the revolution, when it was 
thought hazardous to impose annual taxes equal to the annual ex- 
pence of government, and more expedient to borrow large sums for 
the immediate service of the state, raising annually no more than 
to pay the interest of that debt. Tlie same system has been since 
persevered in ; so that the national debt, which a century ago was 
16 millions, is now above 300 millions. To pay the interest of this 
enormous sum the produce of the taxes (^excepting the malt and 
land tax) are primaiily destined ; and as somewhat more is annu- 
ally raised than the interest of the debt and the maintenance of 
government demand, the surplus constitutes a sinking fund for 
paying off the principal of the debt. 

4. The produce of the taxes, originally separate funds, ie now 
thrown iiito two or three capital funds ; one of which is raortga- 



540 MODERN FliSTORY. 

g-ed by parliament for the maintenance of the khig's household and 
the civil list, name!)', the salaries of officers of state, judges, and 
ambassadors, private expences, pensions, &c. 

5. Notwithstanding- the little prospect of an extinction of the 
national debt, gcvernment maintains its credit, and will always 
find lenders, because the terms granted are beneficial, and the se- 
curity is transferable ; so that a lender can thus alM^ays obtain pay- 
ment of his principal sum, and frequently make gain by the trans- 
ference. The value of stock rises and falls from various occasional 
causes, as national prosperity, or the reverse, plenty or scarcity of 
money, quantity of public debt. On this varipJion is founded the 
practice of stock-jobbing, that is, either buying and selling actual 
property in the public funds, which is a lawful speculation, or gam- 
ing and wagering on the price of stock, which is an illicit but com- 
mon practice. 1 he practice of stock-jobbing, even by the trans- 
ference of actual property, and far more by gaming on that which 
is fictitious, is prejudicial to commerce and manufactures, by en- 
grossing a great part of the national wealth, repressing indaslry, 
encouraging fraud, and often tempting to the most treacherous and 
dangerous devices for raising and sinking the funds. 



SECTION LXL 

HISTORY OF FRANCE UNDER LEWIS XIII. 

1. France, which under Henry IV. had risen from a state of 
miserable anarchy to high prosperity and splendour, sunk, upon his 
death, into weakness, faction, and disorder. Mary of Medici, re- 
gent in the minority of her son Lewis XIII, a weak woman, and 
of restless ambition, disgusted the nobility by her partiality for her 
Italian courtiers. Cov.cini, her first minister, created marshal 
d'Ancre, became so universally odious, that he was openly mur- 
dered in the Louvre, and hi? body torn to pieces. The queen was 
removed from Paris, and kept for tv/o years a prisoner at Blo?s, till 
relieved by the duke d'Epernon, to serve his own purposes of am- 
bition. The queen's party was at war with that of her son, and 
the whole kingdom in a state of anarchy. 

2. 'the genius of carHinal R,icheliei , who was now brought into 
power by Mary of Medici, soon effected a wonderful change. He 
reconciled the moiher and her son, soothed the contending fac- 
tions, and, on the king"'s assuming the government, directed every 
public measure to the complete re-establishment of»the power and 
dignity of the mona;chy. The party of the Calvinists, alienated 
by persecution, attempted to threw ofi' their allegiance, and to es- 
tablish an indepencent ttate, of which Rochelle was to be the capi- 
tal. R-icbelieu bargaineu with the Lutch to furnish a fleet for sub- 
ds'.iig their protestar bi : thren, and the Dutch now fought as keen- 
ly for the catholic religion as they had lately fought for the protes- 
tant. '.(be English sent a fleet to the aid of the people of Ro- 
chelle, who for a yeai n-sairtained a most obstinate siege against 
the French troops, commanded by the cardinal in person. They 



MODERN" HISTORY. 241, 

were at leng-th forced to surrender. Rochelle and all the other 
protestant cities of France were stripped of their privileges, and 
their fortifications were destroyed. Thus Calvinism was for ever 
crushed in France. 

3. Lewis XlII, though a weak prince, saw his advantage in en- 
tering into all the great designs of his minister. Richelieu influ- 
enced the politijcs of all Europe ; and the power of Austria was 
attacked in Germany, Flanders, Spain, and Italy. His talents 
were equally displayed in active war, in foreign negotiation, and 
in his domestic arrangements. Yet at this very time a formidable 
cabal was undermining him. Mary of Medici was jealous of the 
man whom she had raised ; and the duke of Orleans, the Vivig's 
brother, sought to supplant him in power. Richelieu, with aston- 
ishing intrepidity of mind, repressed this conspiracy. Fortiiied by 
the king^s authority ht seized the marshal de Marillac, one of his 
most dangerous enemies, at the head of his army ; and tried and 
put him to death by a lawless stretch of power. Orleans, arnre- 
hensive of a similar fate, fled from the kingdom ; and Mary of ;vle- 
dici, arrested and removed from court, ended her career of ambi- 
tion in voluntary exile at L'russels. Orleans, supported l/y the 
duke de Montmorenci, attempted a rebellion ; but their army was 
defeated, and Montmorenci executed for treason. The queen had 
taken part with the enemies of the cardinal, who iinprisonrd her 
confessor, and seized and examined her papers. Anne of Austria 
was very near sharing the fate of Mary of Medici. 

4. Amidst all this turbulence of foreign war an»d sta^e cabal 
Richelieu cultivated literature, encouraged the sciences, instituted 
the French academy, and composed pieces for the theatre. The 
administratioji of R,ichelieu, though turbulent from faction and 
civil war, was, on the whole, extremely glorious for France ; and 
sowed the seeds of its splendour in the succeeding reign of Lewis 
XIV. The death of this great minister, in 1642, was soon atter 
followed by the death of his sovereign Lewis XlII, in 1642, 



SECTION LXII. 

SPAIN UNDER PHILIP III. AND PHILIP IV. CONSTITU^ 
TION OF PORTUGAL AND OF SPAIN. 

1. From the death of Philip 11. Spain declined in power, and, 
notwithstanding its great sources of wealth, the national ; nances 
were in the utmost disorder. Philip III. was forced to conCiUde a 
peace with the Dutch, and to restore to the house of Nassau its 
confiscated estates. With a weak and despicable polii y he ex- 
pelled from his kingdom all the Moors, who were the most indus- 
trious of its inliabitants, 1610. This depopulation, with that al- 
ready produced by its American colonies, rendered Spain a life- 
less and enervated mass. Philip was entirely under the influence 
of his minister the duke of Lerma. 

?. The natienal weakness and disorders ina*ea$ed uader Philip 
21 



242 MODERN HISTORY. 

IV, whr>, equally spiritless as his father, was implicitl)' ruled by 
his minister Olivarez. His reign was a continued series of miscar- 
riages and defeats. The Dutch seized Brazil; the I rench inva- 
ded Artois ; Catalonia revolted to France ; and Fortug-al shook off 
its yoke, and became an independent kingdom. 

3. No revolution was ever effected with such ea?e and celerity 
as that of Portug-al, The people were disgusted with the rigorous 
and inipolltlc administration of Olivarez. The duke of Bragan- 
za, descended from the ancient king's of Portugal, had the com-? 
mand of the army. Instigated by the ambition of the duchess, 
and seeing the spirit of the nation favourable to his views, he 
caused himself to be proclaimed king at Lisbon. The Spanish 
guards were attacked and routed, and the chief partis-ans of the 
government put to death by the populace. All the principal tov.-ns 
followed the example of the capital, and soon after all the foreign 
settlements. From that era, 1640, Fortugal became an indepen- 
dent sovereignty, after having- been sixty years an appanage of the 
kingdom of Spain. 

4. The government of Portugal approaches to an absolute mo- 
narchy. The consent of the states or cories, consisting of clergy, 
nobility, and commons, was formerly necessary to the impositioia 
of taxes, and the settlement of the succession to the crown. But 
this assembly, convoked only by the royal mandate, has for a long 
time ceased to meet. The ordinary business of government is 
transacted by the king and his council of s4ate, which is appointed 
by himself. The revenue of the crown arises from its domains, 
including the family estates of Braganza ; from the duties on ex- 
ports and imports, from ihe taxes, and from a stated proportion of 
the gold brought from Brazil. The state of the commerce and 
manufactures of Portugal is extremely low. Though the soil and 
climate are favourable to cultivation, yet the ag^riculture of the 
kingdom is much neglected. 

5. The reigns of Philip III. and IV. of Spain, though an era of 
national hunuliation, derived some fame from the state of litera- 
ture. Dramatic composition, poetry, romance, and even history, 
were cultivated with great success. But these pursuits are in 
some sort the amusements of indolence, which was the predomi- 
nant character of the people. This character may have arisen 
from two sources. The torrent of wealth poured in from Ameri- 
ca retarded, in the lower classes, domestic industry and manufac- 
tures, while it increased the pride of the gentry, and made thein 
disdain ull occupation ; and the despotism of the government 
strongly repressed all enterprize and activity in the people. 

6. The constitution of Spain, of which the sovereignty was in 
ancient times elective, is now that of an absolute monaixhy. The 
crown is hereditary ; though at different times, as in 1619 and 
1713, there has been a new limitation of the succession made by 
the monarch. The Ccrirs^ or states of the kingdom, limited in 
former tim.es the power of the sovereign ; but Charles V. annihi- 
lated th.eir a'lliority, by depriving the nobility and clergy of their 
seat in those a-sevnblies. The remaining mtml'ers, the deputi<'3 
of the towns, are entirclv r.:-,:''er the control cf i' c monarch. Ihe 



MODERN HISTORY. 243 

king"'d council, or Con-iejo Real, Is the organ of government ; but 
no depariment of the state has any constitutional power to regu- 
late the will of the prince. 



SECTION LXIII. 

AFFAIRS OF GERMANY FROM THE ABDICATION OF 
CHARLES V. TO THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. 

1. To preserve the connection of the affairs of Germany with 
tliose of tlie other kingdoms of Europe, we must return to the pe- 
riod of the abdication of Charles V, when the empire was distract- 
ed by the political factions and qurvrels of its independent princes, 
and by the contending sects of the catholics^ Lutherans, and Cal- 
vinists. Ferdinand vainly attempted to reconcile those factions, 
and to unite the three religions. Maximilian II. had still less 
f)ow.er to efiect this objeg| than his predecessor ; nor was the state 
of affairs changed during the succeeding reigns of Rodolphus 11. 
and Matthias. A civil war of thirty years' duration reduced the 
empire to extremity. Under Ferdinand 11, a zealous catholic, the 
protfcstant states of Bohemia, which Ivad suffered under the gov- 
ernment of Matthias, conferred their crown on the elector Pala- 
tine. Ferdinand, in revenge, deprived him both of his crov/n and 
electorate. 

2. The protcstant ca'ise was declining fast in Germany, and 
every thing seemed to iniicate success to the schemes of Ferdi- 
nand for its entire annihilation, when it received new vigour from 
the intervention of Gustavus Adolphus king of Sweden. This 
great pru:ice defeated the imperial generals, and carried the pro- 
testant banners triumrhantly through Germany. The emperor 
was completely hurnblec!, and the elector Palatine was en the eve 
of restoration to his dominions, when the heroic Gustavus Avas 
slain in the battle of Lutzen, I'oS'-Z. The war was successfully 
prosecuted by the Sv/edisl» generals, while cardinal Richelieu ha- 
rassed the house of Austria both in German}^ and Spain. 

3. In the succeeding reign of Ferdinand II!, the protestants of 
Germany found the most active support both iVom the Swedes and 
the French. The emperor was forced to conckide the peace of 
Westphalia in 1640 ; and these poM-ers dictated tlie terms. By 
this celebrated treaty all disputes Vicic settled betv/een the con- 
tending princes of tiie empire, and also between the contending 
religions ; the Sv/edes were indemnified for the charges of the war, 
and acquired Pomerania, Stettin, Wismar, and other provinces, 
and their sovereign the dignity of prince of the empire ; its chief 
possessions were restored to the Palatine family ; the king of France 
•\^'as made landgrave of Alsace ; and an equal establishment of th« 
three religions was decreed. This salutary peace laid the founda- 
tiou of the future greatness and prosperity of the German empire. 



244 MODERN HISTORY. 

SECTION LXIV. 

FRANCE UNDER LEWIS XIV. 

1. On the death of Lewis XIII. in 1633, his son Lewis XIV. 
succeeded to the throne in the fifth yen-r of his ag-c. Europe, as 
we have seen, was in a most turbulent state ; and France, under 
the administration of Richelieu, acted a conspicuous part in ex- 
citing those gfcneral commotions. The queen-mother Anne of Aus- 
iria, appointed regent by the states, choice for her minister the car- 
diiia! ?»*azarin, an Italian, and from that circumstance odious to 
}he people, 'ihe Spaniards, taking advanta,2'e of the king''s minor- 
ity and the popular discontents, made an attack on Champagne ; 
hut were defeated in a series of engagements by the great Conde. 
The icarshal de Turenne shar^jd with him the palm of glory. The 
peace of Vv^-'stpha'ia composed those diatrencts. 

2. At this very time the commotions oL^the Fronde broke out in 
Paris. The jealously of Mazarin's power, felt by the nobility, the 
■unpopularity of his ineasures, the disorder of the finances, and the 
cpiressivn of new taxes, inflametJ the nation ; and the intrigues oT 
the coadjutor, afterwards cardinal de Retz^, blew the flame into a 
civ; ■ war. 1 he parliament of Paris took part Avith the rebels, whd 
were headed by the priuce of Conti, the dukes of Longueville and 
Bouillon, and the chief nobility. The queen and the Royal fami- 
ly removed to St. Germain^'s, aixl the ministeiial party besieged 
1 aris. Turenne, who at first supported thera, was gained over by 

,the rebels. The women, who are always concerned in the distur- 
bances of France, acted a conspicuous part in those of the Fronde.- 
A short pacification ensued ; but the imprudent violence of Ma/a- 
rin soon renewed the disi:>rders. At length the parliament of Paris 
assumed the right of banishing this unpopular minister, who re- 
tired to the imperial dominions ; but- his influence continued to 
regulate the measures of state. 

3. A change ensued on ihe king's coming of age, 1652. De 
R€tz and Orlfaus, the chief promoters of the rebellion, were ban- 
ished, and Mazarin resumed his station as minister. Conde had 
joined the Spaniards in an attack on the French Netherlands, but 
was overmatched by Turenne, who revenged this insult by the 
taking of Dunkirk and several fortified towns under the Spanish 
government. J3y convention with Cromwell Dunkirk had been 
ceded to the English, and afterwards sold to France by Charles II, 
^3 lias been related. 

4. The war with Spain ended in 1659, by the peace of the Py- 
renees. Many cessions v.^ere made on both sides, but France kept 
Ronssillon and part of Artois. It was stipulated that Lewis XIV. 
should marry the infanta, daughter of Philip IV, but should re- 
nounce all right which might thence open to the crown of Spain. 

5. The treaty of the Pyrenees gave peace to the south of Eu- 
rope. The wars in the north between Sweden, Poland, and iJen- 
niark, which arose after the abdication of Christi la of Swe en, 
were terminated in the year followir.g; by the treaty of OJva. 



MODERN HISTORY. 245 

Christina, a singular, but not a great woman, held the sceptre of 
Sweden for twenty-two years after the death of her father, Gusta- 
vus Adolphus. At length, tired of the cares of government, and 
aifcotin* a passion for literature and philosophy, she resigned the 
crown to her cousin, Charles X, in 1654. Soon after this event 
Casimer kin^ of Poland v/as induced by age and sickness to ab- 
dicate the throne, after an honourable reiga. 

6. Mazaria died in 1661, and Lewis XIV. entered on a vi,goroiis 
and splendid career. The finances, w'hich frojii the time of Henry 
IV. had been in extreme disorder, were admirably regulated by 
Colbert ; and the commerce and manufactures of the kingdom, 
wisely encouraged by government, were soon in the most flourish- 
ing situation. The cauitl of Languedoc jeined the bay of Biscay 
and the Mediterranean ; the principal sea-ports were enlarged and 
fortified ; and the internal police of the kingdom was regularly and 
strictly enforced. At the same time the arms of France aided Eng-- 
land against the Dutch, Germany against the Turks, and Portugal 
against Spain. 

7. On the death of Philip IV. Lewis, pretending that Spain had 
failed in payment of the dowry of his queen, besieged and took 
Lisle, with several oth<^r fortified towns of Flanders; and in the 
next campaign made himself master of Franche-Comte. Lewis 
marched with his arn^ies, but the glory of these conquests was 
owing to Turenne and Vauban. The triple alliance formed by 
England, Holland, and Sweden, checked this career, and brought 
about the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1668, by which Lewis, though 
ne retained Flanders, restored Franche-Comtc, and confirmed the 
peace of the Pyrenees. 

u. I'he strength and prosperity of the kingdom continued to in- 
crease under the able administration of Colbert and Louvois. The 
civil factions of Holland between the stadtholder and the party of 
the De Wits, tempted Lewis to undertake the conquest of that 
country. England, Germany, and Sv/eden, favoured his views. 
Pie overran the provinces of Utrecht, Overyssel, and Guelderland, 
and advanced almost to the gates of Amsterdam, when the iJutch 
inundated the country by letting in the sea, and the French were 
forced to retreat 

9. The confederate powers now became jValous of the ascen- 
-dancy of France ; arid tUe prince of Orange had sufficient iuflu- 
€nce with England, and both branches of the house of Austria, to 
<)btain their alliance ijn aid oi the republic. The arms of Lewis, 
however, continued to be successful, and the peace concluded at 
Nimeguen, in 1673, was much to the honour of France.^ f ranche- 
Comte was assured as a part of her dominions, and Spain aliowed 
her right by conquest to a great proportion of the Netherlands. 

10. Notwithctanding the peace, Lewis, with the most culpable 
insincerity, seized Strasburg, and secretly assisted tl^e Hungarians 
and Turks in their attack on the imperial dominior.«. Vienna-, must 
ihave fallen into the hands of the Turks, if it had m. been scasona^ 
i>ly relieyed by the victorious arms of John Sobieski king of Pplaod, 
m 16.113. 



24G' MODERN HiSiORVi 

11. Oue of the weakest and most impolitic measures of Lewi? 
XiV, was the revocalion of th« edict of Nantes, granted by Henry 
IV. for the toleration of the protestants. While their worship was 
suppressed, their churches demolished, and their ministers banish- 
ed, the protestant laity were forbidden, under the most rigorous 
penalties, to qnit the kingdom, 1685. France, however, by this 
measure, lost above 500,000 of her most industrious and useful 
subjects ; and the name of Lewis XIV. was execrated over a great 
part of Europe. Not long- after this time a similar excess of intole- 
rant bigotry prscipitated James IL from the throne of Britain, and 
forced him to seek an asylum from the monarch of France. 

12. >\ illiam prince of Orange, the inveterate enemy of Lewis, 
brought about the league of Augsburg, 1686 ; and the war was 
renewed M'ith France by Germany, Spain, England, and Holland. 
The French arms were still successful. Luxemburg defeated' 
William in the battles of Steenkirk and Nerwinden; Noailles was 
victorious in Spain ; and an aviny of 10t),000 French ravaged the 
Palatinate, and took many of the most important towms on the 
Rhine. This was the crisis of the glory of Lewis, wdiose fortunes 
were to sustain the most mortifying reverse. 

13. Those various and most extfcaj;ive military enterprizcs, how- 
ever .flattering to the pride of the monarch, had been attended with 
enormous expence, and no solid advantage to the nation. The fi- 
nances had I'allen irtto disorder after the death of Colbert, and a 
peace was absolutely necessary. By the treaty of Ryswick, con- 
cluded in 1697, Lewis restored to Spain all the conquests made in 
the two^ast wars, se^eraFtowns 4o the emperor, the duchy of Lor- 
Faine to its duki;, and acknowledged the right of \\iilia:n-to the 
crown oi' England. 

14. The succes'iion of the kingdom of Spain, on the expected 
death of Charles II, without issue, wa^ now the object of political 
intrigue. 'J he emperor .and the king of France had the only natu- 
ral Ti'j^hi of succession ; but William III, of England, from the 
dread of such an increase of power to either, proposed a treaty of 
partition oi the Spanish dominions, at home and abroad, between 
The elector of Ca\ariH, the dauphin, and the emperor"'s second son. 
Charles II. chose rather to make his ov.n destination, and appoint- 
ed by will that the duke of Aajou, second son of the dauphia, 
should inherii :-pain ; on whose death without issu^, it should de- 
volve on the archduke Charles, youngest son of the emperor. 

15. On the death of Claries the duke of Anjou succeeded to 
Ihe throne of Spain, in virtue of this settlement. Ihc emperor, 
the king of England, and the Dutch, proposed to separate from 
his crown the Spanish dominions in Italy. In ihis enterprize prince 
Eugene, son of the count de Soissons, commanded tlie iniperial 
t oops, an illustrious renegado from FrcUice, of great prowess aj^d 
military skill. 

16. James II. of England died in 1701 a! St. Germain's, and 
Lewis gave mortal oiience to the government of that country by 
acknowledging the title of his son. On the death of king William 
ill the year following war was declared by England, Holland, and 
tke empire, agaiust Traiice and Spain. Lew^s XIY. wag uo'vv io 



MODERN liisrcRY. 247 

llie decliiie of life. He had lost the ablest of his mlai^ters and his 
greatest generals. The finances of the kingdom were exhausted. 
The armies of his enemies were commanded by Eugene and the 
duke of Marlboroug-h, the ablest generals of the age, and support- 
ed by the treasures of the united powers. Savoy and Portugal 
joined this formidable confederacy, to overwhelm both branches of 
the house of Bourbon, and place the emperor''s son on the throne 
of Spain. 

17. Marlborough took Venlo, Ruremonde, and Liege. Eug-ene 
and Marlborough defeated Tallard and Mai'sin, with the elector of 
Bavaria, in the signal battle of Blenheim, 1704. Eng-land and 
Holland attacked Spain by sea and land. Catalonia and Valencia 
"were subdued in six weeks. Gibraltar wa« taken by the English, 
and has ever since remained in theis possession. In the battle of 
iramilies Marlborough defeated Villeroy, and left 20,000 dead on 
tiie field. The contest, at first doubtful in Italy, ended alike dis- 
astrously for the house of Bourbon. 1 he archduke Charles was 
in tlie mean time proclaimed king- at Madrid ; and Philip V. had 
serious thoughts of abandoning- Spain, and establishing his domin- 
ion in America. But the successes oi' the duke of Berwick, natu- 
ral son of James II, recovered for a while his desponding spirit, 
and even prompted his grandfather Lewis to avenge himself ou 
Eng-land, by aiding the bold but desperate enterprize of establish- 
ing the pretender James on the throne of Britain. 

lU. But France and Spain were daily losing grouiid. Tlie pope 
had acknov/ledged the title of the archduke Charles ; the English 
seized the Mediterranean islands ; and Lewis, fallen from all his 
proud pretensions, hnmbly entreated a peace, which was refusetJ, 
unless on the condition of dethroning his grandson with his ov/n 
arms. He maintained for a while this unequal contest, and was 
at length forced to Y->ropose terms equally hinniliating ; th« cession 
of -all his conquests in the Netherlands and on the Rhine ; the ac- 
knowle(ig)nent of the archduke's title to the crown of Spain ; and 
a promise to give no aid to his grandson. But these terms were 
refused, and the inhuman condition still insisted on, that he should 
assist in dethroning his grandson. A last exertion was made in 
Spain under the duke of Vendome, at the head of a prodigious ar- 
my ; and the victory obtained by the French at \'iHa-vitiosa 
restored Philip W to the throne of Spain. His GompeLitor, the 
archduke, soon after became emperor, on the death of his elder 
brother. 

19. The intrigues of the cabinet of queen Anne, and the coming 
i;i of a tory ministry, changed the poiitics of Europe. It was re- 
solved to make peace with France and Spain, and the treaty Avas 
concluded at Utrecht in 1713. It was stipulated that Philip king 
of Spain should renounce all eventual right to the crown of France, 
and his brother to the crovv-'n of Spain. The Dutch obtained an 
extension of frontier, and the emperor a great part of Sppnish Flan- 
ders. The English gained from Spain, Gibraltar and Minorca, and 
from Fratice, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Hudson's Bay, wii.h the 
demolition of the harbor of Dunkirk. In the following year, a 
peace wixs concluded at Rastadt between Frauce and ihc empire. 



248 MODERN HISTORY. 

20. The concinsion of this peace, after an honourable war, was 
the mo?t memorable event in the reign of queen Anne, if we ex- 
cept the union of the two king-doms of England and Scotland, in 
1708, which was brought about by the neg-otiation of commission- 
ers mutually chosen, to secure the rights of each kingdom in the 
best manner for their mutual benefit. It Avas stipulated that both 
should be represented by one parliament (Sect. LIX, 9 8), that 
they should have the same privileges with respect to commerce, 
and that each kingdom should retain its own laws and established 
religion. The succession to the crown was limited to the house of 
Hanover. Queen Anne died on the 30th of July, 1714. Lewis 
XIV. died on the 1st of September, 1715, in the 78th year of his 
age. He was a prince of great vigour of mind, of good talents, 
though unimproved by education, of '"lignified yet amiable man- 
ners. His greatest fault was inordinate ambition, to which he sa- 
crificed the real interests of his people. It was his highest honour, 
that he discerned and recompensed every species of merit. France 
was in his time equally illustrious by the great military talents of 
her generals, and by the splendour of-literature and of the arts and 
sciences. 



SECTION LXy. 

OF THE CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE UNDER THE MO- 
NAK.CHY. 

1. It is necessary for understanding the history of Fra.nce, that 
we should have some acquaintance with its former monarchical 
constitution : we shall therefore briefly trace the progress of the 
government under the different races of its sovereigns. The regal 
prerogative was extremely limited under the Merovingian prin- 
ces. (Sect. II, III.) The general assembly of the nation had the 
right of electing the sovereign, and the power of legislation. Un' 
■der the Carlcrvingian race the authority acquired by Pepin and 
Charlemagne sunk to nothing in the hands of their weak posterity ; 
and though the crown had ceased to be elective, the regal dignity 
was a mere shadow. 1 he power of the state had passed into the 
hands of a turbulent aristocracy, ever at variance among them- 
selves, and uniting only to abase the crown and to oppress the 
people. 

2. Under the third or Capetian race the crown acquired more 
weight, and many of the sovereigns exerted a proper spirit in re- 
straining the power of the nobles, and in punishing their lawless 
outrages. To balance the weight of the aristocracy Philip the 
fair introduced the third estate to the national assemblies, which 
for above four centuries had consisted only of the nobles and clergy. 
The chief power of the state began now to shift to the scale of the 
jiionarch. The national assemljly interfered rather to ratify than 
to decree ; and in the fifteenth century the right of legislation was 
iinderstood lo reside wholly in the rrovin. 'I'he right of taxation 
^.emed to follow oX course^ The assemblies or fctates-^enerai w.er« 



MODERN HISTORY. 249 

now rartly convened, and from the rei^n of Lewii: XIII. v/ere dh 
continued. 

3. But another power gradually rose m the state, which in som« 
measure supplied the function of the assemblies in limiting the 
royal prerogative. The parliaments were originally the chief 
courts of justice in the territory w^here they were established. 
The parliament of Paris naturally clf.inied a higher respect and 
dignity than the parliaments of the provinces ; and, acquiring a 
right of appeal from their decrees, was considered as the para- 
mount jurisdiction, and the depository of the laws of the kingdom. 
'J'he sovereigns of France, on first assuming the powers of legisla- 
tion and taxation, produced their edicts to be registered in the 
court of the parliament of Paris, and frequently consulted with ita 
members on momentous affairs of state, as in questions of peace, 
war, or alliance. Thus the nation began to regard the parliament 
of Paris as a body which shared the powers of government with 
the monarch. Ili the latter reigns the parliament availed itself of 
that general opinion, and made a bold stand in opposing any arbi- 
trary stretches of the king's authority, by refusing to verify and 
register his edicts. 

4. But as this power of the pjliliament was in reality a usurpa- 
tion, it was constantly a subject of dispute. The members of 
this court were in no sense the representatives of tlie people, nor 
vested with any portion of the constitutional authority of the na- 
tional as«ei7fblies. They were in the king's nomination, remova- 
ble by blm at pleasure, and even subject to entire annihilation as 
a body at his command. Even without so violent a remedy, the 
sovereign eould at an)' time frustrate the.ir opposition to his will, 
by personally appearing in the hall of parliament, and commanding 
his edict to be registered. 

5. Yet a power thus easily defeasible had its advantages to the 
state, and operated as a considerable restraint on the rcyal au- , 
thority. Considering ftself as the guardian of the public liberty, 
it remonstrated against all arbitraiy encroachments of the crown, 
and by giving alarm to the nation, funiislu-d an oppo.-ition suffi- 
ciently pov/erful to obtain its ends. The provincial parliaments, 
though they likewise registered tl\e royal edicts, never assumed 
any similar authority. They were only the chief courts of civil 
judicature. 

6. The king of France was therefore to be considered as an ab- 
solute monarch, whose authority was in some degree limited by the 
consuetudinary regulations ot the state, aid could not easily be^ 
come entirely despotic and tyraanical. The crown was heredita- 
ry, but could not descend to a female, nor to a natural son. The 
royal revenue was partly fixed and partly arbitrary. The fixed 
revenue comprehended the royal domains, the duties oii wines and 
salt, the land tax, cap'tation tax, and gift of 'he clergy ; the other 
arose from ail other taxes which the monarch tho' ght fit to im- 
pose, and from the sale of offices. Most of these duties were leased 
out to the farmers-general. 

7. 1 he Galilean church, though catholic, and acknowledging 
the spiritual authority of the pope, had greatly abridged his au- 



2-50 MODERN HISTOPtV. 

cient prerog;-atlves within the kiug-flom. The a-sembly of the 
church declared, in 168'2, that no temporal sovereign couidbe de- 
posed by the pope, nor subjects absolved from their allegiance : it 
decreed the subjection of the pope to the councils of the church, 
and denied his infallibility when in opposition to the canons of 
those councils. The pope had no pov^er to levy money in France 
without the royal license. In short, the ecclesiastical authority 
was ia all respects subordinate to the civil. 



SECTION LXVJ. 

OF PETER THE GREAT, CZAR OE MUSCOVY, AND 
CHARLES XII, KING OF SWEDEN. 

1. Two ^nost illustrious men adorned the north of Europe in 
the latter part of the age of Lewis XIV, Peter the great of Mus- 
covy, and Charles Xll. of Sweden. 

Russia is said to have received the light of Christianity in the 
tenth century, but its history is utterly Uiiknown till the middle of 
the fifteenth. At that period Jchn Ba:^ilowitz redeemed tiie empire 
from its subjection to the Tartars, and extended its limits. His 
successors maintained a considerable splendour as sovereigns ; but 
their dominions were uncultivated, and their subjects barbarian?. 
Alexis Michaelowitz, father of Peter the great, was fhe first who 
publislied a code of laws. At the end of the sixteenth century 
Siberia was added to the empire, which till that tijie had been 
bounded by the limits of Europe. 

2. Peter, the youngest son of the emperor Alexis, became mas- 
ter of the empire in 1689, by settijig aside a weak elder brother, and 
banishing a factioris sister, who had seized the government. Lie 
was uneducated, and his youth had been spent in debauchery ; 
but his new situation immediately displayed his talents, and ga\e 
-birth to the wisest plans for the improvement of a barbarous peo- 
ple. The army and navy demanded his first attention. He bogan' 
oy breaking the turbulent militia of the Strelitzes, arid by degteesT 
formed a regular army of 12,0U0 men on the strictest model of dis- 
cipline. He employed some Dutchmen to build a small fleet, and 
made the first experiment of his arms in taking Azof from the Turks 
in 1696. 

3. Having gained the little instruction which he possessed from 
foreigners, Peter resolved to travel in search of knowledge. Ap- 
pointing Le Fort, an able Genevese, his ambassador, he travelled 
as a private person in his suite throi^gh Germany to Holland, and 
studied tho art of ship-building, by working in the docks with his 
own hands. I'hence he passed to England, and in a similar man- 
ner acquired the knowledge of every art titled for the improvement 
of his kingdom. The relative sciences were cultivated with the 
same ardour and success ; and in sixteen months he returned lo 
Moscow to reduce those important acquirements into practice. 

4. Regimeiits were raised and trained to exercise on the German 
model ; the finances arranged and systematized ; the church re- 



MODERN HISTORY. 231 

formed by new canons and rri;:nlaLions ; the pati'iarcliale abolish- 
ed ; and a much abused civil and criminal jurisdiction taken from 
the clergy. It was necessary to carry thi« refonn even 'o the abo- 
lition of the national dress, and the suppression of ancient usages 
and habits of life, innovations reluctantly submitted to, but en- 
forced by absolute power. 

5. \\ hile this great g'enius was thus employed in neW-modellin^ 
and polishing a barbarous empir«'>, a competitor arose to dispute 
with him the sovereignty of the i.orth, and to divide the admira- 
tion of Kurope. Charles XII. succeeded to the throne of Sweden 
in 1G95, at fifteen years of age; a prince whosr singular heroism 
of character and extraordinary achievements hare ranked him with 
the greatest conquerors of antiquity. The situation of his king- 
dom speedily brought his genius into display. Russia, Poland, and 
r>emnark joined in a league to s'ei/.e and divide bis dominions. 
The attack was begun by the Danes on I^olstcin, v.hile the king 
of Poland invaded Livonia, and the czar, Ingria. Charles imme- 
diately landed an army on Zealand, at the gates of Copenhagen, 
and in six weeks forced the king to purchase the safety of his cap- 
ital and kingdom, by laying down his arms, and nsaking full in- 
demnity to the duke of Holsttin. He now hastened into Ingria, 
and at the battle of Narva defeated 60,000 of the Russians, and 
took 30,000 prisoners. Such was the first campaign of Charles 
XII, then a boy of seventeen. 

6. Poland was destined to receive a m.ore humiliating chastise- 
ment. Charles reduced Courland and Lithuania, penetrated into 
the heart of the kingdom, and subdued the capitals of Warsaw 
and Cracow. He then assembled the states, declared king Au- 
gustus deposed, and signified his pleasure that Stanislaus, his owa 
dependant, should be elected sovereign of Poland. The factions 
of the kingdom aided this revolution, and the will of Charles was 
complied with. The deposed king retired to his electoral domin- 
ions of Saxony. 

7. A negotiation begun with the czar was abruptly terminated 
by Charles, who declared that he would negotiate only at Mos- 
cow. Entering the Prussian dominions with 45,000 men, he was 
in the way of executing his threat, when he was induced, by a 
treacherous promise of aid from the Cossacks, to march through 
the Ukraine in the depth of winter. His army was wasted by fa- 
tigue and famine, when he was encountered by the czar at Pul- 
towa ; and the fate of Prussia, Sweden, and Poland, hung upon 
that battle. Charges was entirely defeated : 0000 Swedes fell in 
the field, and 14,000 were taken prisoners, 1709. Augustus was re- 
stored to the throne of Poland, and the czar took possession of Fin- 
land and Livonia. 

ij. With the wreck of his army, reduced to ICOO m.en, Charles 
retreated iiato the Turkish dominions, and formed a camp near 
Render. He endeavoured to prevail upon the grand seignior to 
arm against the : zar, a)id succf eded after a loiig negotiation. Two 
hr.ndred thcusand Turks took the field, and the czar''s army, far 
ijiferior in t um'>er, was surrounded, and, after in; ffectual resis- 
tance, fcrced to cap lu^at': to tl'.e grand vizier,- The news oftl-iia 



252 MGDERN HISTORY. 

capitulation destroyed all the hopes of Charles ; and his subsequciii 
conduct seems the result of frenzy. The grand seignior having 
intimated his desire that the Swedes should quit his territories, 
Charles fjrtiQed his camp, and declared that he would del^nd it 
to the last extremity. After every means ineffectually tried to 
make him alter this resoluHon, he was attacke4 by the Turkisli 
army, and taken fighting sword in hand amidst a massacre of his 
troops. 

9. In the mean time the czar and the ki}<g of Denmark wcrQ 
ravaging Sweden. Char^ss returned in di?sruise with two of his 
officers, to his own dominions, and imiiediately conceived the de- 
£ign of wr( pling N3rway from Denmark. Failing in the outset of 
this enterprize, he was persuaded by Gortz, his prime minister, to 
attempt to dethrone George II, to seize a part of his continental 
dominions, and to place the pretender James on the throne of Eng- 
land. This project was concerted between Gortz aud Alberoni, 
prime minister of Philip V. The czar joined in the scheme, and 
made peace with SAveden ; but an unforeseen event broke all 
their measures. In besieging the Norwegian fortress of fVede- 
rickshall, Charles was killed by a cannon-ball, on the 11th of De- 
cember, 1718. 

10. Sv/eden gained by the death of Charles a reformation of 
her government, and a salutary limitation of the arbitrary power 
of the sovereign. His sister LUrica succeeded to the throne, and 
raised to it her husband, I'rederick landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. 
The states made peace with all the hostile powers. The czar was 
now enga£;ed in a war with Persia, in the view of obtaining the com- 
mand aiid comraerct of the Caspian. This object he accomplished, 
and gained, by cession from the sophi, three provinces of the Per- 
sian empire. 

Peter the great died January 28, 1725, and was succeeded by 
the czarina Catherine, formerly a Liviuian captive, who possessed 
merit equal to her elevated station. Jlis only son, Alexis Pe- 
trowitz,'bad been condemned to lose his life for trer.son, and the 
mode of his death, which immediately followed his condemnation, 
is unknown. Russia owes to Peter the great all those beneficial 
improvements which have raised her, within the period of a con- 
tury, from barbarism and obscurity, to the highest rank among the 
powers of Europe. 



SECTION LXVIJ. 

A VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE AND LITERA- 
T[JRE IN EUROPE, FROM THE END OF TRE FIF- 
TEENTH TO THE END OF THE SEVENTEENTH CEN- 
TIRY. 

1. T^'c hare seen how much literature and the sciences were 
indtbied to the art of printing for their advancement and dissemi- 
nation toward the end of the f.fteenth century. (Sect. XXXIV, 
<5 12.) From that period classical learning-, ciiticistn, poetry, and 



MODERN HisraKY. 253 

Ijistoiy, made a rapid progress in most of the kingdoms of Europe. 
Philosophy did not keep pace with literature. The dogmas of Aris- 
totle had kept possession of the schools till the seventeenth centu- 
ry, and had engrafted themselves even on the doctrines of theolo- 
gy. It required a superior g-enius to dissipate the mist of error, and 
to break the fetters on all advancement in useful science. Such 
■was the great Bacon lord Verulam, the most profound philosopher, 
and perhaps the most universal genius, that any age has produced. 
We find in his works an estimate of the actual attainments in all 
the sciences, a catalogue of the desiderata in each department, and 
a detail of the methods best suited to prosecute improvement and 
new discoveries. In fine, we owe to Bacon the sure method of ad- 
vancing in knowledge by experiment and the observation of nature, 
instead of system and conjecture. 

2. The philosophy of Bacon produced its effect only by slow 
degrees. Gassendi, though he exposed the doctrines of Aristfc^tle, 
was still a theorist, and attempted to revive the atomic system of 
Epicurus. Des Cartes followed in the same track, and reared a 
whimsical theory of the universe, produced, as he supposed, by the 
fortuitous combination of atoms, moving in vortices throuc;h the 
immensity of space ; a theory recommended by the ingenuity Avith 
which it was supported, and its apparently solving many of the 
phenomena of nature. A century before Copernicus had publish- 
ed his system of the planets, which, though condemned by the 
church, was receiv^ed by Das Cartes and the best philosophers. 

3. Galileo, in 1609, constructed telescopes (Sect. XXXIV, i 5), 
and discovered the satellites of the larger planets, Jupiter and Sa- 
turn, and their motions, for which he was rewarded by imprison- 
ment, as a supporter of the Copernican heresy. Kepler investigated 
the laws which regulated the motions of the planets, and the 
analogy between their distances from the sun and periodical revo- 
lutions. The discoveries in astronomy led to improvements in na- 
vigation, and a great advancement of geometry in all its branches. 
Napier, in 1614, abridged calculation by the invention of loga- 
rithms. The Toricellian experiments determined the weight of 
the atmosphere. In 1616 Harvey discovered the circulation of the 
blood. 

4. The Royal Society, which originated from private meetings 
®f the English philosophers, was incorporated by Charles II, ia 
1662, and has greatly contributed to the advancement of the sci- 
ences and useful arts. The Royal Academy of Sciences was in- 
stitituted in 1666 by Lewis XIV. Similar institutions were found- 
ed in most of the countries of Europe ; among which there is a 
communication of science, and a laudable emulation excited by the 
publication of their transactions. 

5. In the end of the seventeenth century arose the immortal 
Newton, who, by exhausting the most important discoveries of the 
laws of uature, has rendered it impossible for posterity to eclipse 
his fame. He had discovered, before the age of twenty-four, the 
theory of universal gravitation, a principle which solves the chief 
phenomena of nature, and coimects and regulates the whole ma- 
chine of the uniTerse. Hts theory ©f light aad colours is the fdun- 



^54 JiODERN iriSTORY. 

elation of the Vvhole science of optics, and his Principia the basts 
fend elements of all philosophy. 

6. Locke, the contemporary of Newton, successfully applied 
lord Bacon's mode of investigation to the study of the human 
mind ; and, utterly rejecting- the systems of the old philosophers, 
examined the soul by attending to its operations. From the simple 
fact that all knowledge is progressive, and that an infant gains iti 
ideas gradually through the medium of its senses, he drew the gene- 
ral conclusion, that there are no innate ideas in the mind, but that 
all are either immediate perceptions conveyed by the senses, or 
acts of the mind reflecting on those perceptions ; a conclu-ion which 
has been obstiaately controverted, chiefly by drawing from it false 
Consequences, but which has never yet been shaken. 

7. The progress of literature in the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centurieis was equally remarkable with that of science and philoso- 
phy. Trissino was the first of the moderns who composed an epic 
poem iia the language of his country, L'^Italia liherata da Goti^ and 
the first Italian who wrote a regular tragedy, Sophonisba. Of 
merit much superior to the epic poem of Trissino is the Lusiad of 
the Portuguese Camoens, a work abounding with passages of high 
poetic beauty, and displaying a sublime imagination. In the end 
<)f the sixteenth century Spain produced the Araucana of Ercilla, 
an epic poem of great inequality of merit, but frequently exhibit- 
ing novelty of figures and bold conceptions. The subject is a re- 
tolt of the Peruvians against the Spaniards. 

8. But the principal epic poems of this age are the Orlando Fu- 
rioso of Ariosto, and the Gitruscdcnime Liherata of Tasso : the 
former a work most irregular in its plan, most unconnected and 
desultory in its conduct, most extravagant and absurd in the cha- 
racters of its persons, but displaying alternately every excellence 
of poetry in the various departments of the descriptive, comic, sa* 
tiric, moral and sublime. The Gitrusahmme of Tasso, of a regu- 
lar plan and perfect polish in its structure, has been frequently 
brought in comparison with the equally highly finished poem of 
the t^fieid ; nor does the Italian suffer much in the comparison^ 
There is a romantic charm both in the incidents and chaiacters of 
his poem, which must ever render it a favourite with all readers of 
genuine taste. 

9. From the time of Tasso the genius of epic poetry lay dormant 
for S. century, till the days of Milton ; for the Fac/y (^utcn of 
Spenser is rather a romantic allegory than an epic poem. The 
Farad'Ue Lott. rompaied with the great poems of antiquity, is 
more irregular and less perfect as a whole thaai the Iliad^ j3£ntid^ 
and Odyssey ; but exhibits, in detached parts, more of the sub- 
lime and beautiful than any of them. It has been well remarked, that 
the inequality of this poem arises in a great measure from the na-^ 
turc of the subject, ol which some parts are the most lofty which 
caii enter into the human mind, and others could only have been 
supported by a laborious elegance and polish, which tlie author's 
genius could not stoop to bestow. 

10. Lyric poetry was cultivated in the sixteenth century, in Ita- 
ly, France and Engiaud, but %vith no great success. The less po- 



MODERN' HISTORY. 



251 



«ras of Ariosto and Tasso have no tincture of the genius displayed 
in their greater works. Chiabreta is perhaps the only lyric poet 
of this period that merits distinction. In France, Ronsard and 
Bellay imitated Petrarch with all his false wit, but without his pas- 
sion. Marot, however, in the naivete and easy vein of his humour, 
is justly accounted the master of La Fontaine. In the beginning; 
of the seventeenth century French versification received a conside- 
ble polish from the compositions of Racan, and yet^ more from 
those of Malherbe ; and toward the end of that century lyric po- 
etry was cultivated with high success by La Farre, Chapelle, 5ind 
Bachaumont, Chaulieu and Gresset. 

11. The English lyric poetry of the sixteenth century, of Spen- 
ser, Surrey, Harrington, Sydney, and even Shakespeare, is harsh 
and unharmonious ; nor is much improvement discernible till the 
time of Cowley and Waller. The merit of Cowley as a lyric poet 
was too highly prized in his own age, and is underrated in ours. 
With all his false wit, pedantry, and obscurity, he is often both 
sublime and pathetic in no moderate degree, 'i'he lyric ode in the 
third book of the Dnvideis has few parallels in the English lan- 
guage. As a prose writer, Cowley shines in that age with superior 
excellence. Waller is more palished and harmonious than any of 
the preceding or cotemporary poets, but his wit is quaint, and hi« 
elevation too frequently bombast. 

12. Drydfen, in the end of the seventeenth century, carried lyric 
poetry to perfecticn. His Ode on St, Cecilia's day surpasses all 
the lyric compositions boija of ancient and modern times. He 
shines conspicnously as a satirist, possessing the keen and caustic 
wit, without the indelicacy, of Juvenal or Horace. His versions 
from Chaucer and Boccacio are easy and spirited, and display a 
happy talent for poetical narrative. His numerous dramatic pieces, 
though exhibiting both invention and poetic beauty, are deficient 
in true passion, and in the just delineation of character. 

13. At the end of the sixteenth century the drama in Europe 
began to furnish a rational entertaiame$it. At that period, Lope 
de Vega and Calderona in Spain, and Shskespeare in Englaud, 
produced those pieces, which, though irregular and stained with 
blemishes, are at this day the admiration of their countrymen. 
The Spanisli plays of that age have b^jen a rich mine for succeed- 
ing dramatists, both among the French, Italians, and English. The 
merits of !-hakespeare are familiar to every person of taste. Igno- 
rant of the rules of his art, he is the pure child of nature, and uius 
exhibits often her caprices and absurd.iiles ; but these are redeem- 
ed by the most transcendent beauties. The old English drama is, 
with all its irregularities, incomparably superior to the modern, boili 
in touching the passions and in displaying just views of humaa 
<:>haracter. The persons are more discriminated by various and 
appropriate features, and the nicer shades of nearly resembling 
characters are thus m.ore distinctly marked. The mixture of the 
comic and tragic in the same plot, though condemned by modem 
practice, is a great source of pleasure in the pieces of Shakespeare 
and his contemporaries ; nor is there any thing in such a mixture 
|?ij-t l^h^t b consonant to aature. To a person ol true taste it will 



256 MODERN HISTORY^ 

1^ fonnd ojften to heighten, Ly contrast, the capital emotion to be 
eoccited. 

14. The compositions for the French stage, in the end of th€ 
seventeenth century, are strictly confor»nable to dramatic rules ; 
and many cf those piec£s are models of a correct and polished 
taste. The morality of the French drama of that age and the next 
is in general purer than outs ; but their pieces are deficient in the 
teice deliReation of character, and in the power of exciting the pas- 
sicr.y. Corneille and Racine brought the French tragedy to its 
highest elevation.; as Ivloliere the comedy. Corneille has more 
graiid ur and sublimity than his rival, -vvho excels him in the ten* 
der and laLhetic. The comedies of Moliere, highly amusing in the 
present time, were more particularly ^-aluabie in the age -when 
they were written, and had a sensible effect in correcting its pre- 
vailing follies ; the pedantry of the ladies, the ignorance and 
quackery of the physicians, and the pride and arrogance of the 
J'rench noblesse. The last of the eminent dramatists who adorned 
France in the s^eventecnth century was the elder Crfebillon, who 
drew many sublime and impassioned scenes from the source of 
terror ; and -who, in ail his works, was as eminently the friend of 
virtue as his worthless son has been the pander of vice. 

15. The most emi»ent historians of the sixteenth century are, 
De Thou, Davila, and Machiavel. De Thou has v/ritten the an- 
nals of his own time, from 1545 to 1607, with great judgment, and 
in most elegant Latin composition. The historj of Davila, the 
annals of the civil v.-ars of France in the time of the league, though 
the work of a partisac, is composed with no common degree of can- 
dour and impartiality. In the beginning of the sixteenth century 
Machiavel wrote bis His'tory of Florence, of which the style is clas- 
sical and the matter well arranged, but too much interrupted by 
reflections and political disctissions. In the seventeenth century 
Bentivoglio cosnposed bis History of the Civil Wars of Flander?, 
with the most accurate knowledge of his subject, perspicuity of 
narrative, and elegance of style. Among the English historians in 
the beginning of that period ilaleigh is the most distinguished ; 
though his History of the "World is, in point of style, inferior to the 
judgment shown in the arrangement of the matter. In the latter 
part of the seventeenth century. Clarendon's History of the Rebel- 
lion is a work of the highest merit, whether we consider the au- 
thenticity of the facts, the deep knowledge of human nature dis- 
played in the delineation of the characters, or the grave and manly 
eloquence oi the style. If, in the opposition of political opinions, 
he has b«en deemed too partial in defence of his sovereign, even 
his adversaries have admitted his perfect integrity, and entire .con? 
Sriction of the rectitude of tii£ cause whijch he sujiportsc 



THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS* 



SECTION L 



A GENERAL VIEW OF THE HISTOUY OF MANKIND IH 
THE PRIMEVAL AGES,. 

-» • In contemplating: fhose great outlines o( history, the me- 
rnorable and important events which ha\'e x^etermined the condi- 
tion of mankind, and rendered the as^pect of the moral and intel- 
lectual world such as we now view it, we shall find abundant sub- 
jects for observation and reflection. In many cases we shall be 
obliged to have recourse to conjecture, founded on different de- 
grees of probability ; and son>€ of those probabilities may be so 
corroborated by general existing circuni'tacces as to amount al- 
most to certainty. 

2. Of the primeval state of mankind we know little from his- 
torical information, and can form an opinion of it only from conjec- 
ture founded on the nature of things.. Fiom the extremely slow 
progress of civilization it is reasona.b]e to suppose that men must 
have existed a long' time before they began to write the history of 
such transactions and events as they deemed most important. All 
their care and attention would at first be employed in providing- 1h€ 
means of supplying their physical wants, and of rendering their 
■existence tolerable. In that state of simple nature they would not 
think of transmitting- an account of their actions to posterity, and 
-could hardly have any occurrences worth recordinc. Here our 
knowledge of. human nature and of human wants will supply the 
-deficiency of history. From the experience of our own wants, 
and of the means of supplying- them, we may infer almost with 
certaint}'', that habitations would be built as a shelter from the in- 
clemency of the weather: and in fact we find this to be the case 
in all those countries which are at present occupied by savages.. 
In pro..ess of time some ai:tention would be given to tlie cultivation 
of the soil, to make the earth produce such vegetables as were 
fit for the food of man. The arts most essential to the comfortable 
■existence of the human species would he invented before the use 
*f letters. 

3. From all these circumstances we may reasonably suppose thaot 
(She -QEst rude sketch of history would be the traditionary tales de^ 



258 MODERN HISTGI^T* 

livered from father to son throiigli successive getteratfiorfs^ "Sijfi 
■these irreality constitute the basis of the first historical records^ 
•Such are the fabulous relations of the first historians among the 
•Greeks. It appears that the Greeks had adopted the historical le- 
gends of the Egyptian priests, who were accustomed to cover their 
Telig-ion and learning with the mysticaii veil of allegory ; and that 
in many cases they mistook the Egyptian mode of allegorizing the 
early periods of history, and have presented to posterity an ab- 
surd -and monstrous tissue of fabxilous narrative of kings who never 
reigned, and of heroes of celestial descent. 

4. -Siiperstition being natural to man before the mind is enlight- 
ened by pliilosophy, it is no wonder that the writings of the first 
historians contain many relations of the communication of gods 
and demi-gods with mankind, and of the frequent interference of 
supernatural agents in human affairs. The vivid imaginations of 
the early Greek authors, heated with superstition, and unrestrain- 
«d by philosophy, expanded into wild exuberance, and fabricated 
the most absurd and ridiculous tales. Hence the period of time 
which elapsed between the establishment of political and civil 
, society in Greece, and the Trojan war may be justly denominated 
the fabulous age ; and indeed most part of what is related con- 
cerning that war, has evident marks of fiction stamped upon it ; 
for all the historical accounts of it are originally founded on th« 
•poems of Homer. No writings can claim the title of an authentic 
liistory of Grecian afiairs before the Persian wars. The histories 
of all other heathen nations were not less fabulous and absurd 
than those of the Greeks ; and indeed all that we know concerning 
Hhem'has been transmitted to us throngh th« medium of Greek 
writers. 

5. Wi^en we consider the -general state of tiie world in the early 
-ages, with respect to political, commercial, and literary communi- 
cation, huwe^ er we may amuse ourselves with perusing the accounts 
transmitted to ns of the transactions of remote antiquity, reason 
tells us that tl-K y are nothing but fiction or historical romance. Un- 
til the Greeks (who v/ere the inventors, or at least the improvers 
of arts and sciences) had attained a considerable degi-ee of civili- 
zation aud opulence, and had begun to cultivate the arts of con-~ 
veniency, luxury, and elegance, little credit is due to profane his- 
•tory. 1 his period cannot be fixed long before the first Persian 
war, ^hich happened about 503 yei\rs before the birth of Christ. 
For information r'lalive to the state of mankind, and the events 
which occurred before that period, we must have recourse to the 
ivritings of the Jt'ws. 

6. This consideration naturally leads us to turn our attention to 
"those ancient records of the Jews, which have always been deem- 
•«d sacred by them, and of which the authenticity has been ae- 
isnowledged by 4he generality of mankind, who have perused them 
with dvie attention. The Jewish annals are the most ancient of all 
'that have been transmitted to us, and the most intrinsically ra- 
'tional and probable. They likewise contain a sei'ies of transac- 
.tions and events equally curious and interesting. In them we find 
keenly ratijwial-accoust of ihe jsreation of tke wxirld^ .and iht 



MOBERN HISTORY. 25^9 

beginning of thing:? ; of the dispersion of mankind, and the origin 
^f ancient nations. 



SECTION II. 

SUMMARY VIEW OF JEWISH HISTORY. 

1, The Israelites, or ancient Jews, were those distinguished peo- 
ple, who were favoured by the immediate care of the Almighty^ 
and conducted hy his especial guidance to Judea, a place of resi- 
dence promised to their remote ancestors. In consequence of their 
obatinacy, idolatry, and wickedness, and mere particylariy for the 
rejection of their Messiah, they were subdued by the Romans, af- 
ter sustaining a siege in their metropolis, Jerusalem, unparalleled 
in the annals of history for its d'Istresses, calamities, and slaughter. 
Jerusalem was reduced to ruins, the Jewish government was t(9- 
lally subverted, and the surviving people were dispersed over most 
■parts of the world. Their descendants still remain unmixed with 
-the rest of mankind, and are marked by their orioinal features of 
national peculiarity : they adhere with the most zealous attacl>> 
ment to the religion of their forefathers,. and cherish the hopes of 
restoration to their former prosperity and country by means of a 
glorious, and triumphant Deliverer. 
. 2. They preserve, with the most watchful care, the sacred books 
of their ancient writers. And astonishing, very astonishing it is 
4o observe^ that in the prophetical parts of these .sacred books are 
'contained all the events btfore vicniioned of thMr extraordinary 
■history. Their particular conduct, and the vicissitudes of their 
iiational affairs, were predicted by their prophets, and more espe- 
cially by Moses, their great lawgiver, in the infancy of 'he world, 
at the vast distance of thirty-thrte centuries from the present 
time?. The accomplishment of these predictions bears the fullesi 
atid most striking evidence to the truth and inspiration of their 
prophets, and illustrates the dispensations of Providence to hia 
chosen people. 

3. These sacred bookf? contain likewise predictions the most ex- 
^ct of the character, office, and actions of the Messiah of the Jews, 
the great Law-giver of the christians, the appointed Saviour of the 
world. 

4. Such interesting circumstances as these, in addition to the 
peculiar nature of the Jewish polity, considered as a divine insti- 
tution, the curious manners and customs, and the memorable ac- 
tions of the descendants of Abraham, the most ancient people of 
whom we have any authentic accounts, combine to place these 
l>ooks first in order of importance, as in order of time. If we con- 
sider the <j^reo.t antiquity .^ the subjects^ and the characters of the 
v:riters^ of these books^ and the place which they occupy in the or- 
der of general history, particularly as they stand connected with 
^he christian revelation, thej will be found to des^erve oux very 
^srjaest .attention. 



'^CO MODERN HISTORY, 

SECTION III. 
THE' ANTIQUITY OF THE SCRIPTURES. 

1. No writings of any other nation can be brought into compe- 
tition, in respect of antiquity, with those of the Jews. In proof of 
this assertion it may be remarked, that Moses lived more than a 
thousand years before the age -of Herodotus, who is reputed the 
father of Grecian history. As another proof of the priority of the 
Jews to the Greeks, it appears by the confession of the Greek 
•writers, that they received the letters of their alphabet from the 
Phoenicians ; and there are very sufficient grounds for believin* 
that the Phoenicians derived the art of writing from the Jevv's. 
The learned and acute Porphyry, who was an equal enemy both 
to Jews and christians, -and much attached to the learninrg of 
Greece, candidly acknowledged that Moses, and the prophets who 
immediately succeeded him, flourished nearly a thousand years 
before any of th« Greek philosopherp. 

2. The books which compose the canon of the Jewish scriptures 
have the concurrence of all antiquity in favour of their originality. 
They were delivered to the Hebrew? in their own language, with 
every mark of genuineness, by the persons whose names they bear ^ 
and those persons, by recording cotemporary events, constantly 
appealed to well-known proofs of their regard to truth. The pro- 
phetical books in particular -contain the evidences of their inspira- 
tion, as well as of the integrity and piety of their authors. The 
external proofs are clear a.nd stronsr, as well as the internal; in 
consequence of which all these books have always been preserved 
with the greatest care, and have been held in the highest venera- 
tion. 

3. It is no less curious than important to remark the traditions 
preserved in the pagan world, whix'h confirm the truth of the Pen- 
tateuch, or the five books written by Moses. The Chaldeans pre- 
served the history of their Xisurus, who was the Noah of Moses. 
The Egyptians asserted that Mercury had engraved his doctrine 
upon columns, which had resisted the violence of a deluge. The 
Chinese historians record that Peyrun, a mortal beloved and pro- 
tected by the Gods, saved himself in a vessel from the general in- 
undation. The Hindoos say that the waters of the ocean spread 
over the surface of the earth, except one mountain to the north,; 
that one woman and seven men ?aved themselves on this moun- 
tain, with certain plants and animal*. They add, in speaking of 
their God Vishnou, that at the deluge he transforn&ed himself into 
a fish, nnd conducted the vessel which preserved tlie relicts of the 
human race. This vessel is likewise a subject of tradition in the 
northern parts of the world. Suiivan'*s View of Nature, Letter 67. 

4. That the sacrifice of animals was necessary to appease the 
•offended gods, Avas a religious tenet very general and very ancient. 
The account of the long lives of the patriarchs is confirmed by- 
writers of various countries. Their primitive manners, and theidr 
mode of performing sacrifices, and oifering jrajers to the ^-leat Am« 



MODERN HISTOET. liGl 

ihoT of nature on the summits of mountain?, and in the retirements 
sf ei'oves, agree with the descriptions of fiomer, and many other 
early writers. Zoroaster, the great teacher of the ancient Per- 
sians, derived from the books of Moses the first principles of his 
religion, his ceremonial laws, his account of the creation, of the 
first parents of mankind, of the patriarchs, and particularly of 
Abraham, whose pure religion he professed to restore. 

'5. In the attribut«6 and characters of (.he heathen gods may be 
found allusions to the ancient expressions of the Hebrew scrip- 
tures. In the customs, laws, and ceremonies of many other na- 
tions' may be traced a resemblance to the Mosaical institutions. 
In the accounts of the deities of the Pagans, and the tjfe-ly heroes 
and benefactors of mankind, particularly in those which adorn the 
pages of Grecian history, are represented many of the patriarchs 
and illustrious persons of scripture. Many principles of the most 
eminent philosophers, many fictions of the most celebrated poets., 
• both of Greece and Rome, and many institutions of the most re- 
nowned heathen lawgivers, cannot fail, by their circumstances of 
resemblance, to direct our attention to the great legislator of the 
Jews. The most venerable and ancioht traditions of the world 
seem to contain the parts of one origi-n-al and uniform system, 
which was broken by the dispersion of the primeval families aiter 
.the deluge, and corrupted by the revolution of ages. They were 
the streams which flowed through tho various countries of the 
earth, from the great source of Mosaical history,* 

C. Josephus, the Jewish historian, flourished in the reign of the 
emperor Vespasian. He was a person of great learning and emi- 
nence, and conducted bis inquiries with singular diligence, indus- 
try, and care. He corrohorates the testimony of the sacred wri- 
ters, and illustrates their truth ; as he not only gives a regular de- 
tail of the most rcijiarkable transactions of the Jews, but intro- 
duces considerable notices of all those people, with whom they 
formed aJliances, or carried on wars. In his treatise against Apion 
he exposes the contradictions which occurred in the Egyptian, 
Chaldean, and Phoenician records; vindicates the authority of the 
Jewish scriptures ; describes the care which was taken in Iheiff 
preservation ; and states their superior pretensions,, more particu- 
larly in point of antiquity, to the respect and reverence of man- 
kiud.t 

SECTION lY. 

THE SUBJECTS OF THE BOOKS, AND CHAEACTERS OF 
THE WPJTERS. 

1. The subjects of the books of the Old Testament are truly 
xvonderlul and striking, and of such a nature as to surpass all 

* See StilUngSeet b. iii, 0.5; Bryant's Mythology; Maurlce'i Indian 
Antiquities-, Raleigh's History of the World, p. 71. 

t Kelt's Interpreter ef Prophecy, vol. i, p. i.OO. lardaer, vol. vii, p. fO* 
259. 6LC, 



-262 MODERN niSTORY. 

monuments of profane learning:, equalh.^ in iinportricce as in anti- 
quity. Of all parts which compose the sacred canon, none are 
more curious than Genens, the first book written by Moses ; be- 
cause it contains a sketch of the earliest history of mankind. 
There stand recorded the creation of the world and its inhabitants, 
the fall of our first parents from their state of innocence and hap- 
piness, and their banishment from the g-arden of Eden ; the re- 
peated and signal promises of a future restorer of the lost bless- 
mgs of mankind ; the history of the patriarchs, honoured by the 
revelations of Jehorah ; the description of the general deluge ; 
the dispersion of the progenitors of the human race over all the 
earth ; the adoption of a particular family to perpetuate the re- 
sffiembrance, and establish the v/orship of the true God, and their 
prosperous settlement in 1* gypt. Instances indeed are mentioned 
of early depravity, and of the violence of the passions, attended 
with suitable punishments ; yet society appears under its simplest 
form in point of manners^ and we discern no traces of the luxury 
and false refinement of subsequent times. 

2. fu the books of the Jews is recorded aa account of the de- 
scendants of Israel; a race of men selected from all others, and 
favoured with successive revelations of the divine will. Tierc are 
3hown the instances of their fidelity, perv'crseness, and disobedi- 
ence ; their glory and triumphs ; their disgraces, and their subjec- 
tion to foreign pov/ers. Here is seen the superintendance of a di- 
yine and especial Providence v.-atching over innocence, suspend- 
ing wrath, and taking the most signal vengeance upon unrepented 
©fiences. Here are developed the failings of the most virtuous 
persons, and the obdurate v/ickedness of confirmed sinners. Here 
ai'e cas^jiayed the mixed characters even of the most excellent 
men, the eminent examples of faith and piety, of courage and pa- 
tience, in the conduct of Abraham, Lot, Job, Joseph, Moses, Da- 
vid, Hezekiah, Josiah, and Daniel. And most intf resting is it te 
cbserve, that the kncvvledge of the one tf. e God was communica- 
ted to this people, and preserr-ed by them alone •, that they had 
the most sublime ideas of his nature and attributes ; that a rnagni*- 
ficent temple was erected to his honour; a regular service was 
instituted ; holy ceremonies were perfcTmed ; an order of priests 
cf one particular family was consecrated ; a pure worship was es- 
tablished fey his express command, and regulated by his particular 
laws. Thus were the Jews enlightened by a knowledg'e of the 
true object of divine worship ; and thus were the purity and holi- 
ness of their religious ordinances conducted, at a time when all 
other nations presented a wide scene of gr«»ss superstition and 
mental darkness ; when the re^t of the human race, and even the 
most intelligent and polis'hed nations of Egypt and Greece, showed 
the most abject degradatim of their nature, by prostrating them- 
selves before idols of Iheir own workmanship; and abused the 
evidence of sense, and the faculty of reason, by imputing to wood 
and stone the attributes cf divine power. 

3. We see likewise a s accession of prophets raised up among 
the Jews, to communicate the divine will, to warn them of evils, 
and to announce to them blessings to come. These holj m^n. 



MODERN HISTORY. 263 

ever obedient to tke call of Heaven, rose superior to all v/'orldly 
considerations ; and with a spirit of intrepidity and independence, 
which clearly showed tliat fleaven was the source of their reli- 
ance, they executed their sacred commissions, unawed by the 
threats of kings, or the resentment of the peeple. They foretold 
remote events in times when they appeared most improbable ever 
to take place, and when no human foresight, and no calculation 
of chances, could aruide them to the discovery of the particular 
affairs, which fulfilled their predictions. Moses, in a long and 
most interesting detail of threats and promises, i "retold the exact 
manner in which his people were ordained t© be happy or misera- 
ble, according as they fnllcwed or disobeyed the divine laws. At 
a subsequent period, when Jerusalem was laid in ruins, and the 
Jews were groaning under the sorrows of the Babylonish captiti- 
ty, Isaiah solemnly addressed Cyrus by his name, more than a 
hundred years before his birth, as the deliverer of Israel, and the 
new founder of the Holy City.* When Babylon was shining in 
the meridian of its glory, and its monarchs ruled over all the na- 
tions of the east with the most despotic sway, the same prophet 
predicted the total subversion of their empire, and the complete 
desolation of their vast metropolis. That all these and numerous 
other predictions were exactly verified by the events, are truths 
conlvmed by the evidence of profane as well as sacred history. 

4. The same inspired prophets had a much more grand and im- 
portant object in view, than to declare the future dispensations 
of Providence to one nation in particular ; for they announced, in 
terms at first dark and mysterious, but progressively more clear 
and circumstantial, the future birth of a Messiah, a glorious king, 
a divine legislator, who was to abolish the sacrifices and religious 
institutions of the Jews, and to proclaim and establish a general 
law for tlie observance and happiness of all mankind. Here the 
evangelists contribute their aid to illustrate the declarations of the 
prophets, and unite the histoiy of the Old with that of the New 
Testament, in the most close and indissoluble bonds of union. 

5. The historical books of scripture, considered from tlie, time 
of the giving of the law to Moses to the reformation in the wor- 
ship and government by Nehemiah, after the Babylonish capti- 
vity, contain a summary account of the Jewish affairs for a period 
of eleven centuries. t They were evidently not intended to give 
a complete detail of national transactions, as their writers had a. 
more sublime and important end in viev/. To illustrate the pro- 
phesies, by relating circumstances which existed at the time Avhea 
they were uttered, and to show their accomplishment ; to record 
various revelations of the divine will, and to describe the state of 
religion among the Hebrews, and the various dispensations of Pro- 
vidence, in public as well as in private occurrences, seem to have 
been their chief objects. Hence it is that the chain of history is 

* Isainh, B. C. 757. Cyrus, 13. C. 589t Kelt's Intei'preter of Proi)he- 
ey, vol. i, p. 130. 
t Mo^Q^, n. C. 1571. Nehemiah, B- C. 54(>. Gray's Key to the Old 

Toslaiiiftit, {). 124. 



£G4 MCyDEIlN HISTORY. 

sometimes broken iiito detached parts, and its detail is interrupted 
by a recital of private transactions. The books of scripture occar 
Honally assume the form, aiid comprise the beauties of a very in- 
teresting- kind of biography. Of this nature are the several ac- 
counts of Job, Ruth, and Esther ; but they are far from bein^ un- 
connected with the principal desig^n of the sacred writer? ; inas- 
much as tliey show that the same divine Providence which presi- 
ded over the nation at large, extended its particular care to indi- 
viduals, and that the examples of private virtue were inseparable 
from the great interests of public welfare and happiness. 

6. The Israelites, for many ages separated from the rest of man- 
kind by their peculiar institutinrs, --ere little acquainted with 
commerce, and made small advances in those arts, which, with a 
refinement, and a diversity of employments, introduce luxury and 
corruption of manners. They were governed by equal laws, and- 
possesf^ed nearly equal property. They admitted no hereditary dis- 
tinction of rank, except in favour of the regal tribe of Judah, and 
the sacerdotal family of Levi. Their occupations from the earliest 
times were of the most simple kind, and consisted in pasturage 
and agriculture. To guide the plough, and tewd the flock, were 
employments which, recommended by the innocence of primeval 
manners, and dignified by length of time, were exercised by kings, 
prophets, and generals. Moses was called from feeding his flock, 
to conduct the Israelites to the promis'xl land ; Elisha forsook 
the plough, to be invested with the ma.utle of prophecy ; and 
Gideon left the threshiug-fioor, to lead the arjny of his country to 
battle. 

7. The country of Judea presented a scene diversified by fruit- 
ful valleys, barren rocks, and lofty mountains, and was watered 
by numerous streams. It produced the palm-tree, the balsam, the 
vine, the olive, the fig, and all the 'ruits which abound in the more 
temperate regions of Asia. From the labour* of the field, and 
from cultivating the vine, the attention of the Israelites v/as regu- 
larly called by religious worship, which was intimately blended 
witli the civil constitution of the state. The splendour of their 
public services, the pomp and magnificence of their rites and cere- 
monies, the stated recurrence of Llieir various festivals and sacrifi- 
ces, the sabbath, the passover, the celebration of the sabbatical 
year, and the jubilee ; a,nd, more than all, the constant experi- 
ence of divine interj^>ositioa, filled their rninds with the most awful 
and grand ideas, and gave tliem the deep'st impressions of the ma- 
jesty, power, goodncs?, aiu; justice of God. 

8. These were the circumstancci. %vhich, combining to form their 
national manners, had the greatest influence upon their writings. 
The historical style is marked by the purest simplicity of ideas, oc- 
casionally raised to a tone of elevation. In the works of Mose» 
there is a majesty of thought, which is most strikingly expressed in 
plain and energetic language. In the prophetical writings the great- 
est splendour and sublimity of composition are conspicuous. They 
are euriched by those glowing images, and raided by that grandeur 
of diction, which charm the classical reader in the most admired 
pvoductiofit of Orecce aud Rorxiec Tlie royal psaJmiit is eloquent^ 



MODERN HISTORY. , 2G5 

dignified and patlietic. All the beauties of composition unite in 
Isaiah, such is the majesty of his ideas, the propriety, beauty, and 
fertility of his imagery, and the elegance of his language, em- 
ployed upon the noblest subjects which could possibly engage our 
attention, Jeremiah excels in those expressions of tenderness, 
which excite, with the most pleasing enthusiasm, the feelings of 
compassion. 

9. By such peculiar beauties of composition are recommended 
the most interesting details of events, and the most faithful deline- 
ations of characters. The great Creator calls all things into ex- 
istence with his omnipotent word. The first parents of mankind, 
innocent and happy, are blessed with his immediate converse, and 
enjoy the blooming groves of Paradise. Joseph, the pious, the 
chaste, and the wise, after having undergone great afflictions, and 
rising: by his extraordinary merit to an office of tlie highest honour 
in the court of Pharaoh, discovers himself iln a manner the most 
pathetic to his repentant brethren, and is restored to his aged and 
affectionate father, whom he invites into Egypt to share his pros- 
perity. The children of Israel, guided r y the divine Power, which 
veils its glory in a cloud, pass safely through the Red Bea, in which 
the host of the impious Pharaoh are overwhelmed. Upon the sum- 
mit of Mount Sinai Moses receives the two tables of the command- 
ments, amid the thunder, lightning, clouds and darkness, v. hich 
obscure the great Jehovah from his eyes. The royal psalmist sings 
the wonders of creation, the powers of his God, and his own de- 
feats and triumphs. The peaceful and prosperous Solomon, whose 
renown was extended over all the east, rears the structure of the 
magnificent temple ; and amid the multitudes of his adoring sub- 
jects consecrates it to the service of the one true God, in a prayer 
which equally attests his wisdom and his piety. In the visions of 
futurity Isaiah beholds the deliverance of the chosen people ; the 
complete destruction of the great empire of Babylon, by which 
they were enslaved ; and the promised Messiah, the Saviour of 
mankind, sometimes depressed by want and sorrow, and sometimes 
arrayed in the emblems of diviue majesiy and y^ower. He predicts 
the final recal of the Jews to their native land, and the wide diffu- 
sion of the christian faith. Jeremiah sinks a weeping mourner over 
the ruins of his native city, deplores its calamities, and consoles his 
countrymen by expressly declaring, that they should never cease 
to be a nation to the end of the world. Daniel explains to Bel- 
shazzar the mystic characters inrcribed upon the walls of his palace, 
and views, in his wide prospect of future times, the fates of the four 
great empires of the v/orld. Cyrus, long before announced by 
Isaiah, as the great subverter of the Babylonish empire, and the 
restorer of the glory of Jerusalem, publishes his decree for fhe 
restoration of the captive Jews ; and the lK)ly city and temple 
rise from their ruins with new grandeur and magnificence. The 
Jews are settled a;- 1 ;r formed by the pious care of Nehemiah, and 
the canon of the sci ipLures is closed by Malachi. This last of the 
prophets enjoins the strict observance of the law of Mo...'s, till the 
great Precursor should appear, in the spirit of Elias, to aunouace 
23 



2CG , MODERN HISTORY. 

the approach of the Messiah, who was to establish a new and an 
everlasting covenant.* 

10. Such are a few of the interesting circumstances contained in 
the books of the Old Testament, which engage our attention, charm 
our imagination, and gratify our cariosity, while they confirm our 
belief in the great evidences of revelation. In all these works 
w^e may remark the bright truths of religious instruction shining 
forth amid the venerable simplicity of the most ancient history ; a 
history unrivalled foj the grandenr of the ideas which it conveys, 
the liveliness of its descriptions, and the number of its beautiful 
and sublime images. 

11. In these books of sacred history there is an rmparlialify 
of narrative, which is an undoubted characteristic of truth. If we 
read the Lives of Plutarch, or the History of Livy, we soon dis- 
cover that these writers composed their works under the influence 
of many prejudices in favour of their respective countries. A veil 
is thrown over the defects of their heroes, but their virtues are 
placed in a strong light, and painted in vivid colours. In the 
scriptures, on the contrary., both of the Old and the New Testa- 
ment, the strictest impartiality prevails* The vices of j)avid, Solo- 
mon, and their successors, are neither concealed nor palliated. 
There is no ostentation of vanity, no parade of panegyric; virtue 
charms with her native beauty, and vice requires no disguise to 
conceal her deformity. The characters of persons are sketched, 
and the eilects of th:; passions are represented without reserve or 
concealment ; and the moral to be drawn from each description is 
so obvious, as to account for the frequent omission of remarks and 
applications. The abject condition of the Jews, when prohibited 
the use of weapons of v/ar by the victorious Philistines ; their re- 
lapses into idolatry, their perverseness of disposition, and their 
various defeats and captivities, with every circimstance of private 
as well as public disgrace, are recorded without palliation or re- 
serve. AIm ays rising superior to the motives which induce other 

•authors to violate the purity and degrade the majesty of truth, 
these writers keep ene great and most important end constantly 
in view, and show the various methods by which the providence 
of God effected his gracious designs ; how he produced good from 
evil, and employed the sins and follies of mankind as the instru- 
ments of his gracious purposes. 

12. An acquaintance v^^th the affairs, of the Jewish nation forma 
the first link in the chain of ancient records. Thus we may ob- 
serve the connection which siibsists between the branches of sacred 
and profane history. We place the vrorks of pagan writers in their 
proper situation, and give ihem additional value, by making them 
subservient to the cause of religion, and instrumental in the illus- 
tration of revealed .rulh. If the student is not called upon by 
professional inducements to read the scriptures in their original 

* Forlliese very iniure&sive passages of the Bil-Ie, see Gen. i, ii, xliv, 
xlv; Exod. xiv, xx; \he Fsalrn*. ; 1 Kings viii; b-aiah ii, vi, ix, x, xi, xiv, 
xxviii, xxxii, x!, xii i, Ix, !x:, Jxiii !xv, and irioie }>atticu!arl\ liii; L&roctito 
i, ^c. ; DcsHiel v, vii j Ezra vii; Kehem. xiii; IViuiathi iii, iv. 



MODERN HISTORY. 267 

languages, he may rest contented with translations ; and it seems 
to be a well-founded opinion amang the learned, that he may rely 
with confidence upon the general fidelity of our English version. 



SECTION V. 

OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 

1. An authentic account of the creation of the w^orld, and of the 
primitive state of mankind is to be found only in the bible. There 
we are inforined by Moses, the most ancient of all historians, that 
in the beginning God created the earth, the celestial bodies, and all 
things both animate and inanimate ; that he created one man and 
one woman, named Adam aud Eve, ani plE^ced them in a garden 
or paradise, situated in the land of Eden. According to the best 
chronologers the creation of the vs^orld was accomplished in the 
year 4904 A. C. Adam and Eve soon transgressed the com- 
mands of God, and were therefore expelled from their delightful 
abode. 

2. Adam and Eve had two sons, whose names v/ere Cain and 
Abel. Cain, the elder, was a husbandman, and Abel was a shep- 
herd. Cain was of a vicious, Abel of a virtuous disposition. Hence 
(lie worship of Abel was more acceptable to the Lord than that of 
Cain. Instigated by envy and malice, Cain killed his brother when 
they were together in the field. For this atrocious crime he was 
severely punished by the Lord, and became " a fugitive and a 
vagabond upon the earth.'" 

3. After the murder of Abel, another son, named Seth, was born 
to Adam. From this time the descendants of Adam multiplied 
rapidly, and at length spread over tiie face of the earth. 

4. One of the most remarkable circamstances of the former 
world is the longevity of the people. Adanriived 930 years, Seth 
912 years, Jared 9G2 years, Methuselah 909 years, Noah 950 
years. 

5. In process of time mankind became so wicked that the Lord 
was resolved to destroy them by a deluge. Amid the general cor- 
ruption and depravity of the human race one virtuous man was 
found. Noah, the son of Lamech, zealous for the reformation of 
men, became a preacher of righteousness to the degenerate and 
vicious people among v/hom he lived, and employed both his coun- 
sel and authority to reclaim them ; but in vain. And God coms- 
manded Noah to build a great ship, called an ark^ and to put in it 
his wife, his three sons and their wives, and also a few males and 
females of every species of living things, that they might be saved 
from the general deluge which would shortly overwhelm the whole 
earth, and extirpate all creatures. The flood continued 150 days, 
and then gradually subsided. Noah aud his family, and all the 
animals, went out of the ark (2343 A, C.) ; and in process of time 
they multiplied and spread over the surface of the earth, as wo 
uow see them. 



268 MODERN HISTORY. 

6. Of the literary and scientific attainments of the antediluvi- 
ans we know very little. From the ^Mosaic account they do not 
appear to have been grreat. Mosc? has briefly inf':rmed us what 
was the ori<(in of various customs :^nd aits, and has recorded the 
names of their inventors. Lamech the son of Cain gave the first 
example of polygamy. Cain built the first city, and introduced 
the use of weights and measures. One of Cain^'s grandsons " was 
the father of such as dwell in tents, and of such as have cattle." 
Jubal invented music ; Tubal Cain the arts of forging iron, and of 
casting brass ; and a woman called Naamah the arts of spinning 
and Aveaving. Their religious rites were few and simple. They 
worshipped God by prayer, and sacrifices of certain animals. 



. SECTION VI. 

FIRST AGES AFTER TPIE DELUGE. 

1. The remembrance of the three sons of Noah, the first foun- 
»iers of the nations of the earth afier the deluge, has been preserved 
among the several nations descended from them. Japhet peopled 
the greater part of the west, and continued long famous under the 
name of Japetus. Ham was reverenced as a deity by the Egyp- 
tians, under the title of Jupiter Ilammon. The memory of Shem 
has always been venerated by his descendants, the Hebrews, who 
derived their name t>om his son Heber. 

2. Except tke building of the tower of Babel no event of im- 
portance occurs in the history of Moses during the space of nearly 
i 100 years from the deluge to the call of Abraham. About 100 
years after the deluge the descendants of Noah were become nu- 
merous at the foot of Mount Ararat, and in the plain of Shinaar, 
extending along the banks of the Euphrates and the Tigris. They 
found that the country was not extensive enough to contain them 
much longer, and therefore that they must separate. They agreed to 
build a very high tower, which might be a signal of union, if they 
should ever desire to return to their native country. When they 
had raised the tower to a certain height, the workmen suddenly 
perceived that they did not understand the words of one another, 
and that all spoke different languages. Consequently it was ini- 
pos-'ble to contiuue the work, and the people dispersed in different 
directions. Hence the origin of different languages, knd the dis- 
persion of the human race over the habitable globe. 

3. Soon after this memorable event, Nimrod, a violent and im- 
perious man, built the city of Babel, or Babylon, and laid the 
foundation of the first great empire, called the Babylonian, which 
was afterwards so famous iu the history of the Jev/s. 



SECTION VII. 

OF THE JEWS. 

1. Tli-i Jeyvs derive tlieir ovigin from Abrahavi, the son of Te- 
rah, the tenth iu lineal descent from She.n the soa of Noah. The 
descendants of Sheni spread from Armenia, where the ark is sup- 
posed to have rested after the delude, to Mesopotamia, and thence 
into Chaldca, where Abraham was born. As Abraham was ap- 
pointed to be the progenitor of a great and distinguished nation, 
God separated him from the other descendant? of Shem, by causing 
Terah to remove from Chaldea into the country of Haram, near the 
borders of Mesopotamia, where he died. Abraham intended to 
settle in Haram ; but in obedience to the will of God, he removed 
into the land of Canaan, which was appointed to be the inherit- 
ance of his posterity. From this period commences a long series 
of event*, which are recorded in the book of Genesis, and are rep- 
resented as immediately directed by the Lord. 

2. After Abraham arrived in Canaan, his first care was to erect 
an altar for the worship of God, who appeared to him, and con- 
firmed the promise which he had before made to him, to give the 
country to his children. When he had lived some time in Ca- 
naan, a famine^ompclled him to remove his family into Es-ypt, 
(1916 A. C.)". where he resided till the famine ceased, and then 
returned. His wife Sarah, when she was advanced in years, 
brought him a son, who was called Isaac. When haac grew to 
man's estate he married ReWecca, who was afterward the mother 
of Jacob. In process of time Jacob had ten sons, who were the 
fathers often tribes. By the command of the Lord Jacob took the 
name of Israel, and hence his posterity were called Israelites, or 
the children of Israel. 

S. Joseph, the ninth son, was the favourite of his father, which 
excited the jealousy and hatred of his elder brothers, who sold 
him to some merchants, and told Jacob that he had been devoured 
by v/ild beasts. . The merchants carried their slave into Le:ypt, 
raid sold him to Potiphar, an officer of king Pharaoh's guard, 
1724 A. C. Joseph served Potiphar with such diligence and 
fidelity, th?t he soon committe 1 to him the care of his domestic 
affairs'. 

The wife of Potiphar repeatedly attempted to seduce Joseph 
into the gratification of hor amorous propensities ; but her immo- 
dest advances being rejected with disdain, she was incensed, and 
maliciously accused hioi cf an attempt to violate her chastity. On 
tnis false accusation he v/as immediately thrown into prison, but 
was soon liberated by the king. Such is, in all ages and iu all coun- 
tries, the vindictive disposition of a lascivious v/oman, whose al- 
hu-ements have been neglected or resisted. The disappointed wan- 
ton prosecutes, with everlasting enmity, the innocent object of her 
carnal desires ! 

4. Joseph, being skilful in the interpretation of dreams, was in- 
troduced to Pharaoii king of Egypt who was perplexed by two 
23* 



"^iU MODERN HlSTORli. 

<lrearas -v^hich he could not explain. Joseph interpreted his dreJinlff, 
"which predicted abundant products of the earth for seven years, 
and afterward a dreadful famine for seven years. He was released 
from prison, and appointed to conduct the affairs of Egypt under 
Pharaoli . 

5. In consequence of the famine with which Canaan was afflict- 
ed (as it had been foretold), Jacob and his family removed into 
Egypt, 1702 A. C. Joseph assig-ned them a residence in the land 
of Goshen, a fei'tile country fit for pasturage, situated between the 
Nile and the Red Sea. In this happy country the descendants of 
Jacob increased and flourished, and became so numerous and pros- 
perous that at length the envy and fears of the Egyptians began 
to be excited against them. To check their prosperity rigorous 
measures were pursued by the rulers of Egypt. Their lives were 
embittered by hard service, and all their male children were or- 
dered to be drowned at their birth. 

6. Till the time of their residence in the land of Goshen the 
Hebrews had led a pastoral life, and had not been subject to any 
regular form of government. Children were obedient to their pa- 
rents, and servants to their masters. Religion appeared in its most 
simple and amiable form. One God, the Creator and Governor of 
the world, was worshipped without images, and without an estab- 
lished priesthood. Equal purity in faith and worship, in principle 
and practice, prevailed among the people. B^t in proportion 
as wealth and luxury increased, the religion of the Hebrews be- 
<;ame more sensual. Like all eastern nations they were prone to 
the worship of the heavenly bodies. Priestcraft employed images, 
and the delusive artifices of superstition to attract the devotion of 
the people. 

7. The history of the Hebrews, diu'ing the patriarchal ages, is 
related in the first book of Moses, with simplicity, minuteness, and 
apparent fidelity. There we read a description of ancient customs 
and manners in the lives of the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and 
Jacob. The story of Joseph and his brethren has been always 
admired for the simplicity of the language, and the affecting cir- 
cumstances which it exhibits. As the numerous facts and incidents 
in the early periods of the history of tjie Plebrews are familiar to 
every reader, and are besides of little importance in the political 
annals of the nation, it seems superfluous to enter into a detail of 
them. We shall therefore next present a compendious view of the 
historv of the Hebrews from the period of their departure out of 
Egypt, 1487 A. C. 

8. After much oppression a«d suffering, God raised up a de- 
liverer of his chosen people, who rescued them from a state of 
cruel servitude, and brought them out of the land of bondage. 
This deliverer was Moses, the most distinguished personage of an- 
cient times, born 1567 A. C. In consequence of Pharaoh's inhu- 
man decree, Moses was exposed by his )nother on the banks of the 
]\ile, and was found by the king's daughter, who compassi mately 
adopted him, and thus saved his life. Before their departure from 
Egypt, and in their long and tedious journey of forty years through 
the wilderness, many exlraordiiiary and supernatural events ai« 



recorded la the Bible, and ascribed to (he miraculous interpositioxi 
of the [-.ord in behalf of his people. Daring their wandering's in 
the desert, they received from their illu?tiions guide, with many 
other sig-nal proofs of divine favour, a system of rellg;ion and laws, 
under the sanction of God. 

9. The Mosaic code, though the most ancient that has been 
transmitted to posterity, contains the best maxims of legislative 
wisdom. It is an admirable summary of our various duties to 
God and man ; and it enforces the observance of those duties by 
the powerful motives of gratitude, hope, and fear. It directs cur 
adoration to one God, the author ox all blessings -; commands us to 
reverence his holy name ; and denounces dreadful vengeance 
against those who shall transfer to idols, or to the creature, that 
worship which is die only to the Creator. To prevent the neg- 
lect of those sacred obligations, it ordains a Sabbath every week, 
to be set apart for rest, and for pious meditation on the works and 
the beneficence of God. Four of the statutes of the Mosaic code 
comprehend the principles of universal jurisprudence. 1. Thoii 
shallnofli.il. 2. Tkou shall not commil adultery. 3. Thou shalt 
not steal. 4. Thou shalt not bear false uitness. They have 
formed the basis of criminal law in all civilized nations, and are 
eisseniial to the good order of society. They coucltule with an 
admoiutiou against avarice, the incentive to the commission of all 
offences. 

10. While Moses lived in Egypt he must have remarked the 
baneful efTects ©f the abuse of unlimited pov/er entrus'ted to priests. 
He therefore wisely separated the sacerdotal jurisdiction from the 
■'. ''vU. The ministers of relisrion v/ere not allowed to interfere in 
secnlar affairs. Their duties v/ere confined to the worship of God ; 
anfi their civil authority extended no farther than to take cogni- 
zanc; of siTca oTences or trespasses as were immediately connected 
wiih vt;iia;iOus worship. The care and direction of all secular con- 
C0i-;t^ were committed to tlie tldeh of the people, who administer- 
ed justice under the control of a supreme magistrate, emphatically 
styled a judi^e. In the judge was vested ail power civil and mili- 
tary. It' appears however that the high priest at length invaded 
T.ne military prerogative of the judge. 

11. Sensible of the ignorance and perverseness of the people 
under his care, Moses omitted no precepts nor iiistructions v/hich 
]\e thought might tend to inform their minds, to regulate their con- 
duct, to correct their vicious propensities, and to promote their 
welfare and security. He prescribed rules for their diet, for the 
preservation of their health, and for the treatment and cure of 
those diseases to which they were most liable. Having conducted 
the Israelites through many dangers and difficulties within sight of 
the promised land, and appointed Joshua his successor, Mosea died 
iu 1447 A. G, 



SFX'TION Ylir. 

THE HISTORY OF THE HEBREWS DURING THE GOV'^ 
ERNMENT OF I HE JUDGES. 

1. This period is extremely turbulent and sanguinary ; aperio 
of barbarism, ignorance, and anarchy. We know not certainly 
how the judges were chosen, nor what was the extent of their 
power. They appear to have been military chiefs, for they com- 
manded armies, and some of them acquired fame by successful 
expeditions against the enemies of their country. 

2. The chiefs or rulers of the Syrian kingdoms, principalities, or 
tdwnships, had chosen no common leader, or generalissimo, nor 
digested any regular plan of defence against the Hebrews, who 
had been long hovering on the frontiers of Syria, and betrayed 
hostile intentions ; consequently many of these petty states on both 
sides of the river Jorilan Vv'ere subdued, and the inhabitants mas- 
sacred, before any league was for^med for their mutual defence. At 
length they became apprehensive of utter destruction from their 
fierce and cruel invaders, and a general alliance was concerted 
among the remaining kings and chiefs of the country between the 
Jordan and the Mediterranean sea. Joshua twice attacked the coih- 
bined army unexpectedly, and defeated it with great slaughter. Most 
of the inhabitants, except those who resided in impregnable cities 
on the sea coast, were put to the sword, or compelled to flee from the 
vengeance of their enemy. Their possessions were divided among 
the tribes of Israel ; and thus the victorious . Hebrews conquered 
and occupied the southern parts of Syria, called Jadea or Canaan, 
and still known by the name of Palestine. Joshua having on many 
occasions received miraculous assistance in the perilous conquest 
T)f Canaan, and in the execution of the arduous and important 
offices of a government of incessant activity and energy, died in 
1439 A. C. leaving the Israelites in the quiet enjoyment of the 
country which the Lord had formerly promised to Abraham and his 
posterity. 

3. After the conquest of Canaan the Hebrews did not continue 
long to observe and obey the institutions of Moses. They fell into 
apostacy and confusion. They were alternately harassed by in- 
testine commotions, and reduced to temporary bondage by the na- 
tions which they had before conquered. When relieved from the 
miseries of a foreign yoke, they commonly became subject to the 
more grievous oppressions of domestic tyranny. But in tne various 
changes of their manners and fortunes it is remarkable that some 
of their grossest idolatries, and severest afflictions happened when 
the civil power and the authority of the priesthood were exercised 
by the same person. 

4. After the death of Joshua the Israelites were governed by el- 
ders about 20 years. Then followed an anarchy oi about 18 years, 
during which they were engaged in many successful and unsuc- 
cessful wars, and were often reduced to servitude. 



MODERN HISTORY. 273 

After the sfovernment of the Hebrews had couiinned with little 
interruption, about 295 years, under twelve successive judges, ia 
far- form prescribed by Moses, Eli, the high-priest united in his 
person those powers and functions which, before his accession to 
the supreme magistracy, had been kept distinct. Eli appears to 
have been equally incapable of discharging the civil, the military, 
and the religious duties of his high offices. The people fell into 
idolatry, and were subjugated by an ancient nation called the 
Philistines. In a great battle w-ith the Philistines the army of the 
Hebrews w^as routed with dreadful slaughter, and the two profli- 
grate SOU'S of Eli were killed. The news of this disaster put an 
end to the life of Eli, after he had governed the Israelites forty 
ytars. 

5. The next and last judge of the Hebrews was Samuel the 
prophet, 1112 A. C. He brought back the people to a sense of 
their duty, and soon restored the departed glory of Israel by a great 
victory over the Philistines. They nov^ recovered their liberty, and 
the cities v*'hich had been taken from them in former wars. Samu- 
el was indefatigable in the adminibtration of justice. When age 
had rendered him incapable of executing his laborious duties, he 
U5Uied his two sons with him in the administration of the govern- 
raent. But their evil conduct ofl'ended the people, who complained 
to Jiamuei that his sons were not worthy to succeed him as judg- 
es. They demanded a king to govern them. Samuel therefore 
assembled the people, and explained to them the extreme danger of 
changing their P.ncient form of government to that of a monarchy ; 
but in vain. They persisted in their resolution, and a man named 
Saul was appointed the first king of the Hebrews, after the gov- 
ernment by judges had subsisted, with some iutermission, about 
35G years, from Joshua to Saul. 



SECTION JX. 

RETROSPECT OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE HE- 
BREWS. 

1. The advancement of Saul to the regal dignity was the second 
change made in the constitution given ))y JN'loses. The common- 
wealth was originally a theocracy ; and the people acknowledged 
no other king but God, They paid respect to the priests, as the 
superintendants of his worship ; and they obeyed the judges, as 
th^' interpreters of his laws, and the delegates of his power. The 
succession to the priesthood was fixed, being made hereditary in 
the family of Aaron. The office of ruler, or judge, being appa- 
rently left to the appointment of God, and determinable neither by 
the choice of the people, nor by lineal descent, gave access to dis- 
turbance, violence and intriirue. Moses prevented any public com- 
motion by naming and consecrating a successor to himself. 

2. After the death of Joshua intestine divisions, or rather a spi- 
rit of licentiousness and rapine, threw the nation into a state of 
anarchy and confusion. As this disunion and civil disorder ex- 



274 MODERN HISTORY. 

posed them to the Invasions of the adjacent states, military talents 
and success were regarded as infallible proof's of divine favour, and 
conferred upon any person so distinguished, the title and authority 
of judge. Gideon obtained many signal victories over the Philis- 
tines, the inveterate enemies of the Hebrews, and enriched his sol- 
diers with plunder. Out of gratitude for his services, the people 
offered to make him and his posterity their rulers. Though he 
declined the name of judge, yet he retained the power, and appro- 
priated to himself the most valuable part of the spoils of his ene- 
mies. His natural son Abimelech succeeded to the ofRce of judge 
by force and violence. Sacred history docs not inform us how the 
next two judges obtained their dignity. After them the supreme 
pov/er was committed to one of Gilead"'s illegitimate issue, on ac- 
count of his valour and military talents. Thus the office of judge 
continued to fluctuate till it was annexed to the hi^h priesthood in 
the person of Eli, as has been related. The death of his two vicious 
sons interrupted the succession in his line. Ihe office was lastly 
conferred on Samuel, whose unjust and rapacious sons were thougiit 
tmworthy to succeed him. The people having received no perma- 
nent benefits from the administration either of judges or of priest?^^, 
resolved to appoint a king to govern them. This political innova- 
tion was the result of levity and impatience ratlicr than of mature 
deliberation. It neither gave stability to the new government nor 
j-revented the evils of the old. 



SECTION X. 

REGAL GOVERNMENT OF THE HEBRE^V•S. 

1. The reign of Saul began about 1091 A. C. He was a shcp- 
herd of lofty stature. The beginning of his reign was auspicious, 
and distinguished by a ccmpletp victory gained over the Ammon- 
ites, which made him popular among his subjects. Btit he in- 
curred the displeacure of bamuel, the prophet, and his whole reign 
of 40 years, was a coi:itinued scene of foreign or domestic troubles. 
Being defeated in a battle with the Philistines in 1051 A. C, he 
killed himself. 

2. Two candidates preferred their claim to the vacant throne. 
Ish-bosheth, SauPs son, founded his pretensions on the right of 
immediate descent, and was supported by many of the tribes. Da- 
vid, a young shepherd, was famous lor killing, with a stone thrown 
from a sling, a Pliiiistlne named Goliath, a man of gigantic size 
and strength, lie had likewise been privately anointed by Samu- 

*el before the death of Said ; and his title, as of divine appointment, 
was therefore acknowledged by the pov.erful tribe of Judah. A 
civil war ensued, which lasted above seven years, and was termi- 
nated by the assassination of Ish-bosheth. All the tribes nov/ sub- 
mitted to David, and the kingdom became hereditary in his fanaily- 
though the right of succession Avas still rnisettled, and was trans- 
ferable from one branch to aucther at the will o^ the rci2"nii.,;- 



MODERN HISTORY. 275 

sover«^ign. This appears from Salomon's succe?sion to tlje throne 
in pr-eferonce to his elder brother. 

3. The reiH;n of David is illustrious and interesting. He enlarged 
the bounds of Palestine by conquest, took Jerusalem, which he 
made the capital of his dominion^, and enriched himself and his 
subjects with the spoils of his enemies. He revived among: the 
people an attachment to religion by the institution of solemn cere- 
monies ; and he introduced a taste for the arts, by Inviting into 
the country abfe mechanics and artists for the completion of the 
grand edifices which lie erected. 

4. The latter part of David''s rci»:n was unfortunate. The king;- 
dom was ravaged by pestilence, famine, and disastrous wars. His 
mind was harassed by domestic misfoitunes. Some of his sons 
vere di?o^edient and wicked. His favourite son Absalom raised a 
rebellion with a design tc dethrone his father ; but was defeated 
and slain. David cansed his son Solomon to be crowned in 1011 
A. C, and died in 1010 A. C, having reigned seven years and a 
half over Judah, and 33 years over all Israel. 

5. The reign of Solomon presents a splendid "v^iew of the king- 
dom of Israel in the height of its prosperity, felicity and glory, 
enjoying all- the blessings of tranquillity in such a manner, and 
for such a length of time, as it never experienced in any former or 
subsequent period. It directed the counsels of all the petty states 
betv/een the Eu^irates and the Mediterranean ; and held the ba- 
lance of power between the two great monarchies of Egypt and 
Assyria. Commerce flourished in a degree which, at that early 
period of the world, must appear extraordinary. The fleets of 
Israel, under the direction of Tyrian mariners, traded to the land 
of Ophir, which some suppose to be a district in Ethiopia, on the 
eastern coast of Africa. To this country they probably went by 
the Red Sea. By their lucrative voyages they augmented the 
wealth of the nation, which David had already enriched by the 
spoils of war. But this agreeabl? a.nd prosperous condition did not 
continue long. Solomon, elated by uniform prosperity, set no 
bounds to his magnificence and luxury; and laid heavy taxes on 
the people to enable him to support his profuse expenditure. These 
burdensome imposts created disaffection in the minds of his sub- 
jects, and toward the end of his reign gave rise to a powerful fac- 
tion, at the head of which was a haughty and impetuous young 
man called Jeroboam. 

6. The most remarlcable event in the reign of Solomon is the 
building of a magnificent tfemple at Jerufsalem, which wxs com- 
pleted in about seven years. The plan had been formed by David, 
and materials, workmen, and m:ney provided for its execution. 
'1 his was probably the most superb and costly fabric that has been 
erected in ancient times. 

The M'isdom of Solomon is proverbial. The books of Proverbs 
and Ecclesiastes are ascribed to him, either as the author or col- 
lector*; and abound with precepts and maxims that are applicable 
to every condition of life. But notwithstanding the superior know- 
ledge lor wiiich Solomon was so justly celebrated, he appears to 
liave bteu immersed in sensual pleasures. He had 7C0 wives of 



276 MOD CRN HISTORY. 

different ccimtries and religions, beside 300 concubines ! The al- 
lurements of those -voluptuous women led him into cfieminacy, and 
the excessive indulgence of the animal passions, and into the neg- 
lect of his impoi tant duties to God and his people ; and their in- 
fluence and supex-stitions at length drew him into idolatry. This 
illustrious and renoAvned monarch reigned 40 years, and died in 971 
A. C, without Icavhig any memorial pf his poM-^er. 

7. With vSolomon expired the grandeur and the tranquillity of 
the Hebrews. Upon the accession of his son Rchoboam to the 
throne the faction of Jeroboam broke out into open rebellion, and 
terminated in the revolt of the ten tribes from tKeir allegiance to 
the house of David. The tribes of Judah and Benjamin continued 
loyal to thf ir lawful sovereign. The revolted tribes elected Jero- 
boam for their king, and the monarchy was split into the two sepa- 
rate ki;:g(k)ms of Israel and Judah, 971 A. C. 

8. The policy of Jeroboam pi^oduced a religious as well, as apo- 
litical separation. While the kings of Judah held the temple where 
the sacrifices were ofterecl, ancT whither all the people were obliged 
to resort at stated times, they would always have an ascendancy 
over the kingdom of Israel. Jeroboam therefore thought it necessa- 
ry to adopt some measures to prevent the frequent visits of his sub- 
jects to Jerusalem, the metropolis of the kingdom of Judah. The 
priests, the Levites, and all who were concerr.ed in the ministry 
of religion, were firmly attached to the house of David ; and Jero- 
boam supposed that they would naturally exert the influence which 
religion gave them over the minds of the people, to alienate their 
affection from his government, and to bring them back to their al- 
legiance to their lawful sovereign. To prevent the obvious conse- 
quences of the continuance of his subjects in leligiocs communion 
with the house of David and kingdom of Judah. Jeroboara sacrifi- 
ced the interest of religion to his political motives, lie built a 
new temple, and instituted a nev,^ priesthood ; and thus produced 
a new schism among the followers of the Mosaical laws, which 
was never extinguished. Boon after tj^is sepaiation, the religion of 
the ten tribes under Jeroboam, deviating more and more from the 
original institutions of JNIoses, became a mixture of Judaism and 
Pagan idolatry. 

9. After this memorable epech in the history of the Israelites 
we find little more in their annals than such transactions and events 
as constitute the ordinary subjects of political records. 'J'he king- 
dom of Judah adhered with inflexilde attachment to princes of the 
house of David; but usurpations in the kingdom of Israel v. ere 
common. The history of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah during 
a period of almost 400 yrars, till the burning of Jeri.salemby Ne- 
buchadnezzar, may, with the exception of a fev/ intervals, be 
called the annals of disunion, vice, wars, m.assacres, servitude, 
famine, and pestilence. In this long period of general wickedness 
and misery, one of the most remarkable events is a great battle 
fought between Jeroboam and Abijam the succej;sor of Rehoboam. 
.The array of the fornicr consisted of eic^ht hundred thousand men, 
that of the latter of four hundred thousand. Jeroboam was do- 



MODERN HISTORY. 277 

ftatefd, and fire hundred fnoiisand of his men were killed in the 
battle.* 

10. At last the kingdom of the ten tribes was extinguished. The 
people were transported into Assyria, and dispersed into different 
parts of the country, whence they never returned. The common peo- 
ple who were left in Canaan were intermixed with strangers ; and 
from that mixture of different nations sprung the motley race, which 
were afterward known by the name of Samaritans, The sad catas- 
trophe of the kingdom of Israel is described by the prophets in very 
pathetic terms. The infants and pregnant women were murdered 
v/ith horrid barbarity. The men, who had not been slain in baitle, 
nor had not escaped by flight, were dragged into bondage, and their 
country was divided among the colonies of the conquerors. This 
event happened about 720 A. C, after the kingdom had subsisted 
about 254 years. 

11. The tottering kingdom of Judah still continued to enjoy a 
precarious existence ; invaded at different times by the Babyloni- 
ans, rendered tributary^ and finally subjugated ; its metropolis and 
temple razed to their foundations by that mighty conqueror Nebu- 
chadnezzar, 584 A. C. ; and all the principal persons, and the 
most skilful artists of every kind, removed to Babylon. Thus 
ends the kingdom of Judea, after it had subsisted 468 years from 
the beginning of the reign of David, and 388 years from the sepa- 
rition of Judah and the ten tribes, - 



SECTION XL 

RESTORATION OF THE JEWS TO THEIR LIBERTY AND 
COUNTRY. 

1. The privation of liberty, and the miseries of bondage seem 
to have brought the people of Israel and Judah to a ^ense of their 
past transgressions. Unable to resist the power of man, th^y now 
placed their sole confidence in the goodness and mercy of God. 
Neither promises nor threats could induce them to abandon their 
duty, and worship the idols of the heathens. 

2. After they had been in captivity 70 years Cyrus king of Per- 
sia, having conquered Babylon, set them at liberty, and issued a 
decree, by which they were permitted to return to their own coun- 
try, and to rebuild Jerwsalem and the temple, 543 A. C. He re- 
stored to them all the sacred utensils which Nebuchadnezzar had 
taken away from the temple. He laid down a plan of ttie new 
temple, and ordered that the expense of erecting it should be paid 
out of the royal treasury. All who desired it were allowed to re- 
inain in their present places of residence, and to contribute as 
much as they pleased to the holy edifice. 

It may be proper to observe in this place, that the Israelites 
who returned from the captivity of Babylon were then and ever 

* The limits of this work do not admit a particular history of (he gen?.- 
rallv- uninterestJMg reigns from this period to the Babjlonish captivity, 

'24 



S73 MODERN HISTORY. 

afterward called Jeivs^ because the tribe of Judah was the most 
powerful of all the tribes of Israel, and indeed almost the only one 
which was considerable after their restoration to their liberty and 
country. 

3. Many of the Israelites chose to remain at Babylon. Those 
■who returned to Palestine began the work of the temple with ala- 
crity and vigour. Its progress suffered a temporary obstruction 
through the intrigues of thtir enemies, and the caprice of Cyrus"** 
immediate successors. But in the beginning of the reign of Darius 
the decree of Cyrus in favour of the Jews was ratified, and many 
new clauses were added for their effectual assistance and security, 
A particular charge was given to the governors of Syria and ."■:^ama- 
ria, not only to prevent auy further obstruction of the work, but 
also to furnish supplies out of the tribute of those provinces for car- 
rying it on with greater expedition ; and it was declared thai all 
persons who should act contrary to these instructions would be 
punished with death. 

4. Darius continued to manifest bis favour for the Jews, during 
the remainder of his long reign. 1 heir privileges were conlirnied 
to them by his son Xerxes. 'Iheir interest was still greater with 
Artaxerxes, the Ahasuerus of scripture, through Iht inlluence of 
his queen Esther, a Jewes.-, and also through the services of her 
uncle Mordecai, who had discovered and frustrated a conspiracy 
against the king's life. From Artaxerxes Ezra obtained very libe- 
ral donations, to be applied to the service of the temple ; and full 
powers to govern the Jews as the divine will should direct. The 
like commission was also granted to INehemiah, who rebuilt the 
walls of Jerusalem, and reformed many abuses both civil and re- 
ligious. 

After these two we find no more governors of Judea, which 
probably became subject to the governor of Syria, from whom the 
high-priests might immediately derive their authority. In this 
prosperous state were the Jews about 420 years before the chris- 
tian era. 

5. Yxom this time we may ascribe most of the misfortunes which 
befel the Jewish nation to men who aspired at the sacerdotal dig- 
nity through ambition and avarice more than zeal for religion. For 
whole centuries the office of high-priest was the chief object of 
menu's ambition. The candidates purchased the office from the 
Syrian governors, and retained it by means of money. Hence they 
oppressed the people with taxes tliat ihey might fulfil their pecu- 
niary engagements. I'here was no energy among this degraded 
people, no dignity among the great, no foresight, no thought of pur- 
suing proper measures against foreign invasion. 

6. About 328 A. C. Alexander the great besieged Tyre, and 
was incensed against the Jews, because they had refused to supply 
his army with provisions during the siege. After the capture of 
Tyre he marched to Jerusalem with the intention of punishing the 
Jews for their disobedience of his orders. Jaddua the high-priest 
was ordered in a dream to meet the threatening conqueror in his 
pontiiical robes, at the head of all the priests in their proper habits, 
ctnd atteaded by the r©et ©f the people dressed iu white gcurments- 



MODERN HISTORY. 279 

Alexander was struck with this religious pornp, and approaching 
ihe high priest with awful respect, embraced him with a religious 
kind of veneration. He told his attendants, who expressed sur- ■ 
prise at his submissive behaviour, that he did not pay this pro- 
found respect to the high-priest, but to the God whose minister he 
was. Alexander then went to Jerusalem, and ofFfrcd sacrifice in 
the temple to the God of the Jews. Upon his departure he granted 
to the Jews the freedom of their country, laws, and religion, and 
exempted them from paying tribute every seventh year. During 
his whole reign they enjoyed great tranquillity; but with him ex- 
pired the prosperous state of their country. Judea was successively 
invaded and subdued by the Syrians and Egyptians, and the peo- 
ple were reduced to bondage. 

7. The Jews kept their sabbath so rigidly that they would not 
fight on that day, nor even defend theniselves although attacked 
by an enemy. Ptol*imy king of Egypt, having invaded Judea, took 
advantage of this religious impediment. He entered Jerusalem on 
the sabbath day without resistance, and carried away to Egypt a 
hundred thousand captives, 316 A, C. 

After this time the Jev/s became the victims of foreign and do- 
mestic wars, and of horrid massacres. 

8. About 198 A. C. Antiochus the great, king of Syria, took 
Jerusalem, plundered the temple, sold 40,000 Jews to the neigh- 
bouring nations, and established paganism throughout Judea. The 
sacrifices ceased, and there scarcely existed any external signs of 
religion. 

This persecution roused the resentment and provoked the resist- 
ance of a priest named Mattatbias, and his five sons surnamed 
Maccabeus. They all retired into the wilderness, and were soon 
joined by a great number of Jews wIjo wished to avoid idolatry 
and religious persecution. An army was raised, of which the com- 
mand was given to the eldest son of Maitathias, named Judas Mac- 
cabeus. 

The deliverance of the Jews from the tyranny and oppression of 
the Greeks, by the uncommon talents, bravery, and patriotism 
of Judas Maccabeus, is an achievement as glorious perhaps as 
any performed by the most illustrious heroes of Greece and 
Rome. Having gained many signal victories, and delivered his 
■country from bondage and idolatry, he was at last slain in battle, 
157 A. C. 

9. I'he brothers of Judas, pursuing their advantages with perse- 
verance and exertion, established the independence of their coun- 
try, and changed its republican government to a vigorous and 
flourishing monarchy. 

10. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon Maccabeus, uniting in his per- 
son the offices of high-priest and generalissimo of the army, and 
possessing all the talents requisite for the pontifical, the military, 
and the re^al offices, vanquished the enemies of his country, and 
firmly established his government. His sons assumed the title as 
well as the power of kings ; and the high-priesthood remained in 
his family, though not in the person of the monarch. The descend- 
^UU cf fjyjca^ius are distinguished, in the history of the Jewi>h 

s 



280 MODERN HISTORY. 

Ration, by the appellation of the Asmonean dynasty^ which con- 
tinned about 126 years. 

11. The unlucky dissensions of this family terminated ultimate- 
ly in the C'-uquest of Judea and the capture of Jerusalem by Poin- 
pey the great, and the subjection of the Jewish nation to the Ro- 
mans, 59 A. C. 

12. After this event the Jewish monarchy was re-established by 
the favour and under the protection of the Romans, who placed 
Herod the great, the son oC Antipater, on the throne of David. 
This prince demolished the old-temple of Jerusalem, and rebuilt 
it in a very masrnificent manner. Ke reigned with great splendour, 
but with singular despotism and tyranny. He possessed great abili- 
tie?; but was cruel and unjust both in his public and private tran- 
«ac'ion6. His public life exhibits a continued scene of battles, 
nvassacres, and violence. He died in the first year of the birth of 
Christ, or the fourth of tbe vulgar era. 

The reign of Herod was distinguished by a memorable event, 
which has proved more important in its consequences than any 
that has occurred since the creation of the world, the birth ofJe- 
ius Christy the author of the christian religion. 

13. Soon after the death of Herod Judea was in reality reduced 
to a Roman province, and the governors were appointed by the 
emperors of Rome. In this condition it remained till the final ex- 
tincticriQ of the Jewish nation in the year of Christ 75, or of the 
vulgar era 72. 

The rapine and cruelty of Florus, governor of Judea, caused a 
rebellion of the Jews, in which 150,000 persons are said to have 
perished, 69 of Christ, or A. D. 66. 

The violent and sanguinary factionc among the Jews destroyed 
hicredibie numbers of people of all ranks. 

11^ At length the Jewish nation was extinguished by the Ro- 
mans, and its metropolis reduced to ashes by Titus the Roman 
general. The last sisge of Jerusalem was attended with scenes of 
carnage, famine, disease, and desperation, far more horrible than 
any to be found in the annals of human v/ickedness and misery. 
During the calamitous progress of the siege, Titus displayed many 
instances of humanity toward the sufferings of the besieged, and 
of his solicitude for the preservation of the city and temple ; but 
in vain. Their doom was predestined by the irrevocable decree 
of the Almighty. The magnificent temple of the Jews perished in 
the general wreck of the nation, and not one stone was left upon 
another, 75 of Christ, or A. D. 72. 

According to a moderate calculation the number of persons who 
• perished by violent deaths during the last war in Judea amounted 
'to more than one million four hundred thousand, besides many who 
•died of grief and famine. 

Since that time the descendants of those who survived the dis- 
solution of the Jewish nation have been wandering about the 
world, the objects of hatred and contempt rather than of kindness 
»and commiseration, in all countries where they have been per»- 
-mitted to reside, they nave been excluded from the participation 
■of certahi poiitical privile|[es which the people s4 thoije comitri^j» 
enjoy. 



SgOC-KUSr HISTORY. * 281 



SECTION XII. 

THE STATE OF LEARNING- AND COMMERCE AMONG 
THE JEWS. 

1. Of all the interesting prospects which history opens to our 
view, the progressive advancement of the human mind, in the 
improvement of its faculties, is the most agreeaLle, and the most 
worthy of our attention and resjard. The brilliant and destruc- 
tive exploits of conquerors may dazzle for awhile; but the silent 
labours of the student and the artist, of the architect and the husr 
bandman, which embellish the earth and coDvert it into a para- 
dise, confer permanent benefits on mankind, and promote theif 
prosperity and happiness. The arts and sciences distinguish the 
civilized man from the savage ; and the investigation of their ori- 
gin and progress would constitute the noblest attribute of history. 
How unfortunate it is, that the ancient historians have almost neg- 
lected so interesting and pleasing a subject. Ail the knowledge 
which we can obtain concerning the origin and progress of learning 
must be gleaned from unconnected fragments and scattered notices, 
laboriously collected from a multifarious and confused mass of tri- 
vial particulars. 

2. The period of tlie scriptural history includes the whole space 
of time from the creation of thti world to the subversion of the 
Babylonian monarchy, or about 3457 years. During this long suc- 
cession of ages a great variety of political, civil, and religious in- 
stitutions had been invented ; the human mind had been much 
improved in some countries ; agriculture had been skilfully prac- 
tised ; the surface of the earth had been adorned with large cities 
aad stately edifices. Of these interesting subjects, few particulars 
have been faithfully transmitted to posterity, except such as re- 
late to Jewish laws and institutions, some scattered hints respecting 
ancient commerce, and some excellent specimens of writing in the 
Prophets and Psalms. In those x-eaerable monuments of antiquity, 
the sacred writings, we trace the Israelites from the- patriarchaj 
ages, tbrough the turbulent times of barbaric ignorance, to a con- 
siderable degree of civilization and refinement. Of their civil aad 
religious institutions we have a clear and explicit account ; of 
their knowledge of the arts and sciences we possess little informa- 
tion. The Jews do not seem to have been a scientific or philo- 
sophical nation in any period of their history. They appear to have 
been sufficiently skilful in the arts of necessity and conveniency; 
but not to have made much proficiency in those of luxury and or- 
nament. Some admirable specimens of literature are presented 
in the scriptures, especially in the writings of the Prophets, and 
in the Psalms. In the historical books we observe plainness of 
style and conciseness of narrative, and uncommon perspicuity io 
the didactical pieces. The writings of the prophets are chiefly 
poetical, very different, and all originals. Mos4 of thein display 
sublime sentiments, expressed with energy cf dictioBj .aad46C!&»' 
.eated wiUa vdeatai iciagery. 



282 BIODERW HTSTCmT. 

3. In the patriarchal ages commerce was so far known and ex» 
ercised that gold and silver were used as the medium by which it 
was regulated. In the tumultuous times which succeeded the pa- 
triarchal we obtain very little information concerning the state of 
commerce. We have no reason to think that commerce was ever 
in a flourishing state among- the Jews. In times of remote antiqui- 
ty the mechanic arts and various kinds of manufactures had made 
considerable progress in some countries. This is manifest from the 
curious and rich materials of the tabernacle and of the high-priest's 
garments. The Israelites, no doubt, brought from Egy'pt much of 
their knowledge of arts, sciences and literature ; for the Egyptians 
had, from time immemorial, been gradually advancing in learning 
and civilization ; and, during the greater part of the period now 
under contemplation, were famous for the excellence of their civil 
policy, the extent and population of their cities, the Hiagniiicence 
-of their public edifices, and the flourishing state of agriculture. la 
all these respects the Egyptians were distinguished above all the 
cotemporary nations of antiquity. 



CONCLUSION. 

1. In taking a retrospective view of the various nations which 
iiave successively appeared and flourished upon the grand theatre 
of this world, and have at length vanished and sunk into oblivion, 
-iheir rise, progress, and decline, arrest our attention, and excite our 
curiosity and compassion. The ignorance, avarice, wickedness, 
and ambition of mankind may be assigned as the general causes of 
the dissolution of nations. Many of those kingdoms and states 
once so great and flourishing have not only disappeared, but even 
their names and all remembrance of them must have perished, if 
they had not been preserved and perpetuated in the historical re- 
cords of scripture. In them, however, we behold the transitory 
ard fading splendour of all human glory, and a diminutive picture 
of every thing which the world calls great ; as eminence of genius 
and learning, military honour and fame, extent of power and do- 
minion, political wisdom, the faculty of eloquence. Finally, we 
draw this sad conclusion, that history is little more than a dismal 
■irecord of the crimes and the calamities of the .human race I* 

* For a very copious and useful chronological table of the history of the 
Bible see Calmel's Dictionary of the Bible, vel. II. This table is an epitome 
^f the history of the Jews, and will be particularly useful to theological 
students. 



ELEMENTS 

OF 

GENERAL HISTORY, 

ANCIENT AND MODERN. 
BEING A CONTINUATION, 

TERMINATING AT THE 

DEMISE OF HIS JMAJESTY KING GEORGE III., 1820, 



BY THE REV. EDWARD NARES, D. D. 

REGIUS PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY IN THE 
UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD. 



CONCORD, N. H, 
PRINTED BY ISAAC HlhU 



ADVERTISEMENT. 



AS the learned author of the E]emei>ts of General History, pro- 
fessor Tytler, (by coartesy lord Woodhouselee,) did not die before 
the year 1813, it is much to be regretted that' he should not have 
br«ught his history down lower, or rather that he should have left 
so much to be supplied bj'' less able hands ; especially as the events 
and transactions of the eighteenth century may justly be held to 
have exceeded, in variety and importance, all that ever took place 
before on the face of the earth. 

In the present volume nothing further has been attempted than to 
continue the history from the point at which the professor left it, 
in the same concise style, and with as much attention to the ori- 
ginal method and desi|:n, as could be rendered consistent with the 
extraordinary nature of the facts and incidents to be recorded. 

To this end it has been found necessary to carry on the history of 
Great Britain and Ireland from the period of the death of queen 
Anne ; 

That of the Southern Continental States of Europe, from the end 
of the reign of Louis XIV ; 

And that of the Northern States from the death of Charles Xlh 
af Sweden, and Pe ter the First of Rwssia. 



PART THIRD- 



SECTION L 



FRANCE FROM THE DEATH OF LEWIS XIV. 1715, TO 
THE PEACE OF VIENNA, 1738. 

' • Jl HE last years of the very loag and splendid reign of Lew- 
is XIV. were clouded by many severe domestic misiortunes, and a 
great change in the sentiments and manners of the sovereign and his 
court. A mystical religion became the vogue, accompanied with a 
gravity of demeanour approaching to prudery. The amiable Fencloa 
fell into these errorfi,which were countenanced by madame de IMain- 
tenon, who had been privately married to the king, and seems to 
have possessed his confidence in a high degree. 

2. On the king^s demise (see Sect. LXiV.) the crown descended 
to his grandson, Lewis XV, an infant, only five years old. In a 
very short space of time losses bad occurred in the royal family, so 
strange and unexpected, as to afford ground for suspicion, greatly 
to the prejudice of the duke ef Orleans, nephew of Lewis XIV. 
Three heirs to the crown, the Dauphin, his son the duke of Bur- 
gundy, and his grandson the duke of Bretagne, had all died with- 
in the short space of eleven months, during the years 1711, 1712, 
leaving, to intercept the claims and pretensions of tlie duke of Or- 
leans, only the duke of Berry and one infant, apparently of a feeble 
and delicate constitution, and whose own life had also been in dan- 
ger. The king of Spain had been previously compelled, according 
to the spirit of the celebrated treaty of the Pyrenees, formally to 
renounce his claims to the succession, notwithstanding his near re- 
lationship to the crown of France. Lastly, the duke of Berry died, 
May 1714, at the early age of 18. 

3. Fortunately for the reputation of the duke of Orleans, (who, 
though of loose morals, seems to have possessed too generous a heart 
■for such base deeds), the infant dauphin not only lived to become 
king, but to survive the duke himself, many years. Nor were the 
suspicions which had been raised by the sudden deaths of so many 
heirs to the crown, strong enough to prevent the nation reposing 
the highest confidence in the duke, by suffering the kingly power 
Jo pass into his hands, as sole r«gent, during the minority ; though 
contrary to the express appointment of the late king, who is said 



288 MODERN HISTORY. 

to hare wisely observed, when for form-sake he executed his wilJ-, 
that it would have but little wolglit with the people, or the parlia- 
ment,, as soon as his eyes were closed. 'J he nation willingly ac- 
ceded to the disposition of the parliament, in setting aside the 
claims of the illegitimate princes, whom the will of lie wis XIV. 
favoured ; and the duke of Orleans was careful to fix that body in 
his interest, by promising to restore to it its full power of remon- 
strance, which had been greatly restrained during the preceding 
»eign. 

4. Lewis XIV. had left his kingdom so incumbered with debt, 
and so surrounded by mortified, jealous, and exasperated neigh- 
bours, eager to recover what had been taken from them during the 
triumphant wars of that monarch, that it became an object of the 
highest importance to the regent, for the nation's sake, as well as 
his own, to maintain peace as far as he could v/ith foreign states. 
To this end, though contrary to any former course of things, he pru- 
dently endeavoured to form alliances with the courts ot" St. James's 
and Vitrvtia. In the former case the advantages were similar and 
mutual. By the treaty of Utrecht, England ttood engaged to se- 
cure the French crown to the regent, in case Lewis XV. should die 
without issue ; and to keep her steady to this engagement, it was 
easy for the duke to comply with the wishes of the whig govern- 
ment of England, in withholding all encouragement from the pre- 
tender. 

6. However pacific the views of the regent might be, Spain 
•seemed to present an obstacle to the repose and tranquillity of Eu- 
rope, 'i'here a m.inister of a very different disposition had obtain- 
ed the chief management of affairs, who appeared bent upon dis- 
turbing both the French and English governments, in order to re- 
cover what had been taken from irpain by the treaty of Utrecht, 
especially in Italy ; to deprive the duke of Orleans of the regency^ 
in favour of the king his master, and to seat the pretender on the 
throne of Great Britain, with the. aid of Russia and Sweden. Such 
were the plans of the celebrated Alheroni ; originally the son of a 
gardener ; afterwards in the lowest stations in the church of Pla- 
centia, but who had raised himself, by an extraordinary display 
of genius and talent, to the highest degree of credit and influence 
at the court of Philip V, with the exalted rank of cardinal. 

6. These movements indeed on the part of Spain, were not in 
themselves altogether unfavourable to the views of the regent; in 
better securing to him the good will of England and Austria, al- 
ways prepared to be jealous of too close an intimacy betv/een the 
courts of Paris and Madrid. Some historians have even gone so far 
as to suppose it to have been a settled contrivance to impose on tlia 
former two courts, but certainly without sufficient grounds. 

7. it seems to have been a great oversight in the negotiations at 
Utrecht, not to have endeavoured more effectually to reconcile the 
courts of Austria and Spain. The former, after the treaty, remain- 
ed jealous of the occupation of the .Spanish throne by Philip ■; 
while the latter could not fail to be aggrieved and offended at be- 
ing made to coatribute to the indemnification of Charles VI, by a 



MODERN HISTORY. 287 

very considerable dismemberment of its dominions, without any 
auitable or adequate remuneration. 

8. To counteract the projects of Alberoni, the regent cntereti 
into an alliance with England and the United States ; entirely sa- 
crificing: to the former the interests of the pretender, who was to be 
seiit out of France. But the Spanish minister was not to be de- 
terred by this triple alliance and confederacy against him. Having* 
watched his opportunity of a war between the emjieror of Germa- 
ny and the Porte, he suddenly commenced hostilities ; and, with 
no small degree of treachery, in the course of the years 1717 and 
1718, succeeded in wresiing- from Austria the is]and of Sardinia, 
and from the duko of Savoy that of Sicily, thus violatini;;, in the 
most direct and gflaring manner, the solemn treaty of Rastadt, so 
lately concluded. • In consequence of these proceedings, and in 
ordei', to remedy, as it would seem, the defects and omissions of 
the original convention, Austria was admitted a party to the alli- 
ance between France, England, and Holland, with a view tobrmg" 
about a reconciliation between the emperor and Spain, upon the 
basis of the following arrangement: that the former should re- 
nounce all claims to the Spanish throne in favour of Philip, while 
the latter should surrender to the emperor the Netherlands, the 
duchy of Milan, and the kingdom of Naples, assigned to him by the 
treaty of Utrecht and the quadruple alliance. That the duke of 
Savoy should yield Sicily to Austria, receiving in exchange the 
island of Sardinia from Spain ; and that the eldest son of Philip 
by his second marriage, don Carlos, should be secured in the re- 
version of the duchies of Parma and Placentia, and the grand 
duchy of Florence, to be holden as male fiefs under the emperor, 
and on no occasion whatever to be united to the crown of 
Spain. 

9. There never was a period perhaps in which it would have 
been more difficult to iniravel the policy of these several courts. 
It was certainly a strange thing for the emperor to agree, in any 
manner, to admit the Spaniards into Italy, of which he had so 
much reason to be distrustful ; much more to assist in doing so. 
"While those very terms, which were undoubtedly introduced to 
gratify the Spanish minister, in this particular respect, so far from 
securing the ready consent of the court of Madrid, only induced 
it to make fresh eftbrts. The predominance of France and Eng- 
land, however, soon became so conspicuous, as to compel Philip to 
subscribe to the articles of the alliance, and even to dismiss his 
favourite minister, the cause of all the grievances of which the al- 
lied powers had to complain. In 1720 Austria took possession of 
Sicily, and V^ictor Amadeus II. transferred the seat of his govern- 
ment to the island of Sardinia. 

10. In the month of December, 1723, in the 50th year of his 
age, the regent duke of Orleans died very suddenly in a fit of apo- 
plexy. He was a prince of shining talents, and of great taste and 
spirit ; but dissolute in his habits of life to a most disgraceful pitch 
of extravagance. He did not indeed suffer his pleasures and licen- 
tious connections to interfere greatly with the discharge of his pub- 
lic duties, but they tarnished his fame, and in all likelihood short- 



288 MODERN HISTORY. 

ened his life. He had the misfortune in his youth to beput into 
the hands of a most unprincipled tutor, the Abbe Dubois, who con- 
tinued with him to the last year of his life, dyinj only four months 
before him, a cardinal of Rome, and prime minister of France ! 
The elevation of this proflig-ate man to such high stations in the 
church and state, did more mischief to the cause of religion and 
morality, than the personal vices of the regent, who, amidst a 
thousand foibles, had some great and brilliant qualities. 

Keither Austria nor Spain were satisfied with what had been 
done for them, and strong remonstrances were prepared on the part 
of the dukes of Parma and Placentia, the grand duke of Tuscany, 
and the pope, against the grants m reversion to the Infant of Spain. 
Attempts w^ere made to reconcile the two courts more effectually by 
a congress, summoned to meet at Cambray, in the year 1724, un- 
der the joint mediation of France and England, but ineffectually : 
in 17!29 another, but more private attempt, had better success ; it 
was undertaken by a very singular and eccentric character, the 
baron, or duke, de Ripperda, Dutch minister at the court of Mad- 
rid, who succeeded so far, through his own intrigues, and the ve- 
nality of the imperial court, as to give umbrage to the govern- 
ments of France and England ; the latter soon saw the necessity 
of guarding, by a counter-treaty, framed at Hanover, against the 
effects of Ripperda^'s interposition. 

11. Secret articles were said to be signed and executed, to re- 
cover for Spain the fortress of Gibraltar and the island of Minor- 
ca, to seat the pretender on the throne of Great Britian, to forward 
the emperor's views with regard to the Ostend East India Compa- 
ny, and to cement the alliance by marriages which would have 
laid a foundation for the reunion of the Austrian and Spanish do- 
minions under one sovereign. Ripperda himself is said to have 
communicated these secret articles to the English government: he 
was made to pay dear for his treachery. 

As the empress of Russia had acceded to the treaty of Vienna^ 
concluded by Ripperda, and France and England had taken steps 
to secure Holland and Prussia on their side, Europe seemed to be 
threatened with another geteral war, but the timely death of the 
empress, in 1727, and the defection of Prussia, gave a turn to af- 
fairs, and left room for the renewal of the congress of Cambray, 
transferred in the year 172B, to Soissons, where fresh endeavourg 
were made to establish a solid and permanent peace. As the em- 
peror, however, insisted on the accession of all the contracting 
powers, to the Pragmatic Sanction, which was to secure to his heirs 
general the undivided succession to all his territories and domin- 
ions, the other courts withdrew; and in November, 1729, conclu- 
ded at Seville in Spain a separate treaty, in which it was agreed^ 
between France, England, and Spain, to support the pretensions 
of the Infant to the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Tuscany, 
To this treaty Holland was soon after brought to accede, on the 
condition that her rights should be protected against the new East 
India Company, established by the emperor at Ostend, which was 
considered as contrary to the treaty of Westphalia, and manifestly 
injurious both to England and the United Slates. Th€ treaty of 



MODERN HISTORY. 289 

Seyille was settled so totally without the concurrence of the em- 
peror, that his same was not even m3ntioned in it ; which, as 
inii^ht be reasonably expected, gave great offence. In the year 
3731, however, England, and in 1732 Holland, acceded to the 
wishes of the emperor, in regard to the Pragmatic Sanction, on 
condition that the archduchess, who should succeed to the em- 
pire, should not marry any Bourbon, or other prince or potentate, 
capable of disturbing- the peace of Europe. The Ostend Company 
was given up ; the Infant don Carlos took possession of the duchies 
of Parma and Placentia on the death of the last of the Farnese fami- 
ly, and the grand duke of Tuscany acknowledged him as his heir, 
A treaty between England, Holland, and the empire, called the se- 
cond treaty of Vienna, was signed and executed at the latter place, 
which may be said to have terminated all the differences arising; 
out of the Spanish succession, by which the greater part of Europe 
had been kept in a state of agitation for the space of thirty years. 

While these things were in agitation, Victor Amadeus, embar- 
rassed, as it is said, with the counter engagements he had entered 
into with Austria and Spain, thought fit to resign his crown to his 
son, Charles Emmanuel, but soon repenting of what he had done, 
prepared to reascend his abdicated throne ; this rash and injudi- 
cious step was the cause of his imprisonment, and probably of his 
death, which happened in November, r73,'2. 

12. In 1733, France became involved again in a war, both the 
origin and end of which had something remarkable in them. The 
throne of the elective kingdom of Poland becoming vacant by the 
demise of Augustus of Saxony, two competitors appeared on the 
stage ; the son of the deceased king, and Stanislaus Lescinsky, 
who had with great credit previously occupied it through the in- 
terposition of Charles XIL of Sweden, (see Sect. LXVI.) and whose 
daughter was married to Lewis XV. The emperor of Germany, 
the Czarina, and the king of Prussia, espoused the cause of the for- 
mer, France supported the latter, and commenced hostilities against 
the emperor, by detaching the king of Sardinia from his interests, 
and occupying Lorrain, whose duke was engaged to marry the em- 
peror^s daughter. But the principal seat of war was in Italy, 
where the French, Spanish, and Sardinian combined troops ob- 
tained many advantages, and ultimately succeeded in seating don 
Carlos, duke of Parma, &;c., on the throne of the two Sicilies, to 
which he had been particularly invited by the Neapolitans. The 
Austrian court had been very supine, in not guarding better against 
the manifest designs of the queen of Spain, mother of don Carlos, 
He was crowned king by the title of Charles the third, July 3, 
1735. Naples was subdued in 1734, and Sicily in the year follow- 
ing. During this contest, the celehi-ated prince Eugene, though 
then past seventy years of age, had the command of the imperial 
army on the Rhine ; but he had great cause to be offended with 
the situation in which he was placed ; the French being stronger ; 
England not to be roused to assist him, through the pacific views of 
the minister Walpole ; and having, both at court and in the army, 
many rivals and secret enemies. His only consolation was, the ex- 
tv*5me and enthusiastic attP'-'^ment of the soldiers, the very re^ 
25 



290 MODERN H15T0RY. 

membrance of which, as he feelingly acknowledges in his owi> 
memoirs, often after'Aards drew tears from his eyes. 

13. Matters were brought to an accommodation, through the 
mediation of the maritime powers, (who, undoubtedly, appear 
in this case to have been guilty of misleading the emperor,) 
by a convention signed at Vienna, in November, 1738. By this 
treaty some very extraordinary appointments took place. Stanis- 
laus, the deposed king of Poland, father-in-law to the king of 
France, obtained, keeping his kingly title, the duchies of T.orrain 
and Bar, to revert to IVance after his death, which did not take 
place till the year 17G6. In exchange for what was thus bestowed 
upon Stanislaus, the duke of Lorrain obtained the grand duchy of 
Tuscany, the reversion of which had been gniaranteed to the in- 
fant don Carlos, but who Avas, by the same treaty, acknowledged 
king of the two Sicilies, surrendering in his turn to the emperor, 
his two duchies of Parma and Placentia ; ^igevano and Novaro 
wore given to the king of Sardinia ; and to the emperor, the Mi- 
lanese, the Mantuan and Parma. 

On the conclusion of the peace, France acceded to the Pragmatic 
Sanction. The kings of Spain and Sardinia showed some reluc- 
tance to agree to the terms of the treaty, but were induced to sign 
it in the course of the year 1739. It is certainly very remarkable, 
that, in consequence of a dispute about the crown of Poland, not 
only the emperor should have lost almost all his .possessions in 
Ittily, but France should have been able to recover a province of 
which she had been deprived for the space of nearly a thousand 
years, and so situated as to render it one of the most splendid and 
gratifying acquisitions she could possibly have contemplated. 



SECTION II. 

r.NGLAND FROxM THE ACCESSION OF THE HOUSE OF 
3IAN0VER, 1714, TO THE END OF THE REIGN OF 
GEORGE THE FIRST, 1727. 

1. Queen Anne was no sooner dead, [Part II. Sect. LXIV. i 20.] 
than steps were taken for the immediate acknowledgment of her 
successor, George Lewis, elector of Brunswick Luneburg, pursuant 
to the several acts of parliament, for securing the protcstant suc- 
cession, in exclusion of the pretender, the house of Savoy, and, in 
fact, every catholic branch of the royal family of England ; many 
of whom were more directly in the line of inheritance than the 
protcstant descendants of James the first, in whom the crown was 
now vested ; not, however, without due regard to that hereditary 
line which may be said to have cccupied the throne from the time 
of Egbert. The late union with Scotland, 1706, [see as above] 
was calculated to suppress any general desire, on the part of 
the people there, to place themselves again under a distinct 
sovereign. 

2. 'Ihe accession of George I., to judge from the addresses of 
flie two houses of parliament, and the general tranquillity mani- 



A.ODHR^f illSTOaf. ^2dl 

icstfd in all parts of the three king-dom?, tit the, time of his procla- 
mation, would seem to have been ucccijtable to the nation at 
larjre. Nor was tlie French king lon<^ before ho openly acknowledg-ed 
his rii^ht ar.d title to the crown of Cireat. Britain, though the sin- 
cerity of his declarations in favour of a protectant succession, ond 
the exclusion of the houFc of Stuart, was not too confidently relied 
i:po)i. The states of Holland were, probably, entirely cordial, 
both in their expressions of congfratulation, and promises of sup- 
port, according to existing eng'agemcnts to that c/fect, as g^uaran- 
tees cf the Hanoverian succession. From the king of Prussia, and 
various otlu.r princes and states of Germany, his majesty also re- 
ceived the sironi;::est assurances of support ; ytt so little are tliese 
•courtesies to be trusteil, that it is more than probable, froni cii-cum- 
stanccs since come to light, that at this very moment, with regard 
to the continental slates in general, he had more enemies than 
iefiiends. 

3. His entrance into his new dominioas, however, September, 
■J 7 14, was hailed in a manner that could not fail to be extremely 
gratifying to the king, though it soon became manifest, and could 
not well have been otherwise, that there were many sedret heart- 
burnings and disappointed hopes, to prevent that perfect una- 
nimity which was most desirable on an occasion so important. The 
tories, some of whom had evidently been tampering with the pre- 
tender, during the last years of the queen's reign, were greatly 
discomfited, and in a very marked manner discountenanced by the 
king himself. The whigs enjoyed a triuaiph. The pretender^s 
friends in general stood confounded, not only by the low estate of 
liis cause, but by the perplexity of their own feelings, with regard 
to his more direct hereditary claimfe to the crown. In tliis dilem- 
ma, it is not to be wondered that several should refuse to take tile 
oaths of allegiance and abjuration. Scotland also, in part at 
leai-t, bewailed its lost independency by the act of union, which 
some were forward to have dissolved again ; and the papists, being 
very numerous in Ireland, rendered the peace of that kingdom 
constantly precarious. 

4. The person, manners, and deportment of the new sovereign, 
were not such as immediately to conciliate his British subjects ; but 
ho was by no means destitute of kiugly virtues and accomplishmentd 
M a more solid and important description. Having delivered the 
miiiisf.crial government of the realm into the hands of the wliigs, 
it was not long before serioa^,procecdings were entered into, by th<i 
new adiniuistralion, against the authors and advisers of the late 
peace and treaty of Utrecht ; and articles of impeachment for high 
treason exhibited against the carl of Oxford, viscount Bolingbroke, 
the duke of Onnond, earl of Siraiford, and others. The duke of 
Ormond, and lord Uolingbroke, absconded ; the earl of Oxford, 
with greater magnanimity, etood upon his defence, and though irft- 
prisonea for a considerable time, was ijnally acquitted. Under a 
pretence of the church being in danger, which seems to haye 
been adopted as a sort of watch-word by the tory party and jaco- 

1bit€3, (for so the adherents of the pretender were called,) riot's and 
iUttjL.uJits .t.ock place in many parts ef the kingdom ; iu consequciv., c 



-92 MODERN HISTOF.Y. 

of which, the king- was empowered by parliament (1715,) to rai&e 
iresh ibices, and the habeas corpus act was suspended, for the more 
speedy apprthtnsion and detention of suspected persons. 

5- In Scoiland, lioweTer, notwithstanding- great precautions to the 
contrary, a rebellion actually broke out in the month of August, 
1715, headed by the earl of Mar, late secretary of state for tiiat 
kingdom ; and in September, the pretender-s standard was erecte 1 
at a place called Brae Mar, though the pretender himself did not 
arrive in Scotland till the December following- ; before v.hich tiaie 
a severe action had taken place at Duublain, between the conten- 
ding armies, commanded on the side of the English by the duke 
of Argyle ; and on the side of the Scotch by the earl of Mar. The 
pretender, on reaching the shores of Scotland, was received with 
regal honours, and addresses were presented to him from jnany cor- 
porate bodies ; even his coronation was fixed to take place on the 
iJod (iay of January. But during the course of these transactions^ 
the chief ofucers of his army, as soon after appeared, were but too* 
well convinced of their perfect inability to terminate the contest 
successfully, many things having fallen out to the disappoinraent 
of their hopes ; particularly the death of Lewis XIV., who not- 
witlistandifjg his protestations in favour of the house of Hanover^ 
had secretly fa ^roured their cause. The English army, besides, 
since the battle of Dunblain, had been considerably reinforced, by 
Dutch as well us English troops. This being the case, as we leara 
from an account given by the earl of Mar himself, they felt com- 
pelled to abandon their enterprise for the present ; and in order to 
check the pursuit of the enemy, eager to seize the person of the 
pretender, they persuaded the latter to leave the kingdom ag-aiu,, 
and return to France ; the xjarl of Mar himself accompanying him. 
'i'hey were followed, afterwards, by many leaders of the rebels, 
who, in a most extraordinary manner, escaped the English vessels 
stationed to intercept their passage ; but some of those, who had 
previously fallen into the hands of the English, as the earl of Der- 
wentwater, and others, v/ere impeached, and pleading guilty, ex- 
ecuted. Many escaped by an act of grace. Thus was the rebel- 
lion, in a great measure, subdued ; congratulatory addresses pour- 
ed in upon the sovereign, and a day of public thanksgiving was 
appointed to be observed throughout the kingdom. 

6. The whigs, hov/ever, apprehending that their opponents, in a 
nev/ parliament, might regain their ascendancy, and be able to 
carry into execution their projects, against the existing govern- . 
ment, brought in a bill, (since called the septennial bill,) for en- 
larging the continuance of parliament, whereby the term was ex- 
tended from three to seven years, unless sooner dissolved by the 
king, and to begin with the parliament then chosen and assembled ; 
a most important measure, and accidentally originating with a 
party more friendly in repute to the rights and liberty of the peo- 
ple than the step itself would seem to imply. Abstracted from all 
temporary or party considerations, it may justly be regarded as a 
very delicate and important point in politics, to determine either 
a maximum or mininium^ with regard to the duratvoa of such 
elective a.s£emblies as the English house of .cojamoua. Jii^^Ue^iL 



MOtTEtlN Hi STORY. 



298 



^electiaiw Lcing assent jally necessary to preserve the people from 
any gross neglect of their interests by their representatives, or any 
unconstitutional encroachment on their liberty, as well as to rem- 
edy abuses ; bat too frequent elections, having evidently the ill 
effect of keepin;^ up party divisions, feuds, and animosities, inter- 
rupting- business, and lessening- the confidence of foreign states iu 
the measures of government. Too frequent elections, besides, by 
bringing iiidependent candidates so much the oftener into a con- 
test with .the treasury, (for govern-mentmufit have, and will always 
endeavour to exert, a powerful influence,) may in time deter such 
persons from a conllict so disadvantageous ; unless, in short, gov- 
ernment influence in elections should be entirely done away, the 
more frequently (hey recur, the more (hey will harass aud weaken 
private independence. (See Burke's works.) It was undoubtedly a 
bold step for any parliament, chosen under the popular triennial 
*^ct of king vV.ilham, to enlarge its own continuance ; nor was it 
' 111 urged by Xi member of tiie house of peers, as an argument 
against the bill, that, •■' if the existing house of commons continued 
^lliemselves beyond the time for which they were chosen, they were 
"no more the representatives of the people, but a house of their ov/n 
making.'' The v.-higs, however, had this excuse, that the proposed 
measure ■n'-as calculated to suppress a rebellion, or prevent the 
renewal of one ; not raised, like other rebellions, under a pretence 
of liberty, but, in their eyes, clearly tending towards slavery, in 
the establishment of a catholic prince, and the destri.iclion of the 
protestant interest?, both in church and state. It was well (hat 
they assigned any limit to their continuance, since a mere rejical 
of the triennial act would have left the term undefined. The bill 
was finally passed, after much opposition in the lower housc^ aud a 
strong- protest on the part of many lords in the upper, by a majori- 
ty iu the connncns of 26i to 121 ; and it has continued the law of 
parliament ever since, 

7. In the year 1717, an unpleasant dispute occurred, affecting 
the church, and which seems to have terminated the sittings of 
convocation- Dr, Iloadley, bisbop of Bangor, gave occasion to it, 
by a sermon preached before the king, March 31, mi "• The >>atur8 
of the Kingdom of Christ,'' and by a publication entitled, '^ a Pre-' 
-errative against the Principle and the Practices of the xson- 
jurors." The bishop had been a warm friend to the revolution, and 
many of the principles he asserted were undoubtedly directed ra- 
ther against popery than ouiHown establishment ; Vvbiie, in opposi- 
tion to the jure divino pretence of the tories, he declaimed vio- 
clently against every abuse of authority, at the hazaid of impairing- 
all church discipline, derogating from the regal supremacy in '■'' cau- 
ses ecclesiastical," and annulling the force ot ail civil sanctions 
whatsoever in nvatters of religion ; on these grounds the convoca- 
tion tool^ the matter up, but without much etfect. it was dissolved 
in the midst of the controversy, and has never sat to do business 
iiince. I'hose who chi',.ily attacked the bishop in print, were Dr. 
Snape of Eton, dean Sherlock, Dr. Cannon, (who undertook to 
vindicate the proceedings of convocation,) Dr. Potter, aftey- 
jiv.ardg archbishop of Canterburv, and iMr. William Law. Fcrhapq 



204 MODERN HISTORT, 

no antagonist entered the list?, -w-ith more decorum of mfrflrriGrE, . 
integrity of disposition, than the latter, who, in several letters ad- 
dressed to the biahop, plainly proved that, however innocent his 
intentions mig-ht be, his arguments and expressions plainly tend- 
ed to the subvers-ion of all church authority, and the encoura^e- 
mieut-of a nio-.-t fatal indifference to every particular form of wor- 
ship and belief. Which, considering- the high situation he held 
in the church, and the duties attached to that station, could 
not but appear in the light of an abandoment of those principles, 
which alone could have placed him there. Such, however, was 
the state of parties at the time, that the bishop was advanced to 
a higher post in the church, and some of the most forward of his 
opponents dismissed from their employments about the court. 

8. In 1718 George the first became a party to the celebrated 
(fiadruplc alliance, formed to counteract the plans and projects of 
the Spanish minister Alberoni, (Sect. 1. 4 8.) who, while his viev/s 
•w6re chiet'y directed towards his native country^ I^^y, managed to 
involve almost the whole of Europe in contests and jealousies, ex- 
ceedingly perplexing, and inimical to the ^eace and tranquillity of 
many states. Distant as Sv/eden was, geographically, from the 
6eat and object of his manoeuvres, yet, in order to prevent any in- 
terruption IVom England, he had nea.rly instigated the celebrated 
Charles XII. to invade the latter country, for the purpose of re- 
storing the pretender to the throne of his ancestors. His agents and 
accomplices, hov/ever, were fortunately detected in time to prevent 
■the rupture lactvveen the two courts. George I. was no favourite, 
.«;ther with the Swedish monarch, or his celebrated competitor, the 
czar of Muscovy. 

9. The chief object of the quadruple alliance, as has been before 
,}iinted, was to reconcile and adjust the rival claims and pretensions 

■of the courts of Vienna and Madrid. Alberoni had endeavoured, 
during the war between the emperor and the Turks, to get posses- 
sion of Sardinia, Sicily, and other places, for the sons of the queen 
of Spain, a princess of Parma, his native country. He had propo- 
sed, in short, to recover for Spain all that had been conceded and 
surrendered by the treaty of Utrecht. (Part H. Sect. LXIV.) The 
interference of England, in seryiing a fleet to the Mediterranean, 
to support the rights of the emperor, according to treaty, at the 
very moment when the Spanish forces were prepared to invade 
Sicily and the kingdom of Naples, exceedingly exasperated the 
cardinal minister, and induced him to heap reproaches on the 
British government for their precipitate proceedings, pretending 
that the Spaniards had in every instance manifested a favourable 
disposition towards England ; though nothing was more notorious 
than th?t her merchants had been scandalously ill-treated by them, 
_and her minister at Madrid overwhelmed with complaints to that 
-effect. The latter, indeed, stated afterwards in the house of cem- 
«ions, that he had presented, at the least, five-and-twenty memo- 
arials to the court of Spain upon the subject, without redre«s ; and 
notwithstanding all these indignities, and to evince the desire of 
Jiis|^oYeriiment.aot.too^recipitatelj.to jcomoaeiics Jiii^tiUUes, iia4 



MODtRlNT HISTORY. 295 

commiUiicat'jd to the Spanish miuisler the numbers and force of 
the Ei:j;lish lleet bt fore it sailed, in order to convince him of its 
siiperiorii}^, and deter him from the measures he had in view. The 
defeat of the Spanish fleet, off Sicily, by admiral Byng", August 
1718, ruined all the projects of Alberoni ; he soon after fell into 
disgrace, and was precipitated from the exalted station he had at- 
tained to by the strength of his genius ; which, whatever his ene 
mies might allege, certainly bespoke a keen and vigilant statesman, 
and an able minister, as far as regarded the interests of the coun- 
try he served, both foreign. and domestic. 

10. Though so severe an action had taken place in the Mediter- 
ranean, between the English and Spaniih fleets in tlie month of 
August, war was not formally declared at London till the close of 
the year 1718, (Dec. 29.) between which period and the final dis- 
grace and retirement of the Spanish minister, he had attempted 
two measures of deep revenge, one on the p )wer and person of the 
duke of Orleans, regent of France, and the other on the govern- 
ment of George I. of England, by an invasion of his dominions in 
favour of the pretender, and under the direction of the expatriated 
duke of Onnond. It is remarkable that these projects were seve- 
rally detected by the French regent and British monarch, in time 
to admit of their warning each other of the danger in which they 
were respectively placedj and of ofTeriug the assistance which the 
-cases required. 

11. Ihe war so suddenly and unexpectedly excited between 
Great Britain and Spain, was in no long coarse of time brought to 
an issue very honourable and glorious to the former ; admiral Byng, 
with his f.eet in the Mediterranean, having so managed matters as 
fully to accomplish all the purposes of his mission, putting the em- 
peror into possession of Sicily, and the duke of Savoy of Sardinia, 
tmder circunist.ances of peculiar diinculty and embarrassment, ow- 
ing to the obstinacy, backed by the bravery of the Spaniards, the 
hindrances arising from a succession of governors at Naples, and 
the loss of time in the necessary communications with his owa 
court and that of \ ienna. iNo man, perhaps, ever discharged so 
delicate and arduous a coaimissiijn, with more applause on the part 
of his own country and her allies, or with fewer complaints and less 
obloquy on the part of his opponents. I'he latter indeed, in this 
case, rather joined in the cummendalions so liberally bestowed on 
him by his employers, at the termina,tion of the short but vigorous 
contest. When he waited on the king at Hanover, his majesty is 
said, very justly, to have observed to him, that he had found out 
the secret of obliging his enemies as well as ids friends ; alluding 
to the very honourable terms in which the Spaniards had express- 
ed themselves concerning him, both as an oliicer and negotiator. 
He was most deservedly advanced to the peerage, by the title of 
viscount Torrington, and had other appropriate honours bestowed 
uponhimo Towards the close of the year 1719, the king of Spain 
acceded to the terms of the quadruple alliance ; his minister, o.a 
the urgent and joint demands of the king of England, the empe- 
ijor, and regent of France, having been j)reYiouslj dismisaedj .aM 
diaiushcd ,Uie kingdom oi" Snaia. . 



29d modern history. 

12. In the course of the year 1719, a bill "vva* Ijrought into par- 
liament by the ministry, for liniiting- the uuniber of the peers. It ori- 
ginated with Lord Sunderland, who is said to have had in vicv/ to 
restrain the power of the prince of Wales, whom he had offended, 
when he should succeed to the throne. After much debate, and 
it is supposed almost entirely throug;h the iiifluence of Sir ilobert 
Walpole, it v/as rejected by a large majority, 269 to 177. 

13. In 1720 the king: was much occupied in affordin«: protection 
and support to tbe prolestant interests abroad, and in endeavour- 
ing to restore peace and tranij«illity amongst the northern states. 
Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, and Poland, reaped the frui'is of his 
mediation ; bat the czar resisted his proposals^ and, for some time, 
continued to act against Sweden, in dtifiance of the combined ope- 
rations of that country and England. He at last, however, con- 
sented to accept the mediation of France, and peace M'as establish- 
ed between Russia and Svvcden, by the treaty -of Nystadt, 1721. 

14. Nothing occurred in this reign more disastrous in its conse- 
quences, or more strange aijd extravagant in its orig;in and pro- 
gress, than the celebrated SoiLth Sea scheme, whereb}', though iin- 
mense fortunes were rapidly made by some, many individuals were 
ruined, and public credit alarmingly shaken. 'l"he details of this 
curious speculation and bubble (as it has been but too justly de- 
nominated,) it would be exceedingly uninteresting: to (;uter into, 
in a work like the present, and they are easily to be f.iund else- 
where ; but such an instance of public infatuation, illusion, and 
credulity, was only to be matched by the ?.1ississi})pi scheme, pro- 
jected by Law, during- the regency in France, which had a similar 

effect, and which Avas most probably the model from whicii Sir 
John Blunt, the prc^jector of the South Sea scheme, took the hint. 
The French system has been supposed to have had something: more 
substantial in it, with respect to the exclusive trade to Louisiana, 
But the South Sea scheme had certainly commercial advantages 
attached to it. The t-\vo schemes, it must be admitted, supply 
the most useful lesson to all wise states, not to tamper with the 
public credit, or countenance such suspicious projects; for though 
both these adventures set out with very plausible pretences of 
public benefit, and a ceri-ainty of relieving, rather than distressing, 
the credit of the nation, their course and progress soon l^ecamc 
such as to excite the most lively apprehensions in all considerate 
minds, of the consequences which actually ensued ; especially m 
England. 

15. The politics of Europe were in a very perplexed state, to- 
wards the close of the reign of George L, owing to two treaties, 
of which some account has been g^iven in another place, but which 
were very important to the English nation. These w^ere the trea- 
ties of Vienna and Hanover, the former of which took place in. 
April, and ihe latter in September, 1'725. By the form.er, the em- 
peror and Spain were supposed secretly to have bound themselves 
to procure the restitution of Gibraltar and Port Mahon, to the lat- 
ter power ; to aid the pretender, and to further the interests of the 
Ostend East India Company, which had given umbrage to Eng» 
inndj Holland, and FiaiKe, By the latter treaty, F.r.'^laQd \va« 



MQDERN Hi3T0RV. 297 

:ol>le to riecure on !ier side, against the projects of Austria and 
Spaii), the kings of Pruesia and Sweden, and the states of Holland ; 
T'Ut as this aid was very slowlj- and reluctantly promised, and, in 
one instance, ?oon abandoned, the state of ati'airs would have Icon 
very alanning, but for the encouragement given by parliament, 
which was to effectual, that though consideraijle preparations for 
war took place on the part of almost all the nations concerned, 
articles of peace, through tJie mediation of France, were agreed 
upon in May, 1727, and accepted by the imperial court and Spain ; 
'by ihc<fi thfj charter of the O^itend company was suspended for a 
ceitain period, and tiie siege of Gibraltar, which had actually 
^commenced, and been carried oufor four months, raided and aban- 
doned. 

Iti. OVr;-;' 1, .lied at Osna'>ur*-h, ou his way to his electoral 
uominlonf, JL'.ie IJ, 1727, with the reputation of an honest and 
generous prince. He was brave in the field, and wise in council ; 
having had many arduous negotiations on his hands, which he com- 
monly conducted to a favourable issue ; not often, however, with- 
out large subsidies. His own measures were generally defensive 
and preventative. lie was fortunate in the state of things, at the 
period of Queen Anne's dealh, and in the removal of Lev/is J^IV., 
and Charles XII. of Sv;eden, both of whom were personally un- 
friendly (o him, and certainly had prefects on foot for the restora- 
tion of the Stuart family. King George constantly manifested a 
disposition to govern according to the laws and constitution of the 
kingdom. And it lias been observed to his credit, that the nation 
not only improved in wealth and credit during his reign, but en- 
joyed a greater degree of tranquillity at homp, and a longer dura- 
tion of peace abrc;id, than daring any period since the time of 
Queen Elizabeth. At the time of his death he was in the sixty- 
eighth year cf his age. 



AUSTRIA CAND GERMA^TY) FROM THE PEACE OF RAS-^ 
TADT, 1714, TO THE PEACE OF AIX-LA-CilAPELLE, 

1748. 

1. The aiTjiirs of Austria, as in-cidentally connected with those 
of France, Spain, England, Italy, and Prussia, from, the year 1713 
to 1738, have been alrcaviy treated of iri the preceding sections. 
It may be neccssa.ry, hov.-evcr, to take a brief view of matters, 
from the commencement of tiie reign of Charles VI., to the death 
of that monarch ; which event, as we shall have to show, greatly 
disturbed the whole of Europe, and occasioned the war which v/as 
terminated by the peace of Aix-la-v. bapojle, in 1748. 

2. Charles VI., who.,had borru^ a coiiSpicnous part in the suc- 
cession vrar, a; a competitor for t!ic Spaidsh throne, (Part II. Sect, 
LXIV.) became emperor in the year 1711, on tliC dumise of his 
elder bn'other, Joseph I. 'i hough he had declined becoming a 
party to the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, it was not lt>ng before ^e 



238 JiODERN^HlSTOllY. 

perceived bis error, Ixriiig: left alone to support an expensive r^ar. 
in the following year, therefore, he received the proposals made to 
him by the court of Versailles, consented to the oixniins: of con- 
ference?, in the month of November, 1713, and, in the I»Tarch fol- 
lowing, 1714, sig-ned the treaty of llastadt, by which he obtained 
possession of the Spanish Netherlands, (except the barrier towns 
ceded to Holland,) Naples, Sardinia, Milan, Frieburs:, and Kehl. 

3. Bat he was very soon disturbed in a part of these acqiiisi- 
tions, by the restlessness and jealousy of Spain, already noticed. 
Great designs were formed against his Italian territories ; Sardinia 
actually taken from him, in 1717 ; Sicily, in 1718, and further en- 
croachments projected, bat for the timely interposition of the Eng- 
lish, under admiral Byug, in the Mediterranean, (Sect. II. 6 9, 11,) 
^ho soon brought matters to a favourable issue for Austria, with 
infinite credit to himself, both as an oflicer and a negociator. 

4. Spain had eagerly caught at the opportunity which presented 
itself of making these attacks upon Austria, while the latter power 
was engaged in war with Turkey, in aid of the Venetians. The 
Turks, (instigated, it has been said, by the Spanish minister, to 
engage the attention of Austria,) in violation of the treaty of Car- 
lowitz, hail taken the Morea from the Venetians, before Austria 
came to their aid, in the year 1716 ; nor, though from that time 
so powerfully assisted, were they able to recover that peninsula. 
Charles VL, however, v/a? not long at variance with the Porte up- 
on this occasion. As early as the year 1718, through the extraor- 
dinary skill and valour of prince Eugene, the Austrian command- 
er, things were brought to an issue, and a peace concluded, through 
the m.ediation of England and Holland, at Passarowitz, by which 
the Turks were allowed to retain the Morca, on ceding to (he 
Venetians some frontier towns in Albania and Dalmatia, while 
Austria obtained Belgrade, the Bannat of Teraeswar and VValla- 
diia, as far as the Aluta : she was also able to establish a free com- 
merce in all the harbours of the Black Sea, and of the Danube^, 
as well as with the Persians, liie early termination of this war, 
together with the successes of the English on the shores of Sicily, 
checked the operations of the Spaniards, and disposed them to 
agree to tlae terms of the qivadruple alliance. Spain and Austria, 
however, v/ere not effectually reconciled till the year 17i5, at 
which period the emperor was induced to renounce his pretensions 
upon Spain and the Indies. 

5. Charles VI. was for a lon^ time deeply occupied in endeav- 
ouring to pircserve liis own dominions from such d-ifliculties as Spain 
had been involved in, at the beginning of this centaury, ov/ing to 
the disputed succession to the Spanish throne, on the demise of 
Charles II., and in which he hadliimsolf been so greatly concern- 
ed. He proposed, for this end, by a '"' Pragmatic Saiiction,'" to- 
make it a law, that if he should, at the time of his d( ath, ha\e 
either sons or daughters, the hereditary dominions and crowns be- 
longing to the house of Austria, should remain united. In failure 
of such issue, male or female, the daughters of his deceased bro- 
ther, Jose])h^ were to succeed ; and if Ikei,' died without hvir?, th<? 
iuheritanc.e was to pass to his sisters, and their descendants^ WjiCi: 



MODERN HISTORY. 29'9 

t!ils act was proposed, at the diet uf Ratisbon, it was violently re- 
sisted by the electors of Saxony and Bavaria, as v.'cll as the elec- 
tor Palatine, but by the treaty of Vienna, 1731, as well as by pre- 
vious negfotiations at the different courts of Europe, alnvost every 
power, except France, was bron2;ht to consent to the proposed re- 
gulations ; Engbind and Holland, in particular, havin,^ been gain- 
ed over by the emperor"'s airreement to suppress the new F^ast In- 
dia Company which he had endeavoured to egtai)lish at Ostend. 
The s^uaranty of France was not obtained till six years after, in 
recompence of the transfer of the duchies of Lorraine aijd Bar to 
(he latter power, on the demise of Stanislaus, kin:*- of Poland, who 
obtained the ofovernment of those countries by the treaty of 1738, 
G. Charles V]. had scarcely succeeded in his fjreat object of the 
pra.Gfiiiatic sanction, before he was engfaged in a fresh war with the 
Turks, in virtue of a treaty concluded with Russia, who had com- 
menced hostilities againpt the Poite, in 1736. The war on the 
part of Austric?, however, was of very short duration. She had 
lost the support of her famous general, prince Euijene ; and her 
armies, on the present occasion^ appear to have been ill conducted. 
Jealousies and disagreements amongst the superior officers, and a 
great want of resources, balBed all their operations. In 1739, the 
emperor was compelled to submit to the terms of the treaty of 
Belgrade, which was highly advaatageous to Turkey. Austria 
surrendered Servia, with the fortresses of Belgrade and Szabatch ; 
and Austrian Wallachia, with the fortress of Crsova. By the 
treaty of Belgrade, the Porte also obtC'tined advantages over Rus- 
sia ; but it is now known, that this convention was very artfully 
conducted by an agent of the French court, v/ho was instructed 
not only to prevent the dismemberment of Turkey, b}' the com- 
bined forces of Austria and Russia, but to resist the aggrandise- 
ment of the former, and separate her, if possible, from her north- 
ern ally. 

7. In the year immediately following that in which the treaty of 
Belgrade had riestored harmony betv/een the two coru'ts of Vienna 
and Constantinople, so much to the advantage of the latter, Charles 
VI. died, the last heir-male of the Austrian line af princes. Notwith- 
standing all the care he had taken to secure to his daughter the 
entire hereditary dominions of his family ; and thoujrh almost the 
whole of Europe had guarantied tVie indivisibility of his dominions, 
according to his wishes, he v/as no sooner dead than numerous 
claims were set up, and a war kindled, which may be said to have, 
in its progress, involved every European state. The archduchess, 
Maria Theresa, consort of Francis, duke of Tuscany, according to 
the terms of the Pragmatic Sanction, (which, however, had been 
ill drawn up,) succeeded, pn the^ death of her father, to the fol- 
lowing kingdoms, gtates, and territories : Hungary and Bohemia", 
Silesia and Austrian Suabia, Upper and Lower Austi'ia, Styria, 
Carinthia, Carniola, Burgau, Brisgau, the Low-Countries, Friuli, 
Tyrol, the Mantuan, and the Duchies of Mi'an, Parma, and Pla- 
centia. 

8. Unfortunately for the archduchess, Charles VI. had left his 
army in a bad condition^ his finances embarrassed, and, at the time 



300 MODERN HISTORI. 

of his death, a sc?crcity almost approaching to famine, prcTU'ilecE 
in many parts of his dominions. All these circumstances combined, 
Avere calculated to raise up competitors for dirferent portions of his 
estates. Nor were they at all tardy in advancing their claims. 
The elector of Bavaria pretended to be the piroper heir to the king- 
dom of Bohemia. Augustas II., elector of Saxonj and king of 
Poland, having married the eldest daughter of Joseph I., elder 
brother of Charles VI., claimed the whole Austrian succession. 
The king of Spain did the same, though upon a more remote title, 
and entirely through females. The king of Sardinia made preten- 
sions to the duchy of Milan, and Frederic II., of Prussia, to the 
province of Silesia. 

9. Pvlany of these several claimants had formally agreed to the 
terms of the pragmatic sanction, and even at ilrst professed the 
most favourable dispositions towards the archduchess, who had i?- 
ken quiet possession of all that had descended to her; bat the 
times, and the peculiar circumstances of the empire, encouraged 
them to break through their engagements ; not, however, altog-e- 
ther without some pretence of honour and justice ; as was the 
case with France. The king of France had, as well as the kings 
of Poland and Spain, pretended to have derived a right frojn two 
princesses, married to Lewis Xill. and XIV., to the whole succes- 
sion ; but choosing, rather than to depend upon these titles, to take 
the part of the elector of Bavaria, he insisted that, in his guaranty 
of the Pragmatic Sanction, by the clause '''■sine prcejudicio tertii^'''* 
he was fairly left at liberty to espouse any claims that should ap- 
pear to him more just than those of the archduchess, queen of 
Hungary. This clause had, indeed, been introduced into some of 
the acts of guaranty, though not into all. 

10. The most forward and active of the queen's opponents was 
a prince little known till then, Frederic king of Prussia, at that 
time about twenty-eight jears of age. He had succeeded, through 
the prudence of his father, to an army and a trca-sury of no incon- 
siderable importance ; both of which he had himself also found 
time to improve. His movements were sudden, and quite unex- 
pected by the court of Vienna ; and he soon made known what 
his demands were, proposing that if they showld be granted, he 
would support Austria against other enemies, and assist the queen 
in placing her husband on the imperial throne. He pretended, 
indeed, at first, to be only desirous of occupying Silesia, as a friend 
to the queen ; bat the mask was soon laid aside, and his fixed de- 
termination to become master of Lower Silesia rendered visible ta 
all the world. 

11. The queen would consent to the surrender of no part of her 
inheritance, though possibly her refusal kii this instance, odcasion- 
ed the alliance soon afterwards formed between the court of Ver- 
sailles and Frederic, from which she suffered so much. England, 
it is said, counselled submission in the point of Silesia, foreseeing 
the consequences ; but worse consequences, perhaps, were to be 
apprehended^ had she complied. It would, in all likelihood, have 
disposed other; to urge their clai'as with greater importunity. 



M1DDERN HISTORYa 351 

12. Aided by France and Saxony, the elector of Bavaria, to- 
wards the middle of the year 1741, acquired possession of the 
-kingdom of Bohemia, and was proclaimed king, and inaugurated 
with great solemnity ; and, on the 12th of February, 174*2, he had 
tha imperial dignity conferred on liim by the diet of Frankfort, un- 
der the title of Charles VTI., having been chosen, however, when 
some of the electors were disqualified from voting, 

13. Never was there a greater prospect of a total dismember- 
ment of the Austrian dominions than at this time. Different parts 
were regularly assigned to the several claimants^ and nothing left 
for the daughter of Charles VI. but the kingdom of Hungary, the 
province of Lower Austria, the Belgian states, and the duchies of 
< 'arinthia, Styria, and Carniola. Precautions had even been ta- 
ken to prevent her deriving any aid from Russia, by exciting Swe- 
den to declare war against the latter power. But the spirit of thi« 
surprising woman was not to be broken by the powerful combina- 
tion against her. She had, at the very commencement of her 
reign, in a singular and extraordinary manner, and with consum- 
mate wisdom, particularly by takings the ancient oath of king An- 
drew II., attached to her interests the brave Hungarians. Repair- 
ing to them with her infant son, she threw herself entirely upon 
their protection, and, in the most public manner, addressing them 
in the Latin language, at a special assembly of the states, pre- 
sented her child to them in terms the most pathetic. Supported 
by their valour, and with the help of English and Dutch money, 
she baffled all her enemies, and finally dissipated the storm that so 
rudely threatened her. It was not, indeed, until Walpole was re- 
moved from the English ministry that the queen received any ac- 
(ive assistance from the king of England ; but afterwards, both in 
Flanders and Italy, he was a powerful ally. She also derived 
some succours from the king of Sardinia, not, however, very cred- 
itably purchased with regard to Genoa. 

14. Had the numerous powers first armed ag;alnst Maria There- 
sa, or intimidated into a state of neutrality, agreed amongst them- 
selves, it would have been impossible for the queen to have with- 
stood their attacks ; but, fortunately for her, many stood so direct- 
:y in a state of rivalship towards each other, and France was such 
in object of suspicion and alarm to almost all the other confede- 
rates, that their very first movements produced jealousies and di- 
t^isions amongst them ; and, what is very remarkable, the earliest 
pvho showed a disposition to treat with the queen was the king of 
r'russia, in consequence of the successes of the elector of Bavaria 
n Bohemia. 

15. The interference of England, in behalf of the queen, did at 
irst, indeed, only exasperate France, and the other allies of 
Jharles VII., and excite them to a more vigorous opposition. But 
lie death of the emperor, in the year 1745, who had derived no 
lappiness, but, indeed, a gi*eat deal of misery, from his short ex- 
iltation, 9nd his son's prudent and wise abandonment of such high 
lignities, in order to secure his quiet possession of his paternal do- 
aiiiions, left the queen at liberty to pvocure for her husband, Fran- 

26 



302 MODERN HISTORY. 

CIS, ifrand duke of Tuscany, the imperial crown ; his election to 
■which took place in the month of September of the same year ; 
the queen agreeing to admit the yon ng elector of Bavaria to the 
full possession of his heretfitary dominions, and to acknowledge 
his father, Charles \'II., to have been duly invested with the im- 
perial dignity. After some signal successes, the queen's great ad- 
versary, the king of Prussia, also came into her terms, having 
agreed, in a treaty concluded at Dresden, to acknowledge the va- 
lidity of Francis's election, on being put in possession of Silesia 
and the county of Glatz, the chief objects for which he had been 
contending. The elector Palatine was likewise included in this 
treaty. 

16. The French continued the war in the Netherlands, as well 
as in Italy, and with considerable success ; but the queen being a 
good deal disembarrassed by the peace she had been able to con- 
clude with Prussia, had it soon in her power to recover all that 
the French and Spaniards had acquired in Italy, while the French 
conquests in Flanders and Holland led to the re-establishment of 
the stadtholdership, and thereby baffled all their hopes of future 
advantages in those parts. The interference of the empress of 
Russia, subsidized by England, and, above all, the peculiar situa- 
tion of the king of France, whose finances were almost exhausted, 
and who had suffered severe losses by sea, tended to bring mat- 
ters to an issue. A congress was opened at Aix-la-Chapelle, which, 
though rather slow in its operations, at last terminated in a peace, 
concluded October 7, 1748, exactly a hundred years after the fa- 
mous treaty of Westphalia, which served for a basis of the ne- 
gotiations entered into upon this occasion. By this convention, as 
in most other instances of the same nature, there was so general 
a restiiution of conquests, as plainly to mark the folly and injus- 
tice of having continued the war so long. During this contest, in 
the year 1743, died the cardinal de Fleury, first minister of France, 
at the very advanced age of ninety. He did not assume the reins 
•f government till he was seventy-three. He had many virtues^ 
but was much more admired by his countrymen for his integrity 
and disinterestedness, than for energy of character, or public spirit. 

17. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle bringing us, as nearly as can 
be, to the middle of the eighteenth century, it may be well to take 
a view of Europe at this particular period, and as con)iected with 
this celebrated treaty ; but this must be reserved for a future sec- 
tion. 



SECTION IV. 

ENGLAND FROM THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE II. TO 
THE THRONE, 1727, TO HIS DEATH, 1760. 

1. The accession of George II, who came to the throne 1727, 
in the 44th year of his age, and in a time of profound peace, wag 
not attended with such changes as many had expected. Even 
the minister himself, sir Robert Walpole, is said to have been sux- 



MODERN HISTORY, 303 

prised at the recepUon fee met with from his majesty, on the de- 
mise of the late kin^, and at the continuance of the power in his 
hands. S:!ut this is now known to have been owing to the wise 
and prudent care of queen Caroline, who, at this moment, was 
found to posses? an inlluence over her royal consort, v hich had 
been by many little suspected, but which her extreme good sense, 
and discreet conduct, seemed fully to justify. The whig:s might 
justly be considered as the truest friends of the house of Hanover 
and the protestaat church ; and their continuance in power at the 
commencement of a new reign, though very grating to the adverse 
party, seemed to be extremely favourable to the quiet of the na- 
tion. 

2. The good-will which had sprung up, and been encouraged 
drtiing the regency, between the rival courts of Versailles and 
London, was not materially disturbed during the whole administra- 
tion of Walpole, and his pacific contemporary, cardinal Fleury ; 
the queen being also friendly to peace. But as it is not easy for. 
any peaceable government long to escape the encroachments of 
other states, Spain, apparently presuming on the forbearance or 
apathy of the British ministry, committed great depredations, for a 
serii!s of years, upon the trade of England with America and the 
West-Indies, committing many acta of most atrocious cruelty, in 
addition to their other deeds »of insult and plunder. Some steps 
were at length taken to remedy these evils, but the conduct of 
Spain was so generally resented by the nation, as to render even 
the convention, by which the disputes were referred to arbitration, 
extremely unpopular. It being thought, by many of all descrip- 
tions, not only that the grievances complained of had been too 
long submitted to and endured, and the measures hitherto taken 
to redress them been too tame and submissive, but that nothing' 
less than a war could restore the lost consequence of the state, or 
bring such offenders to reason. 

3. The Spaniards, indeed, h%d defended their conduct in many 
memorials, pretending that the English were the aggressors, in car- 
rying on a contraband and unlawful trade with their colonies ; 
but had this been capable of proof to the extent the Spaniards 
pretended, which was certainly not the case, there is no doubt 
but that they suffered themselves to be hurried into most unjustifi- 
able excesses in their measures of reprisal, and exceedingly ill- 
treated both the merchants &.ad sailors of England. They insisted 
upon a general right of search, on the open seas, and condemned 
the ship's and cariioes, upon such frivolous pretences as could not 
iaii to be extremely injurious and oppressive, and quite contrary 
to existing treaties. In one instance, a v/hole fleet of English 
mei chant-ships, at the jsland of Tortugas, was attacked by Span- 
iards, as if the two nations had been at open war. 

4. It would be scarcely possible, perhaps, to justify entirely the 
extraordinary forbearance of the British government, for nearly 
twenty years, during which not only these indignities had been 
contiiiuaily repeated, but express engagements, and promises to 
.redress avid abstain from such aggressions in future, notoriously 
vvio^ate^d. This had been remarkably the case with respect' to the 



304 JMODEHN HISTORY, 

s^^tipulations of the treaty of Seville, concluded in the year mi9\. 
There were very warm debates in parliament on the suhje<?t, an* 
the ministry were hard pressed to defend themselves from the 
charge of supineness, g:ross indiiference to the suffering's of the 
merchants, and the honour of the erown, and, in seme instances, 
even of criminal connivance. And, iade^d, their opponents ob- 
tained, at length, this triumph over them, that the very conven- 
tion which was to be the preliminary of a perfect adjustment of 
differences, and a surety for the indemnification of the merchants 
for all their losses, was, like every preceding treaty and compact, 
disregarded by Spain, and war obliged to be declared before the 
year was out, to compel her to more just and equitable measures. 
The war, however, was not so successful as to render it clear that 
the pacific and wary proceedings of the British minister were oth- 
erwise than most prudent and wise, considering the general cir- 
cumstances of Europe. " Omnia prius experiri verbis quara armis 
sapientem decet," is a maxim which has been applied to the con- 
duct of sir Robert Walpole, by an author, not backward to admit 
that, on som.e points, in regard to continental politics, the pacific 
system was carried too far. The period during which it prevailed 
v/ill, certainly, for ever be a remarkable aera in English history, 
especially as the reigning sovereign was notoriously a soldier, and 
by no means personally disposed to adept so inactive a line of con- 
duct. 

5. Though the people had been clamor©us for the war with 
Spain, they were soon dissatisfied with the conduct of it, and that 
to so great a degree, as to compel the minister, sir Rolsert Wal- 
pole, though with considerable reluctance, to resign his appoint- 
ments V which took place in February, 1742 ; the approbation of 
iiis sovereign being manifested in his elevation to the peerage, by 
the title of earl of Orford. He was succeeded by lord Carteret. 
J3ir Robert Walpole had been an able, intelligent, and prudent 
minister ; a constant lover of peace, ia the way of defence and 
prevention; and upon this he prided himself: he was of the 
whig party, which exposed him much to the rancour, not only of 
those whose political opiaions were different, but of many disap- 
pointed persons who thought with him. By these he was stigma- 
tised as having reduced corruption to a syslem ; but by others, 
this charge v/as as confidently repelled ; nor would it be difficult 
to prove that, though he often spoke as if he knew every man"'3 
price, he governed, not by corruption, but by party attachments, 
as his friends and admirers have alledged. Upon two great occa-^ 
sions his plans v/ere thwarted by some who lived to sec and cor- 
rect their errors, as was the case, particularly, with Mr. Pitt, ii\ 
regard to tha excise bill, first proposed to the house of commons 
in the year 1732. There was never, perhaps, a case in which 
party, faction, and ignorance prevailed more over truth, and jus- 
tice, and prudence. The bill was calculated to check and con- 
trol the most gross and pernicious frauds upon the revenue ; to fa-, 
vour and encourage, in every possible manner, the fair dealer, 
(and through him the public in general,) and by the savings pro- 
duced in the treasury, materially to lighten the ^ubli^.biu;tb^e^3 :. yet 



M^ODERN HISTORY, 305 

«tida -s. ■clamotir was raised against the measure, from its first stig- 
^estion^ as to oblige the minister to abandon it. 

6. The other measure, which brought great odium on this able 
minister of finance, was his trespass on the sinking fund,, first es- 
tablished in 1727, and which he made no scruple to alienate for 
public purposes, as occasion seemed to require. The very name 
of this fund is not equally applicable to all times. At first it arose 
entirely from savings, and its perpetu-*! -or uniiiterrnpted operation 
inider sudi circumstances, would appear to have been an indis- 
pensable part of its character. It had been calculated as proceed- 
ing upon the basis of compound interest ; A', hile new loans and 
debts, contracted for pressing emergencies, were held to burthen 
the public in the way of simple interest only. But in the-se days, 
the whole state of the question is changed. The modern sinking 
fund is not a sinking fund of surpluses or savings, but in iticif a 
borroived fund ; of great power and great utility, occasionally, 
but plainly at the command of the ptibllc, wdienevor the current 
expenses cannot be provided for at a less cost,; and, indeed, often 
beneficially to be applied to such purposes, in greater or less pro- 
portions, to the avoidance of many heavy chaiges of management, 
high premiums, and new taxes. The alienation of the original 
sinking fund, by sir Robert Walpole, however, has been very ably 
defended since, though opposed and aesisted, .at the time, with a 
"virulence and animosity exceedingly distressing to that judicious 
and discerning minister. 

7. The nevir administration, which came into powe-r on the re- 
jsignation of \ValpoIe, so little answered the expectations of their 
friends, deviated so soon from the piiricipies tbej^ had avowed, 
Avhile in opposition, aid seemed so much more disposed to espouse 
the cause ot Hanover, at the expense, and to the loss, of England, 
in useless subsidies and foreign wars, than to attend to the domes- 
tic difficulties under which she was supposed to be labouring, that 
they became, in a very short time,, quite as unpopular as their pre- 
<decessors, and in 1745, the very year in which Walpole died, the 
•jrebellion bioke out in Scotland. 

8. This attempt .against the house of Hanover, tmdertaken by 
'the heir of the Stuart family, in person, was, undoubtedly, an ill 

conducted, as it was ultimately an unsuccessful, enterprise ; 
though to call it ;al together a weak one, would be contrary to his- 
torical truth. Its commencement, indeed, had all the appearance 
of the most -romantic infatuation, but in iis progress it became so 
formidable, as even to threaten the capital of England, and the 
protestant succession ; nor was it subdued wdthout great efforts aiid 
exertions on the part of the king's forces, so unavailing and dis- 
heartening at first, as to render the issue of the contest extremely 
problematical. It was, in fact, at the beginning, despised and 
■neglected, by the lords of the regency, in the absence of the king, 
%vho was then at Hanover, so that time was given for such an aC" 
cession of friends and adherents to the cause of the pretender, 
vwhile the Eoglish army was left without a.ny adequate reinlbrce- 
aatats, that the rebels not only got jossession of Xdiaburgh, aftfei" 



3CG MODERN msTOur, 

a very severe but most successful action with the Engl^sri', at" rfes*" 
ton Pans, but were able to march, unmolested, far into England^, 
and even to retreat, in the face of a powerful army, under circum- 
stances peculiarly creditable to the prowess, humanity, and mili- 
tary skill of the Scottish commander. 

9. Had the young prince met with the encouragement he ex- 
pected on his march to the south, he might have possessed himself 
of the English, as he had done of the Scotch, capital ; but his 
hopes of aid were, considering all things, strangely and cruelly 
disappointed. Not a soul joined him, of any importance, though 
>ie had advanced nearly to the very centre of the kingdom ; while 
the French failed to fulfil their engagement of invading the south- 
ern parts of the island, in order to divide and occupy the English 
army, so that his retreat became a point of prudence perfectly in- 
evitable, however mortifying and gratirfg to the gallant spirit of 
Charles, wbo undoubtedly manifested a strong, disposition to pro- 
ceed against all obstacles. 

10. The conflict between the two nations, on this occasion, was 
greatly affected by the religious tenets and principles of the oppos- 
ing parties*. Had Scotland been entirely catholic, the hopes of the 
Stuart family would have been ex.tremely reasonable j but it was,. 
at this period, divided between the presbyterians and the catho- 
lics ; the Lowlandtas being of the former sect, and the Highland- 
ers, generally speaking, of the latter. The presbyterians, who 
had gained great advantages, in the way of toleration, by the revo- 
lution, having become whigs in principle, naturally adhered to the 
house of Hanover, while the catholic Highlanders were quite a* 
fully and as naturally inclined to support their native prince. 
Nothing could fee wiser, perhaps^, under these circumstances, than 
the sending a prince of the blood to command the British forces^ 
and, as it happened, no officer of the British army could be more 
popular than the duke of Cumberland, at this very period. His- 
royal highness joined the army at Edinburgh, not long, after the 
battle of Falkirk, in which the English, under g.eneral Hawley, 
had recently sustained a check. The duke, indeed, had been ex- 
pressly recalled from Flanders, to suppress the rebellion, which 
was, in no small degree,, detrimental and injurious to the cause cf 
the allies_ 

11. Th« conduct of the son of the pretender was certainly that 
of a brave but iuconsidcrate young man. Sanguine in his expecta- 
tions, beyond what any circumstances of the case would com- 
pletely justify, he, in more instances than one, committed himself 
too far, and at the very last exposed himself to a defeat, which- 
aiight, at least, have been suspended or mitigated,, if not totally, 
avoided. He made a stand against the king's forces at Culloden, 
while his troops were in a. bad condition for fighting, and when it 
would obviously have been better policy to have acted on the de- 
iensive ;. to have retiried before his- adversary,, till he had led hint, 
into the more impracticable parts of the highlands, wherfi all his* 
anilitary means would have been crippled, and a retreat,, perhaps^^ 
*t kasijhaye teen rendered indis^easablj; aeG^ssarj ;^ hvX b^. tisk^ 



MODERN HISTORY. 307 

ing the battle of Culloden, (April 16, 1746) he lost every thing.. 
The duke of Cumberland gained a most decisive victory ; and so 
completely subdued the hopes and spirits of his younj opponent, 
that he never afterwards joined his friends, though solicited, and 
indeed engag:ed, so to do ; but wandering about the country for 
a considerable time, with a price of £30,000 set on his head, after 
enduring incredible hardships and diffictilties, embarked for France ; 
and thus terminated forever the struggles of that exiled and de- 
posed family to recover its ancient dominions. The very remarka- 
ble instances of attachment, fidelity, and pure hospitality, by 
which, after the battle of Culloden, the unfortunate fugitive was 
preserved from the hands of his pursuers, surpass any thing of the 
kind recorded in history, and reflect indelible credit on the high and 
disinterested feelings and principles of those who assisted him in 
his escape. 

12. The most melancholy circumstance attending this rash un- 
dertaking, was the necessity that arose for marking examples of thoso 
who had abetted it, in order more securely to fix on the throne of 
Great Britain the reigning- family ^ who, having acquired that 
right in the most constitutional manner, could not be dispossessed 
of it, but by an unpardonable.violation of the law. Of the excesses 
committed by the English troops after the battle of Culloden, it is 
to be hoped^.as indeed it has been asserted, that the accounts are 
exaggerated ; but in the common course of justice, many persons, 
and some of th<; highest rank, underwent the sentence of death for 
high treason, whose crime, through a melancholy infatuation, must 
in their own eyes have appeared the very reverse, and whose loy- 
alty and attachment, under different circumsta-nces, and with the 
law and couslitution on their side, would have deserved the high- 
est praise. Though many of the adherents of the pretender suffer- 
ed, many of them made their escape beyond sea, and arrived safely 
at the different ports of the continent. No attempts have since been 
jnade by any of the catholic descendants of the royal family of 
Great Britain to disturb the protestant succession in the house of 
Brunswick. 

13. This illustrious hou&e sustained a very unexpected and me- 
lancholy loss,^ in the year 1750, by the death of his royal highness 
the prince of Wales, father of bis late majesty; who, in conse- 
quence of a cold caught in his gardens at Kew, died of a pleuritic 
disorder, on the twentieth day of March, in the forty-fifth year of 
lais age. He was a prince endowed with many amiable qualities ; 
a munificent patron of the arts, a friend to merit, and sincerely at- 
tached to the interests of Great Britain. 

14. In tlie course of the year 1751, a remarkable act was pas»- 
sed in parliament,, for correcting the calendar, according to the 
Gregorian computation. It was enacted, that the new year should 
begin on the first of January,, and that eleven days between the 
seconfl and fourteenth days of September, 1752, should for that 
time be omitted,, so that the day suseceding the second, should 
fee called the fourteenth, of tliat month. I'his change was on manj 
accaimts exceedio^y imgortant, but to persons wholly uaacauaint^ 



SOS MODERN HISTOrxY* 

^d with astronomy, it appeared a strangely arbitrary iiatcrfcrencc 
■vvlth the currency and settled distinctions of time. 

15. Thonsrh the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, may be said 
to have restored peace to Europe, the English and French came to 
no good understanding with regard to their remote settlements. 
The war in those parts involved the interests of the natives or set- 
tlers, as V* ell as of the tv^^o courts, and scarcely seems to have fall- 
en under the consideration of the negotiating ministers. In the 
east and in the v/est many diEpvites and jealousies were raised, 
which though referred to special commissioners to adjust, in no 
long course of time involved both countries in afresh war, the par- 
ticulars of which v/ill be found elsewhere : a war which extended 
to all parts of the globe, and continued beyond the reign of George 
II, who died suddenly at Kensington, in 1760, in the 77th year of 
his age, and 34th of his reign. 

16. George 11. was a prince of high integrity, honour, and vera- 
city, but of a v/arrn and irritable temper, of a warlike dispositioix, 
and though for a long time restrained by his pacific minister, sir 
Robert Walpole, from taking an}"- active part in the disputes of the 
continent, yet constantly inclined to do so, from an attachment, 
Tery natural, though unpopular amongst his British subjects, to his 
German dominions. He was greatly under the influence of his 
queen, while she lived, " whose mild, prudent, and conciliating 
manners,*" to use the words of a very impartial and judicious bi- 
ographer, " were more congenial to the character of the English 
nation." Queen Caroline had indeed many great and splejidid 
virtues ; though of most amiable and domestic habits, she was 
well versed in the politics of Europe, and had considerable literary 
attainments, which disposed her to be a friend to learned persons, 
particularly to many members of the church, of which several 
striking and remarkable instances have been recorded. It is suffi- 
cient to m.ention the names ol Herring, Clarke, Hoadley, Butler, 
Sherlock, Hare, Seeker, and Pearce. She was the daughter of 
John Frederick, margrave of Branclenburgh Anspach, and was born 
in the year 5 683. She was married to his majesty in 1705, and 
■had issue two sons and five daughters. Her death, which oc-casion- 
ed great grief to her royal consort and family, took place on tlie 
20th of November, 1733, when she -was in the 55th year oX her 
age. 



SECTION V. 

STATE OF EUROPE AT THE CONCLUSION OF THE PEACE 
OF AIX-LA-^CHAPELLE, 1748. 

1. By the treaty of Ais-la Chape.lle the house of Hanover was 
-effectually established on the throne of Great Britain, to tne en- 
tire exclusion of the Stuart family. Though the peace was not 
ipopular in England, and she was supposed by jnany to have made 
;;too ,great, and in some instanco^ i^nominiovis cojicessiona, y.et ii 



MODERN HISTORY. 309 

was certainly fortunate for her that the contiacntal powers confined 
their A-^iews to a balance Avhich did not extend to the sea ; and 
thereby left in her hands a force, beyond calculation superior to 
that of the other countries of Europe, and amounting' almost to a 
monopoly of commerce, credit, and wealth, so as to render her, as 
it were, .'the chief agent or principal, in all political morements^ 
for the time ta come. Her prospeyiiy, indeed, had been on the in- 
crease, in no common degree, irom the accession of the Brunswick 
family. 

2. Austria lost, by the treaty of 1748, Silesia and Glatz, the 
duchici^ of Farma, Placentia, and Gua?talla, and some places in 
the Milanese : but she succeeded, and chiefly at the expense of her 
allies, in the article of the succession. All former treaties were 
formally recognized, which involred indeed other losses to the em- 
pire, if compared with the time of Charles V ; but the dominions 
of the latter were certainly too extensive, and too detached, to 
form a great and stable empire. This, indeed, may be said to have 
been the case with regard even to the reduced domains of Charles 
VI ; but his high-spirited daughter, Maria Theresa, was to the last 
indignant at the losses she had sustained. She corrected the error 
into which she had fallen with regard to Genoa, and which occa- 
sioned great commotions there, by consenting to let the marqaisate 
of Final revert to that republic, which had been very arbitrarily 
given, in the coarse of the vvar, as a bribe to the king of Sardinia, 
and mad'e a free port, to the evident disadvantage of the Genoese^ 
who had originally purchased it for a valuable consideration, under 
the guaranty of Great Biitain. 

3. Prussia gained, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Silesia, and 
the county of Glatz, which were guarantied to her by all the con- 
tracting pov/ers ; and by this accession of territory she v/as raised 
into the condition of a power capable of entering into the field of 
action, as a rival of Austria ; which might have been foreseen, when 
Leopold erected it into a kingdom, for the express purpose of coun- 
terbalancing the power of France. As it was, the unity of the em- 
pire seemed to be dissolved, and a door set open to future revolu- 
tions in the Germanic body, 'J'he character and subsequent 
achievements of Frederick II. contributed greatly to the aggran- 
dizement of his dominions. He was active, bold, fond of glory, and 
indefatigable. He was brave in the field, and wise in the cabinet* 
Desirous of shining in all that he undertook, he was indefatigable 
in keeping his army constantly ready for all emergeneies, and ia 
repairing the damages to which his dominions had been subjected by 
his amiiitlon. He drew to him many eminent persons of all coun- 
tries, of whose society he pretended to be- fond ; but he oftentimes 
showed himself to be a most merciless tyrant, a blunderer in politi- 
cal economy, and, i-f not quite an atheist, very lax in his principles 
pf religion. 

4. Holland lost much by the peace, and gained nothing. Some, 
indeed, doubted whether she did not greatly endanger her inde- 
pendence, by consenting to make the stadtholdership hereditary in 
the house of Orange, and that in favour of the female as well as 
9iale heirs of the family : but others conceived that this ap,^roa.cr:. 



310 MODERN HISTORY. 

to monarchical g-o\'ernment greatly strengtliened the republic ; and 
it would indeed seem that it had declined much in power and 
consequence, from the very period when that ofBce was abolished, 
in the preceding- century. One precaution was adopted with re- 
jf^ard to the female heirs to the Stadtholdership: they were pre- 
<:luded from marrying any king, or elector of the empire ; a pre- 
caution which there were, in the history of Europe, sufficient rea- 
sons to justify. 

5. Spain obtained, for two branches of her royal family, the 
kingdom of Naples, and the duchies of Parma, Piacentia and Guas- 
talla : the latter to revert to Austria, that is, Parma and Guastalla, 
and Piacentia to Sardinia, should the new duke, don Philip, die 
without issue, or succeed to either of the kingdoms of Spain or 
Naples. But the power of Spain was not much increased, either 
by land or sea. On the latter, indeed, the English had an over- 
whelming superiority ; and, on laud, though her armies were brave, 
they were generally ill conducted, and her government too bad to 
render her respectable in the eyes of Europe. Ferdinand VI, in- 
■deed, the successor of Philip, who came to the throne just before 
the conclusion of the treaty, applied himself, with no small de- 
gree of credit, to retrieve the character of the nation. 

6. Austria, by seeking an alliance with Russia., had introduced 
the latter power into the southern states of Europe, and given her 
considerable weight and consequence, as a counterbalance to her 
gl-eat rival, France. Scarcely known at the commenceme'tat of the 
century, the movenrent impressed upon this mighty empire by the 
extraordinary genius and vigour of Peter the first, had carried her 
forward, with a rapid progression ; so that, by the middle of the 
century, she mii'^ht justly be regarded as amongst the most conside- 
rable powers of Europe. Her armies were, perhaps, more than 
semi-barbarous ; but they were brave, indefatigable, hardy, and 
supported by the religious principle of predestination ; the fouu'- 
dation of a desperate kind of hardihood, seldom to be resisted. Her 
internal resources were not at all considerable, but they were dai- 
ly improving-. When Peter the first came to the crown, her reve- 
nues amounted to six millions of roubles ; in 1748 they were nearly 
quadrupled. Thus rapidly advancing, with one arm reaching to 
the Baltic, and the other to the Black sea, it was very obvious to 
discern that when, by good management, her gigantic body should 
be duly invigorated, she had every chance of becoming a moat for- 
midable power. Already had she >hown herself such, to a great 
degree, in the influence the had -acquired in Sweden, Denraark, 
and Poland ; in her commercial ti^;aties with England, her alliance 
with Austria, and her wars with the Turks. Her resources and 
means of improvement were great ; rivers not only navigable da- 
ring the summer, but during the winter a.lso, affording, by means 
of sledges, every opportunity of a quick and easy transport of all 
sorts of com.mercial goods; the greater bart of her southern pro-- 
vinces fertile, and reqiaring little culture ; mines of gold, iron, and 
copper; great qnantifit,s of timber, pitch, tar, and Lemp. She had 
not yet learned to manufacture her own p)-oduc( ions', or to exTX-rt 
them in her own ships, and .consequently to mjikc the most of 



MODERN HISTORY. 311 

them : liut she. was in the way to learn such arts, and when once 
attained, she had the fairest prospects of acquiring* a decided supe- 
riority, not only in the Baltic, and White sea, but on the Black 
sea and Caspian. 

7. Turkey, at the middle of the eighteenth century, was com- 
paratively a gainer by the wars in which she had been engfaged. 
She had taken the Morea from the Venetians, recovered from Aus- 
tria Belgrade, Servia, and some provinces of Transylvania and 
Wallachia, and had hitherto balHed the attempts of Russia, to 
get absolute possession of the Crimea, and of the mouths of the 
Danube. 

8. France obtained little in point of extent by the treaty of Aix- 
la-Chapelle, but that little was of extreme importance. The pos- 
session of Lorraine, in addition to Alsace, and several strong forts 
on the Rhine, strengthened and completed, in the most perfect 
manner, her eastern frontier, and placed her in a most command- 
ing attitude with regard to the German states. During the ad- 
ministration of cardinal Fleur)", which lasted till the year 1743, her 
marine had been deplorably neglected, while the English had been 
Pvble to enrich themselves at the expense of the French, particu- 
larly by intercepting many valuable convoys, and capturing many 
ships of her reduced navy. 

9. An author of reputation has proposed to throw the different 
European states, at the conclusion of the peace of 1748, into the 
four following classes : — 

1. Those that having armies, fleets, money, and territorial re- 
sources, could make war without foreign alliances. Such were 
England and France. 

2. Those that with considerable and powerful armies, were de- 
pendent on foreign resources. Austria, Prussia, and Russia. 

3. Those that could not engage in war, but in league with other 
states, subsidized by them, and always regarded in the light of 
secondary powers by the large ones. Portugal, Sardinia, Sweden, 
Denmark. 

4. Such as were interested in maintaining themselves in the 
same condition, and free from the encroachment of others. Switzer- 
land, Genoa, V^enice, and the German states. 

Holland, Spain, and Naples, being omitted in the above account, 
might reasonably be thrown into a fifth class, as countries generally 
so connected with England, France, and Austria, as to be constant- 
ly involved in every war affecting either of those countries. 



SECTION VI. 

OF THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR, 1775—1762. 

1. Though for some short time after the conclusion of the peacd 
of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, England and France seemed to enjoy, 
in no common degree, the blessings of peace, and to be upon a 
footing of perfect amity with each other, yet it would appear that 
the seeds of a future war were sown in the very circumstances of 



■312 MODERN HISTORY. 

that convention. Eng^land was left in possessio» of such a prepon- 
derating force at sea, while the French marine, through the parsi- 
mony or inattention of cardinal Fleury, had fallen into so low a 
state of depression, that it is not to be wondered that all v/ho were 
interested about the latter, should have their minds filled with 
jealousy and resentment. This was soon manifested, not only by 
the vigorous attempts made at this time to restore the marine of 
France, but in the projects formed for dispossessing the English 
of their principal settlements in the East Indies and America ; a 
blow which might have been far more fatal to the English nation, 
than any leagues or confederacies in favour of the pretender. To 
secure the co-operation and support of Spain in these designs, 
France had endeavoured, in the year 1753, to draw the latter in- 
to a family coin-pact^ which, though afterwards brought about, was 
at this time successfully frustrated, by the extraordinary care and 
vigilance of the British minister at Madrid, 

2. The peace established in Europe in 1748, can scarcely be 
said to have ever been effectually extended to Asia and America, 
The conquests on each side indeed had been relinquished and 
surrendered by that treaty, but in a most negligent manner with 
respect to limits and boundaries ; and in each of those distant set- 
tlements, France at that time happened to hate able and enterpri- 
sing servants, who thought they saw,'in their respective govern- 
ments, such means of aggrandizing themselves and their country, 
and of thwarting the British interest, as W€re not to be overlooked 
or neglected. In the East Indies very extraordinary attempts were 
made to reduce the whole peninsula of India Proper, in short, the 
"whole Mogul empire, under the dominion of France, by an artful 
interference in the appointment of the governors of Ifingdoms and 
provinces, the Soubahdars^ JV«i(/6.9, and Rajahs. The power of 
the mogul had been irrevocably shaken by Kouli-Khan, in 1730, 
from which time the vice-roys and other svibordinate governors had 
slighted his authority, and, in a greater or less degree, become in- 
dependent. The interference of the French was calculated to 
throw things into confusion, by dispossessing those who were ad- 
verse to them of their governments and territories, and thus com- 
pelling them, as it were, to seek succour from the English; which 
ultimately brought the two rival nations of Europe into a state of 
hostility, not as avowed principals, but as the auxiliaries of tlie dif- 
ferent native princes or nabobs. In no long course of time, things 
took a turn entirely in favour of the English and their allies ; the 
French were baffled in all their projects, every place they possessed 
taken from Ihem, a suspension of arms agreed upon, in 1754, and 
the French governor, Dupleix, the ambitious and enterprising au- 
thor and fomentor of all the troubles, but who had been ill-sup- 
ported by his government at hom«, recalled from India. 

3. It was at this period that the celebrated Mr. Clive, after- 
wards lord Clive, first distinguished himself, who had not only dis- 
cernment enough to see through and detect all the artifices and de- 
aigns of Dupleix, but, though not brought up to the military pro- 
fession, soon displayed such skill and courage in conducting the 



MODEIIN HISTORY. 31 S 

©peratlons of the army, as speedily estaMlshGd his fame, and laid 
the foundation for his future elevation and glory. 

4. In America, the boundaries of the ceded provinces not havinij 
been justly defaied in the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the French 
had formed a design of connecting-, by a chain of fcrts, their two 
distant colonies of Canada and Louisiana, and to confine the Eng- 
lish entirely within that tract of country which lies between the 
Alle2;hany and Apalachian mountains and the sea. No part of thid 
design could be carried on v/itiiout manifest encroachment on ter- 
ritories previously, either by agreement, settlement, or implication, 
appropriated to others 1 Where the boundaries were not precisely 
defined, all that was not English or French, belonged to the native 
tribes, and the only policy that the European colonists had to ob-» 
?erve, was to conciliate the friendship, or resist the attacks of these 
ferocious neighbours. But the scheme the French had in agitation 
threatened to be extremely injurious to the English colonists ; giv- 
ing them, in case of war, a frontier of fifteen hundred miles to de- 
fend, not merely against a race of savages, as heretofore, but 
against savages supported b)^ disciplined troops, and conducted by 
French officers. 

5. It was not possible for England long to contemplate these ag- 
gTessions and projects without interfering ; but her means of re- 
sisting them were not equal to those by which the French were 
enabled to carry them into execution. Tlie English colonies were 
notoriously divided by distinct views and interests ; had many dis- 
agreements and differences among themselves, which seemed, for 
some time at least, totally to prevent their acting in concert, hov\^- 
ever necessary to their best interests. The French depended on no 
such precarious support, but were united both i)i their object and 
operations. Hostilities, however did not actually commence till the 
year 1755, from which period the contest in North America was 
carried on with various success, between the French and English, 
severally assisted by different tribes of Indians ; in the course of 
which, it is more than probable, that sad acts of cruelty may have 
been perpetrated, and both nations have been to blame in some 
particulars ; but it is certainly remarkable, that each party stands 
charged exclusively with such atrocities by the historians of the ad- 
verse side ; and while the English writers attribute the whole war 
to the intrigues and encroachments of the French, the latter as 
confidently ascribe it to the cupidity and aggressions of the Eng- 
lish. It is very certain, how^ever, that, before the war actually 
commenced, the French court made such strong but insincere pro- 
fessions of amity, and a desire of peace, as to deceive its o^Va min- 
ister at the court of St. James's, M. de Mircpoix, who felt himself 
so ill-treated in being made the tool of such duplicity and dissimu- 
lation, as to cause him to repair to Pari?, to i-ernonstrate with the 
administration who liad so cajoled him. It is necessary to men- 
tion these things, where historical truth is the great object m 
view. 

G. At the commencement of this contest betv/een France and 
England, the former seems to have been most successful on land ; 
but the laiter, and to a much greater degree, at sea. Before the 
^7 



314 MODERN HISTORY. 

end of the first year of the war, no less than three hundred French 
merchant vessels, some of them extremely rich, with eight thousand 
sailors, being l:rought into the English ports ; and whiJu the rate of 
insurance in the latter country continued as usual, in I ranee it 
quickly rose to 30 per cent., a pretty strong indication of the 
comparative inferiority of the latter, as far as regarded her marine, 
and the safety of her navigation. 

7. But it v;as soon found expedient by one, if not by both par- 
ties, to divert the attention from colonial to continental objects ; a 
measure which, as in a former instance, the French writers ascribe 
entirely to England, and the English writers as confidently to 
France; but it is sufficiently clear that the latter first entertained 
views upon the electorate of Hanover, which gave that turn to the 
war in general. Considering what had passed in the preceding 
struggle upon the continent, nothing could be more strange than 
the conduct of the diff"erent states of Europe on this particular oc- 
casion. Instead of receiving assistance from the empress queen, 
whose cause England had so long and so magnanimously support- 
ed, and who was bound by treaty to contribute her aid in case of 
attack, Maria Theresa evaded the applications made to her by the 
court of St. Jameses, (perhaps in rather too high and peremptory a 
tone,) on the pretence that the war bet-\veen France and England 
had begun in America ; and she applied herself with peculiar assi- 
duity to recover, through the aid of Russia, the provinces of Sile- 
sia and Glatz, which had been ceded to the Prussian monarch. 

8. It has been conjectured that her imperial majesty had been 
greatly offended at the preliminaries of peace, in 1748, having 
been signed by England without her approbation, and that she was 
capable of carrying her resentment so far as voluntarily to throw 
herself into the arms of France, without further consideration ; 
while the French king, whose strange course of life had been too 
openly ridiculed by the king of Prussia, foolishly suffered himself 
to be cajoled into an alliance with Austria, after three hundred 
years of warfare, ag'ainst his former active and powerful ally; 
thereby breaking through the wise system of Richelieu, and help- 
ing to raise the very power, of whose greatness France had the 
most reason to be jealous ; but Maria I'heresa, and her minister, 
prince Kaunitz, to produce this great change in the policy of 
France, had stooped to flatter and conciliate the king''s mistress, 
the marchioness of Pompadour. 

9. Fortunately for England, however, the conduct of these two 
courts quickly determined the king of Prussia to form an alliance 
with the elector of Hanover ; to stifle and forget all former differ- 
ences and animosities, and peremptorily to resist the entrance of 
foreign troop? into Germany ; a measure which, though first di- 
rected against Russia, subsidized by England, equally applied to 
France. An alliance between the kings of Great Britain and Prus- 
sia had long been contemplated by some of the ablest statesmen of 
the former country, as the most natui'al and wisest connection that 
could be formed to counteract the projects and power of France. 
Hitherto strong personal jealousies and ill-will on the part of the 
two sovereigns had prevented any such union, and now it M-ap 



• MODERN HISTOIIY. 315 

bronght about by accident ; much more, however, to the advan- 
tage of Prussia than of Great Britain. It had been proposed in 
En?;Iand, to subsidize Russia, but the negotiations of the former 
•with the king: of Prussia, whom the czarina personally disliked, 
produced a close but unexpected union of Russia, Austria, and 
France ; not so much a°^ainst England, perhaps, as against Prus- 
sia, nor yet so much against the kingdom of Prussia as against the 
king himself. 

10. Such was the comencement of what has been termed the 
seven years' war. It seemed soon to be forgotten that it was origin- 
ally a maritime or colonial war. The whole vengeance of France 
and Austria, in 1757, was directed against the king of Prussia, and 
electorate of Hanover. The Prussian monarch, relying on his 
well-organized army and abundant treasury, despised the powerful 
combination against him, and commenced the war in a most im- 
posing, though precipitate manner, by dispossessing, at the very 
outset, the king of Poland, elector of Saxony, in alliance with 
Austria, of his capital, of his whole army, and of his electoral do- 
minions, in a way little creditable to his character, notwithstand- 
ing the strong political motives alleged in his subsequent manifes- 
toes. The situation of France, by this sudden manoeuvre, was 
certainly rendered most extraordinary. At the commencement of 
the former war, she had done her utmost to dethrone Augustus, 
king of Poland, in favour of Stanislaus, v/hose daughter had mar- 
ried the French king; and she had now just as strong and urgent 
a reason to assist in restoring Augustus to his hereditary dominions, 
the daughter of the latter being nianied to the dauphin, and the 
life of the dauphiness having been endangered by the intelligence 
recciv'^ed of the rigorous treatment of her royal parents. 

11. it was during the seven years' war, that Frederic of Prussia 
acquired that glory in the field which has rendered his reign so 
conspicuous and remarkable. The intended victim, as he had 
great reason to suppose, of au overwhelming confederacy of crown- 
ed heads, he lost no time in defending himself against their attacks, 
by occupying the territories of those who threatened him, so sud- 
denly and arbitrarily indeed, with regard to Saxony, as to give of- 
fence to the greater part of Europe ; but generally contending with 
surprising success against superior armies, though incessantly sum- 
moned from one field of battle to another, by the numerous and 
divided attacks of his opponents: nor was there one of all the pow- 
ers that menaced hiin, whom he did not find means to humble, and 
in some instance- punish most severely, at first, with an impetuosi- 
ty bordeiing upon rashness ; afterwards, by more wary and circum- 
spect proceedings. In Silesia, Saxony, Brandenbourg, Hanover, 
and V/estphalia, he had to contend with the armies of the empire, 
Austria, Russia, Sweden, France, and Saxony : 200,000 men are 
supposed toha\e fallen annually in these campaigns. Though of- 
ten worsted, (as must be the case, where no consideration of supe- 
rior numbers is allowed to operate as a check,) his great genius 
was never more manifested, than in the quick reparation of such 
reverses. Often did his situation appear perfectly desperate, both 
to friends and enemies, yet as often did he suddenly succeed in 



316 3iODERN HISTORY. * 

ifOrne new effort, and in extricating' himself from disasters KnicQ 
lihrcateued entirely to overwhelm him ; being' all the while under 
•he ban of the empire, in virtue of a decree of the aulic council, 
which bo^und every German circle, in obedience to the impeiial 
ordeis, to assist in depriving him of his possessions^ dignities, and 
prerogatives. The rapidity of his motions vras beyond all exam- 
ple ; neither danger nor misfortune could dishearten him ; and had 
his moderation been but equal to his courage, had he, in all cases, 
been as humane as he was brave, his military character v.-ould 
have stood higher, perhaps, than that of any other commander, an- 
•:ient or modern. 

1^. '1 he army, rt must be acknowledged, for some time afforded 
but little assistance to, if it did not actually embarrass, the opera- 
tions of Frederic. A formidable force of 38,000 Hanoverian, Hes- 
sian, and other troops, under the command of the duke of Cumber- 
land, had, in a most extraordinary manner, been reduced, though 
}ieithej beaten nor actually disarmed, to a state of inactivity, and 
■'he king^s German dominions aba>-doned to the enemy, by a con- 
vention the most singular upon the records of history ; and if actu- 
ally necessary, only rendered so by the impolitic movement? of the 
commander-in-chief, who, instead of endeavouring to join the 
Prussians, after a sharp contest, in v,-hich the French had the ad- 
vantage, retreated in a totally different direction, merely to keep 
up, as it has been supposed, a communication with the place to 
which the archive? and most valuable effects of Hanover had been 
removed. 

13. This convention, indeed, signed at Closter-seven, Septem- 
ber 8, 1757, was sa.id to have been concluded ?gainst the wishes 
of the royal commander himself, and entirely at the instance and 
requisition of the regency of Hanover. Ee this, however, as it 
may, it was undoubtedly almost fatal to the king of Prussia, and 
exceedingly humiliating to England, though ultimately attended 
T.'ith this good effect, that it seems to have roused and stimulated 
both the people and government to greater exertions. Unfortu- 
);ately much of this good spirit and renewed activity was wasted 
in fruitless attempts on the coast of I'rance, which cost the nation 
much money, and, as it turned out contributed little or nothing to 
her glory and advantage ', the demolition of the works at Cher- 
burg, and capture of Belle Isle, 1761, v.hich was of use afterwards, 
as an exchange for Minorca, being all she had to boast of. To her 
great and indefatigable ally, the king of Prussia, these expeditions 
to the French coast could be of no use, except in diverting a part 
at least of the French forces, which might otherwise have been op- 
posed to him ; but they had scarcely this effect, and though that 
g:reat minister, Mr. Pitt, afterwards lord Chatham, appears to have 
been the chief promoter of these measures, in opposition to many 
members of the British cabinet, the policy of them, even had they 
been more successful, has been pretty generally questioned. Her 
soldiers, many thought, were principally wanting in Germany, the 
grand theatre of military operations, to strengthen and give effect 
to the judicious and bold measures of prince Ferdinand, who, be- 
lli^, by the advice, it is said, of the Prussian mDr}ar<;h, on the ve^ 



MODERN HISTORY. 317 

tSrement of the duk? of Cumberland, after the convention spoken 
of, placed at the head of the allied army, hcd succeeded in com- 
pellins: the French to eA-acaate Hanover, Bruns-svick, and F.remen. 
England indeed had been liberal in her subsidies, even to a degree 
that some thought unwise and extravagant, and she had been suc- 
cessful in Araerica, Asia, Africa, and generally on the ocean. The 
French navy indeed, was almost annihilated ; and her colonies, 
both in the eaat and west, had fallen a prey to the English armies ; 
even Canada, the source and focus, as it were, of the transatlantic 
disputes between England and France, was completely subdued 
by the armies under the command of Wolfe, Townshend, Monck- 
ton, Murray, and Amherst, who displayed such zeal, valour, and 
abilities, in the capture of the towns of Quebec and Montreal, as 
have never been exceeded. 

14. Thoug-h prince Ferdinand had driven the French back, it 
*vas doubted whether th*^ forces under his command would be suf- 
ficient to maintain these advantages ; apprehensions, indeed, v/ere 
entertained, that he might be reduced to form another convention 
as humiliating as that of Closter-s£ven. But the genius and valour 
of this great prince surmounted the difficulties in which he seemed 
to be placed, by most judiciously, and with no smalJ art, compel- 
ling the French to come to an engagement, under circumstaHu:es 
peculiarly favourable to the allied army ; and the battle of Min- 
den, which took place August 1, 1759, though the subject after- 
wards of much jealousy amongst the allies, effectually relieved the 
electorate of Hanover, and the greater part of Westphalia, fr4)nx 
the presence of the French. 

15. It v/as at this period, August 10, 1759, that Ferdinand VI, 
of Spain, died, and was succeded by his brother, don Carlos, king 
of the two Sicilies, under tlie title of Charles III, in consequence 
of which succession, and according to the terms of the treaty of 
Aix-la-Chapelle, don Philip should have surrendered the duchies 
of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla to Austria and Sardinia, and 
removed to i\aples, (see Sect. V. ') 5 ;) but as Charles III. had 
never acceded to that treaty, he left the crown of the two Sicilies 
to his third son, Ferdinand, and don Philip agreed, and was allow- 
ed by Austria, to retain the three duchies •, the courts ot France 
and Spain having managed to quiet the alarms of Sardinia, in re- 
gard to the reversion of Placentia. 

16. The removal of don Carlos to Spain, at a time when so 
many advantages had been gained over the French by the Eng- 
lish, at sea and in America, justly alarmed the new monarch for 
his own colonies and settlements in those parts ; and these appre- 
hensions soon became a reason for his entering into a family com- 
pact with France, which had been attempted before, but frustra- 
ted by the care and vigilance of the British minister. It was in 
fact entirely arranged and concluded in the month of August, 
1761, and extended to all the Bourbon princes ; it was a treaty 
of mutual and reciprocal naturalization, and equality of rights, to 
the subjects of all the Bourbon states, France^ Spain, the ttco Sici- 
lies, Parma, and Placentia, with a general guaranty of each oth- 
er's dojuinicn?, uiader all possible circumstances except one, which 

27* 



t^ili MODERN HISTORY. 

v/a?, tliat ^-pain diould be excused from interfering in any quar- 
rels cf France, arising out of the treaty of Westphalia, unless 
some maritime power should take part in such disputes, or France 
be invaded. 

17. The above clause in tjie treaty was judg'ed to be so evident- 
ly aimed at Enc;iand, as to justify an immediate declaration of war 
against Spain on the part of the former, which accordingly took 
place early in the year 1702 ; nor was Spain backward in follow- 
ine: the example against England, in resentment, as it was alleged, 
of the supercilious and arbitrary manner, in which the latter had 
interfered with regard to the familif compact. 

18. The first fniits of this extraordinary confederacy were a 
press attempt u])on the independency of Portugal, as an ally of 
K?)gland, by France and Spain ; an attempt the most appalling to 
Portugal, had not her brave and honourable sovereign resolved 
rather to perish than submit to the terms dictated to him by th<,» 
combined monarchs. England was in every way bound to give 
aid and stipport to her ancient and faithful ally, on so trying an 
occasion ; and, fortunately, her help came so opportunely and so 
]^rom]itly, as to enable the king of Portugal to repel the Spaniards, 
Avho had not only passed the frontiers, but actually taken several 
towiis. Thus was that monarch and his dominions saved from the 
». iffTCts of- as wicked and arbitrary a design as was ever entertain- 
« d againpt an independent or neutral potentate, and that on the 
sole ground of hh connection v/ith England at the moment ; to 
V. hose re&entment he would of course have been exposed, had he 
tamely submitted to the tyrannical demands of France and Spain. 
In cither case, he seemed to be threatened with ruin and destruc- 
tion, had things taken a different turn, from what actually came 
to pass. 

19. The hostilities into which Great Britain was driven by this 
linprovoked attack upon Portugal, as well as by the threatening 
jispect and spirit of the familij compact^ which seemed to undo all 
tuat had been accomplished by the succession war, were in every 
instance crovvned with success ; so that in both hemispheres, her 
nrms may be said to have been victorious, and her triumph coni- 
jilete ; and Spain had great cause to rue her short coHcern in the 
war, into which ebe had been cajoled by France, and which ope- 
rated as fully to the disappointment of the latter power. In the 
mean while,, the king of Prussia, who had been brought to the ve- 
ry verge of ruin, according to his own statement and confession, 
was most unexpectedly relieved by surprising changes in the Plus- 
jian coaneils, through tlie demise of Elizabeth, and accession of 
Peter II!, whose reign indeed was too short to enable him to ren- 
der any real assistance to the king of Prussia, in the field, which 
znight have beeni expected from the enthusiastic admiration with, 
Tvhich his actions were beheld by the Russian monarch. But this 
•weak, though benign prince, in consequence of his too extensive 
plans cf reform, and a difference with his empress, was soon remo- 
ved V and though his successoi- and consort, Catherine the second^ 
did lict by anj msaas pay tke same court to Fiedericj jet hex ©p« 



MODEBN HlSTORV. .310 

position to iiim was very slight, and soon terminated by a treaty 
of peace, in which she was followed by Sweden. 

20. All these thing-s evidently tended towards a (general peace, 
if England, who had certainly been the most successful of all the 
powers concerned, could be brought to consent to be stopped in 
her career of victory and triumph. A change of ministry had, 
however, laid the foundation for such measures. Mr. Pitt, who 
was for the continuance of the war, on some private information, 
as it has been thought, of the progress and terms of the family 
compact, had resigned soon after the demise of the king, Ceorge 
II. ; and lord Bute, who owed his place and power as minister, 
much more to the personal good-will and attachment of the new 
king, than to the voice and favour of the people, foreseeing that 
it might be difficult for him to raise either money or men for the 
prosecution of the war, (bounties for recruits, in particulc*/', having 
risen to an unexampled height,) and having against him many im- 
portant individuals of both parties, entered freely into negotiations 
with France, which were brought to an issue by the peace of Pa- 
ris, (or Fontainebleau,) 1763. 

21. This treaty was not popular in England, though, undoubt- 
edly, she reaped the benefit of many remarkable concessions, par- 
ticularly in America, where she acquired, not only the whole pro* 
vince of Canada, but part of Louisiana; the junction of which 
two distant French settlements, to the embarrassment,"^ and possi- 
bly, total subjection of the English colonies, had been Ihe express 
occasion of the war ; but by many persons it was thought, and 
perhaps with great reason, that England had surrendered too much, 
considering the high situation in which she stood, and the advan- 
tages that might have been reaped by a little longer continuance 
of the war; and in what she both surrendered and retained, an 
ill and impolitic selection, it was alleged, had been made of posts 
and settlements. The treaty of Hubertsburg, by which the war 
was terminated between Austria and Prussia in the same year, 
1763, restored matters, in regard to those two powers, exactly to 
their former state, after skvi:n most destructive and expensive 
campaigns ! Nothing of territory v/as lost ; nothing gained. Eng- 
land, undoul->tedly, was left in the highest state of prosperity at 
the conclusion of these two treaties. Her navy unimpaired, or 
rather augmented at the expense of the navy of France ; her com- 
merce extending from one extremity of the globe to the other, with 
an accession of important settlements ceded to her by" France, ia. 
Asia, Africa, and America, 



SECTION VIL 

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE III. 1760, TO THE 
COMMENCEMEiMT OF THE DISPUTES WITH AMERICA^ 
1764. 

1. Though a hcw enemy, for a very short tirae, was- added to 
*M list of tho5€ who were coatendinj witii Eo^lauU and her allie^j 



320 MODERN HISTORY. 

•when George the second died, by the accession of Spain to the 
family compact^ and continental confederacy, in 1761, yet the 
seven years' war, through the exhaustion of the allies of Austria, 
particularly the Saxons, Poles, and French, may be said to have 
been drawing to a conclusion, when George III. ascended the 
throne of Great Britain, on the demise of his grandfather, Octo- 
ber 25, 1760. For the termination of that war, see Sect. \l. 

2. Much notice was taken of a passage in the king's first speech 
to his parliament, in which he expressed the glory he felt in hav- 
ing been born and educated in Britain ; and though some have pre- 
tended to see in it, a reflection on his royal predecessors, yet it 
was surely wise in the first sovereign of the house of Hanover, 
who stood clear of foreign manners, and foreign partialities, so to 
bespeak the love and attachment of his subjects. It is true, in- 
deed, th^t England had prospered in no common degree from the 
first accession of that illustrious family, but it cannot be denied, 
that a distaste of foreign manners, as well as a jealousy of foreign 
partialities, had occasionally interrupted the proceedings of gov- 
ernment, and were at all events calculated to keep up, in the 
minds of the disaffected, a remembrance of the breach that had 
been made in the succession to the throne. Fourteen years having 
passed since any attempt had been made to restore the Stuart 
family, and the condition of that family having become such, as to 
render any further endeavours to that effect, eJitremely improba- 
ble, nothing more seemed wanting to remove all remaining preju- 
dices against the Brunswick line of princes, than that the sove- 
jeign should be a native of the land he ruled. 

3. In addition to this tie upon liis subjects, every thing seemed 
to conspire, as far Dts regarded the character, manners, and dispo- 
sition of the young king, to secure to him the attachment of his 
people ; and to give hopes of a quiet and tranquil reign. One of 
the very first acts of which was calculated to impress the idea of 
his being a true friend to the liberty of the subject, by rendeiing 
the judges independent of the crown. His majesty was married, 
soon after his accession, to tlie princess Charlotte of Mecklenburgh 
Strelitz, with whom he v/ai; crowned at Westminster, on the 22d 
day of September, 1761. 

4. However promising the appearances both of external and in- 
ternal tranquillity might be, at the commencement of the new- 
reign, it was not long before the nation became agitated by party 
disputes and differences, of no small importance. In 1762, a ques^ 
tion arose, which though it led to very distressing tumults, termi- 
nated in the relief of the subject from an arbitrary process, ex- 
ceedingly repugnant to the spirit of the constitution, and the great 
charter of Briti.-h liberty. General warrants, and the seizure of 
private papers without sufficient necessity, the legality of which 
had been disputed, in the case of Mr. Wilkes, member for Ailes- 
bury, during which that gentleman displayed much personal and 
patriotic fortitude, though certainly with great failure of respect 
towards the crown, were declared to be illegal by a solemn de- 
cree of parliament, 1765, nor has any attempt been since made to 
jfeinvest the government with so danj;erous and formidable a pow 



MODERN HISTORY. 321 

er. The question of general warrants, however, vias not the only 
one in which Mr. ^Mlkes appeared as (lie chair.pion of the peo- 
ple's liberties. Being elected for Middlesex, after having been 
expelled the house, he claimed his seat, in defiance of the resolu- 
tions of parliament, bnt was not allowed to sit. Five years after- 
•wardf , Vie %vas pennitted again to enter the house of commons ; 
but in t!u"s instance tlie parliament maintained its power of declar- 
ing a particular individual dii-qnalified, a2:ainst the decision of a 
majority of electors ; a curious point as affecting the constitution, 
and the eleciive francliise. 

5. Though the court of Vienr.a, France, and Prussia, had 
cause to be tired of the war, in which they had been engaged 
since the year 1755, IL is certain that England vv-as in a state to con- 
tiniie it, especially by sea, when the treaty of Paris, or Fontaine- 
bleau, was concluded, in 1763. As long as Mr. Pitt continued a. 
member of administration, the war had been carried on vigorous- 
ly, and had become exceedingly popular, so that on the reeigna- 
tion of that great minister, in 1761, and the appointment of lord 
Bute, whose distrust of his own abilities to continue it, disposed 
him to listen to the overtures of France, great discontents arose. 
The minister was suspected of harbouring in his breast the moat 
despotic principles, and of having inculcated the same into the 
mind of his sovereign, while yet a youth;, He was supposed to 
possess too exclufive an influence in that quarter ; and though, in 
private life, a most lespectable nobleman, of great worth and pro- 
inty, learning, and talents, his public measures were the continual 
theme of obloquy and abuse. Had ivTr. Pitt continued in office, it 
is more than probable that the allies might have gained greater ad- 
vantages on the couti]ient, and the S]'aniards been more severely 
punished for their interference ; so that the pacific measures of 
the new minister, drew upon him the displeasure, if not the con- 
tempt, as well of his own countrymen, as of the king of Prussia 
also ; who in his writings has inveighed greatly against the pre- 
vailing influence of the noble earl at this period, in the cabinet 
and councils of Great Britain. 

6. The riots and tumults excited by the proceedings against Mr. 
Wilkes, and the extreme unpop'ularity of lord Bute, contributed 
to ren'der the first years of the reign of George III. exceedingly 
unquiet, and to involve his majesty in many unpleasant difficul- 
ties, from the addresses, petitions, and remonstrances, which flow- 
ed in upon him, often couched in such language as it was impossi- 
ble not to resent, and as often insinuating what, perhaps, was not 
founded en truth : for it has never yet been cleaily ascertained 
that the public actually suffered from any improper secret influ- 
ence, or that the measures of lord Bute, with regard to the peace 
of Paris, all things considered, were impolitic or unwise. The 
worst feature in this peace, with regard to England, seems to have 
been, the failure to guard against the effects, in future, of the 
family cnrapact^ "which was left in full force. Mr. Pitt had his eye 
constantly upon this, and, had he continued in power, would, no 
doubt, have continued the war with spirit and perseverance : this- 
great minister had retired undisgraced ; he received a pension m- 



5'i2 MODERN HISTORY. 

deed for himsejf, and a peerage for his lady. His politics, to the 
day of his death, continued widely difi'erent from those of lord 
Bute, and were constantly more popular : but the great fault of 
the latter seems to have been, that he engaged in public business, 
contrary to the bent of his own disposition, and was too sensible 
of his utipopularity, to undertake any measure that required much 
public support. All he did, therefore, seemed to be managed in 
the way of private influence, cabal, and intrigue. 

7. In addition to the addresses and remonstrances alluded to in 
the foregoing section, the popular fervour and agitation received 
considerable encouragement from the letters of an anonymous wri- 
ter, never yet discovered, — a writer who displayed such an extra- 
ordinary knowledge of the proceedings of the court and cabinet, 
and had the power of expressing himself in a style' so vigorous, 
striking, and keenly satirical, as to demand the attention of all 
parties, and confound the majority of those whom he personally 
attacked. But the extreme severity of a concealed and unknown 
accuser, and the gross personalities in which he often indulged, 
not sparing majesty itself, threv/ a cloud over his Avritings, which 
can never be done away, to the satisfaction of any candid or libe- 
ral mind. Though the inention of these celebrated letters is ra- 
ther anticipated in this place, as they did not publicly appear till 
the year 1769, yet, as they particularly relate to the foregoing 
transactions, and state of all'airs in the early years of the reign of 
George III, and long preceded the actual commencement of the 
war with America, the first authors ot which he seemed disposed 
to screen, a better opportunity of introducing the subject might 
scarcely be found. The many fruitless, but very curious attempts 
that have been made, at various times, to discover the real author, 
have contributed, in addition to the extraordinary character of the 
work itself, and the political questions discussed in it, to prevent 
its ever sinking into oblivion. The letters of Junius, with all 
their blemishes, will probably never fail to find a place in the libra- 
ries of the British scholar, and British statesman. 

8. In the prosecution of this work, it should also be noticed, that 
a great constitutional point came under discussion, namely, whe- 
ther, in cases of libel, the jury were judges of the law, as well as 
of the fact. In most other cases, no such difficulty seemed to oc- 
cur. In cases of murder, not only the act of killing, but the mur- 
derous intent, was submitted to the decision of the jury ; and in 
trials for felony of every description, the course was the same. 
Lord Mansfield, in this case, insisted that the jury had only to de- 
cide on the fact of publication, and that the court was to deter- 
mine upon the law of libel. This has generally been disputed by 
juries ; and they have found ways of evading the difficulty, by 
either themselves referring the law to the judge, by a special ver- 
dict, or by pronouncing a general acquittal. Unfortunately, libels 
are of that description as constantly to excite those jealousies and 
suspicions, from Avhich every court of justice should be free. They 
afl'ect, also, two of the highest privileges of Englishmen, — the 
right of private judgment^ and the liberty of the press. In ^e 



MODERN HISTORY. 323 

asc of Junius, the point in dispute was by no means so settled as 
5 obviate future differences. 
9. The year 1764 is memorable for the commencement of the 
ispnte between Great Britain and her American colonies ; but as 
he history of this contest involves many curious questions of poli- 
y ; as its results, in regard not only to England and America, but 
the world in general, were very important ; and its termination 
Bd to a total separation of the colonies from the mother country, 
hereby establishing a distinct state and governn^ient o[ European 
ettlers in the western hemisphere, the details of it will be reserv- 
d for another section. 



SECTION yilL 

DISPUTES BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND HER AME^ 
RICAN COLONIES. 1764—1783. 

1. The seven years' war, terminated by the peace of Paris, cy 
■"ontainbleau, in 1763, had been begun in ^merica^ as has been 
hown, (Sect. VI.) Great Britain, at considerable expence of men 
md money, had resisted the encroachments of France on the Brit- 
sh colonies, and thereby affoided to the latter, protection, beyond 
vhat any commercial benefits, imder the colonial s)'stem, could 
)e said fully to compensate. A question therefore arose, whether 
he colonies might not be called upon to contribute, by direct tax- 
ition, to the relief of the general expences and burthens of the 
nother country, occasioned or augmented by the circumstances 
ibove mentioned. The national debt, it was argued, was truly 
md equitably the debt of every individual in the whole empire, 
;\'^hether in Asia, America, or nearer home. 

2. The question, however, was no sooner started than decided 
3y administration ; chiefly through the influence and on the sug- 
gestion of Mr. George Grenville, then prime-minister, who, in the 
i^ery year succeeding the peace of Paris, procured the stamp-act 
:o be passed, by which the Americans were directly subjected to 
ii tax imposed by the British parliament, without their own con- 
sent, not immediately applicable to their own wants or necessities, 
^nd contrary to every former mode of raising money for such pur- 
poses. This was certainly sufficient to excite alarm, and lead to 
c}uestions of policy and prudence ; of power and right ; of legis- 
lation and representation ; never yet so thoroughly discussed or 
investigated. Hitherto, without questioning the power, govern- 
ment had forborne from taxing them as a matter of policy and pro- 
priety ; and thus, as it was w^ell said at the time, those two very 
difficult points, superiority in the presiding state, and freedom in 
the subordinate, had been practically reconciled. 

3. The situation of America rendered these questions the more 
importaiit and alarming to the mother country, in case of opposi- 
tion, as having been originally peopled from Europe, in a great 
measure, by refugees, exiles, and persons adverse to the govern- 
ment, both in church and state, and well inclined, probably, tf* 



324 MODERN HISTOflV. 

assert a republican independence. Their legislative assemblies 
were already of the popular cast, and their feelings and spirits ac- 
cordant. It must also be admitted, that upon the very ground of 
pecuniary or other aids, they had much to allege in respect of their 
beneficial returns to England, in taking her manufactures, and 
having assisted her in the conquest of Canada. Most unfortunate- 
ly, the very grants which had been made by their assemblies, in 
aid of England, during the last war, were alleged as an argument 
(a most iiritating one, undoubtedly,) of their abilily to pay any 
imposts the parliament might choose to lay upon them. 

4. As the ministry had decided hastily upon the general ques- 
tion, they seem also to have suffered themselves to be precipitated 
into some of the worst measures they could have adopted to ren- 
der their novel demands palatable. Their very first tax, imposed 
by the stamp act of 17G4, though simple in its principle, was ill- 
suited to the state of America. The mere distribution of the 
stamps, through such a variety of different states, involved in it a 
thousand difficulties ; and there were provisions in the act itself, 
which might, if at all abused or neglected, have subjected the 
people to unheardof vexations and oppressions. It is scarcely, 
therefore, to be wondered that, on its first promulgation in Ameri- 
ca, the act should have been received with the greatest indigna- 
tion, and even with defiance. 

5. In the mean time, the cause of the Americans was espoused 
by a strong party at home, a party, so far from being contemptible, 
as to include some of the first persons of the nation, both in rank 
and importance. The debates in both houses were violent, but 
the topics discussed, in every point of view, interesting. The 
friends of the Americans, if it may be proper now to call them so, 
obtained and swayed, for a very short period, the helm of govern- 
ment. In June, 17G5, the Grenville administration was dismissed, 
and a new one, at the head of which was placed the marquis of 
Rockingham, came into power, through the mediation of the duke 
cf Cumberland. They continued in oifice, however, for little more 
than one year ; but in that short space of time, the stamp-act, 
which had been so ill received in America, v/as formally repealed. 

6. But the grand question relating to the right of taxation was 
by no means determined by this measure : a declaratory act was 
particularly passed at the same time, for maintaining the constitu- 
tional authority of Great Britain, in "• all cases whatsoever ;''' and 
though there was certainly no design, in those who promoted the 
repeal, to act upon this authority, by establishing any other tax of 
a similar kind, yet the colonists were prepared, as much as ever, 
to dispute the principle, as far as it regarded taxation ; and their 
courage and confidence at this time stood high, in consequence of 
the importance which bad been given to them in the last war, 
and their emancipation from all dread of the French and Span- 
iards, by the cession of Canada and the Floridas. In the colony 
of Virginia the right of taxation was voted to r-st entirely in the 
king, or his representative, and the general assembly of the colo- 
ny. This was, imdoubtedly, ilie usual course of things ; and in 
this way subsidies to a considerable amount had boon granted to 



MODERN HISTORY. S25 

the crown. This precedent was soon followed by others of the 
legislative bodies, and adopted in the general congress of New 
York, 1765* 

7. It was not pretended that the Americans paid no taxes ; but, 
on the present occasion, a distinction was set up, not thought of, 
or at least not insisted upon before. To exfeimal taxation, through 
the operation of laws ©f trade and navigation, enacted in the mo- 
ther country, they were willing to yield submission ; they had con- 
stantly done so, nor were they now disposed to resist such enact- 
ments ; but all internal duties for raising a revenue, or supporting 
establishments, were held to be very differently circumstanced. 
Taxes of this nature were considered as being, in the very lan- 
guage of parliament itself, g?/^ a-, and grants. None, therefore, it 
was urged, could give the money of America but the people of A- 
merica themselves. If /Ae;?/ chose to make such grants, they might 
receive a legislative sanction, as in England ; but legislation and 
taxation were distinct things. Taxation, according to the spirit 
of the English constitution, implying consent^ direct or by repre- 
sentation, could not otherwise be rendered either legal or just. 
Local circumstances would rendi?r the representation of America, 
in the British parliament, impracticable ; and a supposed virtual 
representation w-as no less than mockery. 7 he representatives of 
England, in taxing others, taxed themselves also ; but this could 
not be the case in regard to American imposts. 

8. Such were some of the strongest reasons urged against the 
measure in general ; but, as the right of taxation had not been 
expressly given up by any party in England, but rather insisted 
upon in the declaratory act, no concessions short of thie seemed 
likely to do good. The stamp-act had caused an irritation, which 
no qualijied repeal could allay : internal taxation v.'as not only re- 
sisted as an encroachment on established rights and usages, but, m 
resentment of such wrongs, attempts were made to hinder the fur- 
ther operation even of external taxation. Non-importation, and 
non-comsumption agreements were soon entered into, and associa^ 
tions formed to methodise and consolidate the opposition to gov- 
ernment. A resolution had been passed when lord North was min- 
ister, promising to desist from all taxation, except commercial im- 
posts, whenever any one of the colonial assemblies should vote a 
reasonable sum, as a revenue, to be appropriated by parliament ; 
but this had no good effect. 

9. In so embarrassed a state of things, it is not very surprising 
that the ministry at home should have entertained wrong measures, 
and miscalculated the effects of the plans they were pursuing. 
1 he truth of history tends to show that, however they might be 
embarrassed by an active opposition in parliament, that opposi- 
tion fairly forewarned them of the consequences of their meditated 
proceedings, which came to pass exactly as they had been fore- 
told. But after this demand had once provoked the question of 
right, and that question had divided the people of both countries 
into two strong parties, things soon fell into that state, in which it 
became impossible to retrieve matters, either by perseverance or 



S26 MODERN HISTORV. 

concession. Every effort of coercion was resented as an illeg-al 
encroachment ; every conciliatory proposition received as a proof 
of alarm and timidity, and as a pledge of victory and success to 
future opposition. 

10. It has been questioned whether independence "was not in 
the view of the Americans from the very first stirring of the ques- 
tion, or even previously; hut had this been the case, tbt-y would 
have been more prepared ; their addresses to the king and porlia- 
inent, on various occasions, after the commencement of the dis- 
pute, must have been fallacious to the highest pitch of dissimula- 
tion, if they had determined against all compromise from the very 
beginning ; but, indeed, the remonstrances and complaints of Gen- 
eral WashirjL'ton, on the ill .state of his army, and total want of 
many essential requisites, on first taking the con^niand, seton clear- 
ly to prove that Ihey were driven to assert their indcpen leuce by 
the course of things ; a large portion of their fellow-subjects and 
countrymen on both sides of the Atlantic, judged them to be op- 
pressed, and thns gave a character to their opposition which could 
not very creditably be forfeited. 

11. Hostilities did not actually commence till the year 1775, 
ten years from the first passing of the stamp act. In a short time 
after the passing of that act, it was repealed, as has been stated ; 
but in 1767 the project of taxing America was revived by Mr. 
Charles Townshend, and from that period to the commencement 
of the war, both countries were in a state of the greatest agita- 
tion. Debates ran high at home, and in America their gravest 
proceedings were accompanied with such rude threats of defiance, 
and such unqualified resentment of all innovations, as almost ne- 
cessarily to bring them under the strong hand of power. But gov- 
ernment underrated their means of resistance ; when brought into 
a state of union, by the congress, their force was no longer to be 
despised ; all temporising expedients were at an end, a circum- 
stance ill understood by the ministry at home, who lost much time 
in endeavouring to retrieve matters, by fruitless attempts, some- 
times in the way of conciliation, and at others, of inefficient resis- 
tance. Thus, when in 1770 many commercial duties were taken 
off, which the mother country had an undoubted right to impose, 
the concession was ill received, in consequence of the single ex- 
ception of /ea, which was certainly continued as much as any 
thing in order to assert the rights and supremacy of Great Britain ; 
but this was done in a manner too imperious, and without suffi- 
cient force to subdue the angry passions it was calculated to ex- 
cite, at such a moment. At the very breaking out of the war, 
ininisters appear to have been by far too confident of speedily sup- 
pressing so formidable an insurrection ; an insurrection which had 
had time allowed it to organise itself, and which had draws upon 
it the attention of the whole civilized world. 

12. The war may be said to have actually commenced only on 
the 14th of April, 1775, though some l.nglish regiments had been 
sent to Boston so early as the year 1768. In an afi'air at Lexing- 
ton, amounting to no more than a skirmish, the English were worst- 
ed, a circumstance calculated to °;ive spirits to the Ajnericans, at 



jrODEilN HISTORW 327 

•a most aivful and momentSus period. General Washington, wha 
liad distinguished himself in the war against the French, and bore 
a most irreproachable character, was appointed to take the com- 
mand of the American army ; a post of the utmost responsibility, 
and requiring talents, temper, and discretion, of no common dc- 
script ion. 

13. The sword being drawn, and no hopes remaining of an ami- 
cable adjustment of differences between the crown and its trans- 
atlantic subjects, now in a state of open revolt ; and the first hos- 
tilities having by no means tended to depress the military ardour 
of the Americans, they proceeded, by a solemn declaration of tlie. 
general congress at Philadelphia, July 4, 1776, to declare the 
thirteen provinces independent; Idj which act America maybe 
said to have been divided from the mother country, 294 5'ears af- 
ter the discovery of that country by Columbus ; 166 from the first 
settlement of Virginia; and 156 from the settlement of Plymouth 
in Massachusetts Bay. From this period the proceedings of con- 
gress became much more dignified, and the campaign of 1776 turn- 
ed out favourably for the Amxcricans, and highly to the credit of 
their very able and brave commander. 

14. Whether it were owing to the low opinion entertained by 
the government at home, of the resistance likely to be offered by 
the Americans, or to a dislike of the cause in which they were 
engaged on the part of the British commanders, it is exceedingly 
certain, that the English army did not obtain the advantages it 
was supposed it might have done, or proceed as if it were able 
speedily to crush the rcl^ellion that had been raised. The Ameri- 
can troops were every day improving, and every day deriving en- 
couragement, either from unexpected successes, or the inactivity 
of the armies opposed to them. On the other hand, the Englisk 
were cither indulging in pleasure, when they should have been in 
action, or disheartened by sudden surprises or repulses, which rC" 
dounded greatly to the credit of their less disciplined, and less or- 
ganized opponents. In a short time, however, the war became 
more complicated, and opened a scene, which not only involved 
the continent of Europe in the conflict of the day, but probably 
led to changes and convulsions, as extraordinary and as extensive 
as ever the v/orld experienced. 

15. In the month of November, 177G, the celebrated Dr. Frank- 
lin and Silas Deane had been dispatched by congress, to solicit, at 
the court of Versailles, the aid and assistance of French troops. 
According to the former course of things, nothing could be more 
strange than such an application, at such a court ; an application 
from rebellious subjects, from the assertors of republican indepen- 
dence, to s, court celebrated for the most refined despotism, and 
ruling a people, heretofore the grossest admirers and fiatterers of 
regal power ; an application from persons of the simplest habits ; 
frugal, temperate, industrious, and little advanced in civilization, 
to a court immersed in pleasure, gay, and dissipated, prolligate and 
corrupt, civilized to the highest pitch of courtly refinement, of pol- 
ished manners, and of splendid luxvu-y : lastly, an application from 
j^ people who had carried their dissent from the church of Rome 



328 MODERN HISTORY. 

farther than any protestants in Europe, to a court still subject tc 
the papal see, a cherished branch of the catholic church. 

16. Extraordinary, however, in all respects, as this American 
■mission seemn to have been, through the infatuation of certain higli 
individuals of and about the French court, it met with a cordial 
and favourable reception. Even the queen of France was found 
to espouse the cause of the revolted subjects of Great Britain, lit- 
tle foreseeing the handle she was s:iving to ma)iy keen observers 
of her own courtly extravagance and thoughtless dissipation. The 
die was soon cast ; a formal treaty was entered into, acknowledg- 
ing the independency of America; succour and support to a large 
extent promised, and olUcers appointed to conduct the French for- 
ces, likely, it would seem, above all others, to imbibe the spirit of 
ireedom, wiiich animated the Americans, and to espouse their cause 
upon principle. They were all noble, indeed; but in America 
they were sure to be taught how vain were such distinctions, if 
not supported by public opinion. 

17. The English government was not formally apprised of this 
unexpected alliance, till the year 1778, when it received a very 
curious and insulting notification ©f it from the French ambassa- 
dor. It does not appear that the aid thus obtained by the Ameri- 
can mission, was altogether grateful to the Americans themselves, 
though it had the full effect of raising up new and powerful ene- 
mies against the mother country, and involving Europe in their 
cause ; for, through the French influence, in the year 1779, Spain 
joined the confederacy against England, and, in 1780, Holland. 
^u the mean while commissioners had been sent from England to 
America, to treat for peace, but the Americans, insisting on the 
previous acknowledgment of their independency, rendered their 
attempts fruitless. 

18. Whatever loss of fame, reputation, and territory Great Brit- 
ain incurred in America, her arms never shone with greater lustre 
than on some occasions in which she was engaged during this war, 
with the confederate powers of Europe ; in Asia particularly, she 
was acquiring an empire ten times greater in wealth and popula- 
tion, than all she had to lose in the west : but of all her achieve- 
Bicnts at this period, none, perhaps, was so conspicuous, none so 
glorious, as the defence of Gibraltar under General Elliot, after- 
wards lord Healhfield, against the oombined forces of Spain and 
France. The preparatiorts made to recover that important for- 
tress for Spain, exceeded every thing before known. The ulti- 
sjate success of the attempt was calculated upon as so certain, 
that some of the French princes of the blood, repaired to the 
Spanish camp merely to witness its surrender. But the heroism of 
the troops in garrison baffled all their designs, and the timely arri- 
Tal of the British fleet completed the triumph, in October, 1782, 
The siege (begun in 1779) was entirely abandoned, with the loss 
«f all the Spanish floating batteries, and the defeat of the com- 
bined fleets of France and'Spain, by Iqrd Howe. This action took 
place on the 20th of October ; in the following month provisional 
articles 0^ peace were signed at Paris, by British and American com- 
missioners, and early ia the ensuing year a U'eai/ cc!a4iu4ed ^ 



MODERN HISTORY* 



32^ 



Versailles, between Great Britain, France, and Spain, to vrhich, in 
February, Holland also acceded. 

19. Towards the close of the war, many important discussions 
in parliament took place on the American affairs, in which it waf? 
found, that those who had most espoused her cause, on the ques- 
tion of internal taxation, and most objected to the measures of ad- 
ministration in the conduct of the war, diiicred, at the last, fron?. 
each other, on the question of American independence ; a diiTei- 
ence rendered peculiarly memorable, as beins^ the subjtct of the 
last speech and appearance in parliament of that illuslriou.s states- 
man, the earl of Chatham. On April 7, 1778, though labourin^^ 
under a severe tit of illness, he appeared in his place, in the hoas-. 
of lords, and delivered a most animated and energ-etic speech, in 
which he strong-ly protested a<;ainst the surrender of the sovereign- 
ty of Great Britain over her colonies ; soon after, rising to reply 
to the duke of llichmond, he fell back on the seat in a faintingfit, 
and in a i'ew days expired, at his seat in Kent. In four years from 
this event, Great Britain was compelled, by the circumstances of. 
the war, to yield upon this g-reat point, and, by the peace of Ver- 
sailles, ratified and concluded September 3, 1783, the ihirteen 
United Colonies of America locre adniiltcd to be '"'' Free^ Sovereign 
and Independent iStmta'.'''' 



SECTION IX. 

FRANCE, FROM THE PEACE OF PARIS, 1763, TO TII7: 
OPENING OF THE ASSEMBLY OF THE STATES GENE- 
RAL, 1789. 

1. For the affairs of France, from the death of Lewis XIV, to 
the peace of Vienna, 1738, (see Sect. I.) In the year of 1740, 
owing to the death of the emperor, Charles VI, Europe was again 
agitated, and France, in espousing the cause of the elector of Ba- 
varia, against the house o^' Austria, became involved in the v/ar. 
which was terminated by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 174C, (see 
^ct. III.) From the conclusion of the abovd" treaty, to the com- 
mencement of the seven years' war, she enjoyed a state of exter-^ 
nal peace and tranquillity. But though this short interval of re- 
pose from war, was applied to the improvement of the kingdom, 
in no common degree, both in the capital and provinces, by the es- 
tablishment of schools and hospitals, the erection of public edifi- 
ces, the building of bridges, digging canals, and repairing roads ; 
in the cultivation and improvemGot of many arts, the extension cf 
commerce, and encouragement of manufactures ; of silk, of por- 
celain, and tapestry, in particular; yet amidst all these iniprove- 
ments she enjoyed little of internal tranquillity. Fvoligious dis-- 
putes greatly occupied the attention of all ranks of persons, and 
involved the clergy, the court, the pai-Laments, and the people, in 
incessant contests, exceedingly disgraceful, and, considering the 
Lemper of the times, the advancement of human knowledge, s^uii 
the progress of ideas, extremely injudicious, 
23* 



S30 MODERN HISTOTIY. 

2. During the reiofn of Lev/is XIV, a fierce contention had arise* 
'betwefii the Jesuit; and Jansenists, on certain obscure points in 
theoloi^y, which, after much fruitless argument, much raillery and 
abuse on both sides, through the influence of the Jesuits with the 
king, were referred to the decision of the Roman pontiff. One hun- 
<b-pa and one proposiiion?, out of one hundred and three, -which 
Vv-erc said to favour the Jansenists, in a book written by the Pere 
Quesnel, were, in the year 1713, declared by the holy office to be 
heretical, and consequently condemned iaform.* The interposi- 
tion of his holiness had little effect, in regard to the restoration of 
peace and tranquillity. The public instrument, by which the sen- 
tence was passed on the Jansenist party, (in the language of Rome 
convnonly called the bull '•' UnigcnUus^'''' from the first word with 
whii h it begins,) became the signal for fresh animosities, murmurs 
■ix\':(\ complaints. The people, the parliament, many prelates, and 
others of the clergy, violently exclaimed against it, as an infringe- 
ment of the rights of the Gallican church^ contrary to the laws, 
and a violation of the freedom of opinion in matters of religion. 
But the king, acting under the same influence as had induced him 
to forward the a])peal, ordered it to be received, and in a short 
tiiji • afterwards died. 1 he regent duke of Orleans found, means 
t.-.> keep thinj:.? tolerably quiet during his administration of atfairs, nor 
<iid the iiam- burst out again till the year 1750, when, through the 
>'igotry of the then archbishop oi Paris, the clergy v/ere encouraged 
to ref(;se eiitreme unction to all v/ho should not produce confes- 
sional notes, signed by persons who adhered to the bull. 

3. it is eksy to guess the confusion and deep distress, indeed, 
which so singular and intolerant a measure was likely to produce. 
'1 he cause of the recusants and people in general, was, upon this 
eccasion, stTongiy supported by the parliament ol Paris, and other 
parliaments ; and as in the preceding strug2,les the Jansenists had 
been thrown into prison, in this the magistrates made no scruple of 
cominitting all who refused to administer the sacrament to persons 
in their last moments. The Jesuits had again recourse to the 
kin°r, 

4. The ccmmon course of proceeding, in all disputes and con- 
tentions between the king and his pasliaments, had hitherto borne 
the stamp of the most perfect de:>potism. However bold, or how- 
ever respectful the remonstrances might be on the part of the lat- 
ter, th.y were not allowed to have the least effect against the de- 
lerminalion of the court. If these judicial bodies becam.e too re- 
fractory, b:isishment endued of course, and not the slightest regard 
was paid to any arguments they might allege, nor any resistance 
they might offer, in support of the liberties of their fellow sub- 
jects. 

5. ^'hingscame to the usual crisis on the present occasion. All 
l.he ckambers of parliament refused to register the letters patent by 

* Ttie king's confessor, *AiQT. le Telsier, hHopened to have told ihe king 
^h:xt thi* book cOfsliuried more than a hbmdred censurable prcposiiions. To 
Aave the credit of tke c en tip a sot-, ttie jinj^e conde.T!.".ed a hundred aitd one. 
Slid stated tbv; abo*e neason for what Le iiad ,di>zi^, iiJ €Sj'f«Si leiiiiSj Lo iibft- 
Fi»a^ £I£U£S&3dc£ fit <Eo£2& 



MODERN HISTORY. 331 

tfhich they were commanded to suspend the prcsecutior;s relative 
to the refusal of the sacraments. In the year 1753, they were 
banished, and much inconvenience arose from the interruption of 
business, and suspension of justice •, while the clergy, attached to 
the bull, made 2:reat boast of the victory they had obtained, and 
endeavoured continually to strengthun themselves more and more 
against their adversaries, 'f'he king often wavered, bat was as 
often brought back by the interposition of the pope and obstinate 
perseverance of the Jesuits; in 1754, however, seizing" the opportu- 
nity of the bii-th of a second son to the dauphin, (the duke of Ker- 
ry, afterwards Ijcwis XV!,) he recalled the parliament, but with- 
out effecting peace. The members had betm received at '^aris 
with loud acclamations, and every demonstration of joy ; their 
conduct had rendered them popular to an extraordinary degree, so 
that when commanded afresh to register the king's edicts, they 
again refused. This bold act of disobedience sub»jected them to 
the last extremity of kingly authority. The sovereigm repaired 
himself to the hall of parliament, November, 175G, and in a bed of 
justice (the term by which such assemblies were peculiarly desig- 
nated ) finally ordered them to register the edicts in his name, 
which they could no longer, as the constitution then stood, rei'usce 
Many, however, resigned their appointments, and much discontent 
prevailed amongst the people. It should be observed, that by this 
time the depositaries of the laws and advocates had begun to de- 
part from their usual routine of technical formalities, and, animated 
by the examples set them, to enter largely into the general ques- 
tions of law and liberty, rights and obligations, duty and privileg-e ; 
they began, in short, systematically to take the part of the op- 
pressed ; they were prepared, not only to remonstrate, but to ar- 
gue, debate, and openly to protest against the violation of the rights 
«>f the people. 

6. The hand of a f?.natic, in the year 1757, appeared to have 
the efl'ect of altering the king's mind once more. As his majesty 
was stepping into his carriage, he was stabbed by an assassin of 
the name of Damiens, his object being, according to his own con- 
fession, not to kill, but to alarm his majesty, with a view of pro- 
ducing some change in the king's sentiments, that might dispose 
him to enjoin the administration of the sacraments to dying persons, 
without the confessional notes insisted upon ; but little reliance is 
to be placed on any declarations of this nature. In this instance 
they seemed not to agree with the conduct of the assassin. 'J hat 
Lewis acted as he did soon afterwards, with regard to the points 
in dispute, inconsequence of this attempt on his life, is by no 
means certain ; but in a short time matters were accommodated 
with the parliament, and the archbishop of Paris, the c'nief fomentor 
of the disturbances on the part of the clergy, banished. 

7. It may not be unreasonable, perhaps, to date the commence- 
ment of the revolution that broke out nearly thirty years after- 
wards, from this period. Scarcely any thing could have contributed 
move to encourage the revolutionary principles already at work, 
than disputes which indicated such inveterate superstition and big^- 
^itry^ such determined oppositioix to ail freedoaa of thought j siich 



S3 2 MODERN HISTORY. 

sophistry and intrl^vie ; snch submission to the court of Rome 
su'jh contempt of the public opinion, as expressed, for want of anj 
better constituted organ, in the remonstrances of the French par- 
liament ; such a disposition on the part of the cowrt and chrgy to 
uphold the arbitrary powers of the sovereign, and this at a moment 
when the private life of the monarch himself was in the hie:hest 
degree profligfate and abandoned, and the whole system of govern- 
fnent a system of venality, favoiaritisra, and public plunder. These 
imprudent and unwise proceedinsfs, at such a time, gave a handle 
to the philosophers, m liltrali^ of the day, to take the reform of 
matters into their own hands, and by supplying them with such 
ample materials for the exercise of their wits, as v.ell as their cou- 
rage, laid the foundation for a revolution which (so extensive were 
the abuses of government) almost necessarily threw every thing 
into confusion, and in the end far outstepped the bounds of all so- 
ber and discreet reform. Bred up by the Jesuits themselves, and 
instructed in all the branches of worldly and polite knowledge, 
they were amply prepared to expose the weakness or wickedness 
of their masters, when once the veil that shrouded their decep- 
tions was by any accident removed. They stood ready to avail 
themselves of any circumstances that miglit tend to render manifest 
the pride and obstinacy, hypocrisy and deceit, of an overbearing 
sect, who by their influence with the king, might at any time tram- 
ple upon the liberties of the people. 

8. I'hese philosophers, (for so they have been with too little dis- 
crimination called,) thus raised in the estimation of an oppressed 
-people into the rank of champions of public freedom, were unfortu- 
nately, but probably through the artful designs of their instructors, 
little acquainted with the true principles of religion, however fa- 
miliar they might be with its abuses. In directing their attacks, 
therefore, against the Jesuits, they were rather anxious that their 
shafts should reach all the regular clergy, or monastic orders in 
general ; uo'r were they at all careful how much religion itself 
might sutTer in the overthrow of its ministers. The enemies of the 
Jesuit's in China, Portugal, Fpain, and America, had been the 
Dominicans and Cordeliers. It was the aim of the philosophers, in 
crushing the Jesuits, to crush their rivals also ; they were there- 
fore as severe against the Dominicans as against the Jesuits: the 
parliament only attacked the latter. However attached Lewis XV. 
might be to the Jesuits, as the defenders of the catholic religion^ 
and kingly authority, he appears to have entertained a jealousy 
of them, as censors of his immoral course of life, and as more at- 
tached to his son the dauphin than to himself. He therefore be- 
came indifferent to the attacks making upon them ; while his mis- 
tress, the marchioness of Pompadour, and his minister, the duke de 
Choiseul, in order to keep the king wholly in their own power, were 
ready to take part against the dauphin, the queen, the royal family, 
and the Jesuits themselves,of whom they were, for the reasons above 
stated, justly suspicious. The duke de Choiseul himself, indeed, 
is said to have given the following account of his enmity to the or- 
der ; that being on an embassy at Rome, the general of the order 
&auki;f told him, that lie kiiew^. before he caice, every thing tiiat 



MODERN HISTORY. 333 

he had said abaut the society at Paris, and so convinced bim that 
what he said was true, that he could not doivht but that, through 
some means or other, they were able to learn all that passed, not 
only in the cabinets of princes, but the interior of private hou- 
ses, and that so dangerous a society ought not to subsist. It is pro- 
per to state this, in order to exonerate the duke from any suspicion 
of having sacrificed them to the philosophers, whose irreligious 
principles he is knov/n latterly not to have approved. 

9. In tile year 1759 the Jesuits had been expelled from Portu- 
gal, on a charge of countenancing an attack on the king's life. Un- 
der these circumstances, it is not surprising that the enemies of the 
order at Paris should attempt to fix on them the charge of the late 
attack on l.ewis XV, and to attribute to thera regicide principles. 
Damiens himself seemed to have taken pains to leave the matter 
in extreme doubt. 1'hey already were sufficiently branded in the 
eyes of the public, as the friends and assertors of arbitrary power, 
and enemies to liberty. To relieve the sovereigns of Europe 
from the thraldom of a sect so powerful, so artful and dangerous, 
became a principle of action, which the public were well enough 
disposed to countenance, and an opportunity only was wanting to 
accomplish their ruin. 

10. This opportunity the Jesuits themselves provided for their 
enemies, iiaving endeavoured to escape from a demand made on 
them in consequence of some mercantile proceedings, in which one 
of their society was deeply involved, the tribunals to which the 
case was referred, having an handle given them by the pleadings 
«f the Jesuits, very properly required to see *the articles of their 
institution, hitherto, that is, for more than two centuries, kept se- 
cret from ail the world. The times v/ere well fitted for such a 
discovery. All men of wit and understanding, however unprinci- 
pled themselves, were well prepared to detect and expose the vul- 
nerable parts of their great charter or iststitote, (for so it was 
called) and to lay open to the world at large the peculiar arts and 
contrivances, by which they were systematically instructed to ac- 
quire an absolute dominion over the minds and consciences of men. 
The mysterious volume was lound to contain sufficient to convict 
them of such bad principles, with regard both to civil government 
and morality, that, though the king hesitated at first to pass sen- 
tence on them, being almost as much afraid of their rivals and op" 
ponents, the Jansenists, the parliament, and the philosophers, as of 
themselves ; yet, at length, August 6, 17G2, he was prevailed up- 
on to issue a decree, by which they v/ere secularized, and their 
possessions ordered to be sold, which was speedily, and with very 
few exceptions, carried-into execution in all parts of the kingdom. 
Efforts indeed were made to save them, as being essentially necessa- 
ry to combat the attacks of the new philosophy, and to check the 
progress of deism ai^id atheism ; as heretofore they had interposed 
to confound schismatics and heretics; both the altar and the 
throne, it was alleged, needed their services now more than ever ; 
but ail these movemfnts in their favour were in vain. The duke 
de Choiseul and the marchioness of Pompadour had the influence 
to procure gai tjdict from the king for the actual abolition of Uj^ 



334 MODERN HiSTORY. 

order in France, ^vhich was issued in November, 1764, and othcrr 
courts of Europe judgfed it wise to take the same steps. Spain and 
Portugal having at this time ministers, whose principles and poli- 
tics much resembled those of the duke de Choiseul ; the count 
d"Aranda, and the marquis de f omhal ; tlie Jesuits were expelled 
froin Spain, Naples, and Sicily, from Mexico, Teru, and Paraguay, 
in the course of one and the same year, 17G7. 

11. The fate of the Jesuits v/as »iO sooner decided, than the par- 
liaments, elated by the downfal of their great opponents, began to 
attack the arbitrary power of the king. I'he profligate life of the 
latter had withdrawn him too much from the cares of government, 
and opened the door to abuses in almost every department of ad- 
ministration ; but while the parliaments were thus engaged, some 
very extraordinary processes at law, particularly the case of the 
Colas family at Thoulouse, of Laharrt at Abbeville, and of the 
celebrated Lally^ commander in India, in which shocking instances 
of fanaticism and o};pre9sion occurred, turned the eyes of the phi- 
losophers, with Voliaire at their head, to the defects of the French 
jurisprudence, and excited a strong feeling against both the laics 
of France, and the administiators of them. 

12. The nation had sustained a considerable loss in the death c^* 
the dauphin, who, though a favomer of iYai Jesuits to a certain ex- 
tent, exhibited a character so dili'crent from that of his father in 
many most essential points, as to render him very justly popular : his 
highnCiS died at the age of 36, in the year 1765; his wife, a prin- 
cess of the house of Saxony, surviving him only fifteen months. In 
1770, through the agency of the duke de Choiseul, a new conneo 
tion took place between the courts of Vienna and Versailles, by the 
marriage of the young dauphin, afterwards Lewis XVI, with the 
daughter of the empress dowager, the archduchess ^Nlarie Antoi- 
nette ; an union attended with such costly and splendid festivities 
at the time, as must excite, in every sensible mind, the most awful 
reilections on the dismal events which are now known to have 
clouded its latter days. 

13. I'he marriage of the dauphin took place at a time when the 
differences between the king and his parliament had arisen to the 
greatest height. In the course of the years 1770 and 1771, the 
king held several beds of justice, but without at all subduing the 
spirit which had been raised against his edicts, and which the min- 
ister, in ©iipoiition to the chancellor, is supposed to have encoura- 
ged ; a new parliament, and six councils, on the suggestion of the 
latter, were proposed to be constituted, to supply the place of the 
refractory members, who were banished; but this measure was 
opposed, not only by the regular parliaments, but by the princes 
of the blood, and several even of the very persons nominated to 
form and preside in the new assemblies. Several provincial parlia- 
ments, as well as that of Paris, were suppressed, and as many as 
seven hundred magistrates exiled or confined. 

14. The year 1774 terminated the life and reign of Lewis XV ; 
he died in the 65tb year of his age, having reigned 50. The latter 
part of his life was liighiy disgraceful in a private point of view, 
and utterly feeble in a public one ; nor wars his death at 9.II Fei> 



MODERN IIKSTOIIY. 335 

gffctted. He "W'as succeeded hy his grandson Lcv/is XVI, who had 
lost an elder brotlier in the year 1761, his father in 17G5, and his 
mother in 17G7 ; stra)igc mortality in one family, and too mnch 
resembling the losses in that of Lewis Xl\\ (sec Sect. I,) then im- 
puted to poison ; a charge re^ ived upon this occasion, but proba- 
bly entirely without foundation. 

15. At the very commencement ^f his reign, but not without 
some sacrifice of his private feelings and opinioiis, I-cvv-is XVL 
complied with the .s-eneral wish of having the old pavliauunls re- 
stored, and the new councils formed by the chancellor Maupeou,dis- 
solvcd ; a measure \/hich seemed to diffuse an almost universal joy 
throughout the capital ai}d provinces. The kinj^ had taken into 
his service two ministers of a disposition favovirable to the wishes 
cf the people ; the venerable count de Maurepas, and M- Turgfot. 
In conjiinctior\ with these ministers, Lewis undoubtedly ajipeared 
disposed to reform abuses, and promote the happiness of his peo- 
ple ; but unfortunately the state of France, if not of the world in 
general, pre^^luded all hope of any gradual and temperate change. 

16. '1 he American contest had commenced ; a declaration of 
rights had appeared there, exceedingly well calculated to open the 
eyes of those who had not yet seen, and to encourage the revolution- 
ary movements of those who hod been able to detect, and were pre- 
pared to expose, the great abuses subsisting in the French govern- 
ment ; already had (he philosophers successfully attacked the Je- 
suits ; aimed some severe blows at the monastic orders in general, 
as well as at the court of Rome, which had supported and abetted 
them in every attempt to uphold the papal and royal authority, 
and to stifle the complaints of the people. The tjTanny thus in- 
veighed against and attacked, had incited a.n opposition, much 
more likely to promote licentiousness than assist the cause of real 
and genuine liberty. The errors of Catholicism, upheld by a bigot- 
ed and infatuated clergy, at variance with the only assemblies in 
the nation capable of any constitutional remonstrance, however in- 
effectual, naturally hurried the wits and freethinkers of that lively 
nation into extremes which every sober minded man could not fail 
to lament ; in a very short course of time, from railing at the regu- 
lar clergy, they proceeded to rail at religion, and even atheism 
was propagated in a way that bespoke a dreadful dis egard of ali 
principles of religion, common honesty, and honour ; in works pur 
porting to have been written by very respectable persons, dtceased,. 
who had holden, when alive, opinions diametrically opposite to 
those that were thus stamped with their names. These were 
among some of the most dreadful forerunners of a revolution, which, 
had it been properly managed, had it fallen into the hands of per- 
sons better preparr^d to act upon the true principles of religion and 
orderly government, considering the progress of ideas, and the 
powerful impulse which the human mind had received, was not 
unseasonable in point of time and circumstances. 

17. It would be absurd, however, to deny the abilities of many 
©f the persons who now stood forward toston the torrent of abuses, 
and vindicate the rights of the people ; several of them had wit, 
»nd learning, and science, at commaud, to the higjiest degree ^ 



23G MODERN HLSTORT. 

some of them had a lively sense of liberty, but they liad been ill- 
taug-ht on the subjects of religion and morality ; they had read 
Locke, without imbibing Locke"*s best principles ; they had con- 
founded the abuses of Christianity with Christianity itself; they 
were witty and ingenious, but not comparable in wisdom and con- 
duct with their contemporaries in Scotland, or in England ; the lat- 
ter were the truest friends to liberty, the best pihilosophers, and the 
best politicians, as their writings show. The celebiated Encyclo- 
paedia, which f;rst appeared in 1751, had supplied an opportunity 
for all the literati of !• ranee to express their most private senti- 
ments on government, political economy, and the management of 
the finances. Amongst these the ecoiiomists bore a conspicuous 
part ; their whole system, when rightly understood, being one of 
liberty, whether it regarded personal rights, the free application of 
industry, or the exportation of corn. "I'he author to the Introduc- 
tion to the Encyclopseriia, M. dWlembf^rt, was a man of considera- 
.blc talents, but a deist in principle; his coadjutor, Diderot, an 
atheist. 

18. The ministry of Turgot, while it lasted, was rather calcu- 
lated to give encouragement to the French reformers ; his own 
riews were undoubtedly liberal and patriotic, and he had a master 
sincerely disposed, in ail likelihood, to further any practicable plan 
of reform, but the course of the niinistcr was too precipitate ; his 
views extended to too many objects, and were such as admitted 
not of any speedy accomplishment ; they were too mighty for the 
grasp of any one man ; they only excited the animosity of the 
privileged orders, and drove them into measures of defence, more 
calculated to work their own overthrov/ than conciliate their ene- 
mies. Ihe advocates of ancient abuses and unreasonable customs, 
they treated their opponents wiih an ill-judged contempt, and by re- 
sisting all amelioration of the present order of things, laid the foun- 
dation for a thousand impracticable systeins and extravagant theo- 
ries, new constitutions and schemes of government, which being 
severally proposed, tried, and rejected, in rapid succession, at last 
involved every thing in confusion, anarchy and ruin. 

19. While the seeds of revolution, if not of republicanisrr, plen- 
tifully sown, were beginning to germinate in i ranee, in America 
the people were already acting ui)on the very principle of resist- 
ance to an alleged tyranny. It required only to bring the two coun- 
tries, by some mean? or other, into contact, to spread the contagion, 
and revolutionize both nations as the difierent circumstances and 
characters of the people should severally determine. At the be- 
ginning of the year n7<J, a formal alliance was negotiated between 
the court of Ver^^aillcs and the revolutionary government of Ameri- 
ca ; bijt long before tliat, in the year 1774, the American declara- 
tion of rights, on. which their opposition to the English government 
resiea, v» as received in France, as a kind of practical application 
of the theoretical schemes of the French philosophers, and might 
reasonably have alaruied all the courts of Europe ; though the con- 
trary was the fact. France and Sjyain sent help, and Prussia ?i'p~ 
proved the American proceedings, not so much out of friendship 
towards the Americans, aa of blind hostility to Great Britain. The 



MODERN IIJSTORi'. 337 

• 
king- of France is said to have foreseen (he ill consequences of such 
a war, but to have weakly ^iven way to contrary advice. 

20. The .speeches of opposition, in the mean time, in the two 
Eno:lish houses of parliament, gitatly interested the people on the 
continent ; the croAvned heads, indeed, took little notice of the 
warning, whilst the subjects -were listening attentively to the les- 
sons of liberty promulgated by Chatham^ Fo.r^ and Burke. Unfoj- 
tunmtely, the court of V^ersailles, at this very time, with the excep- 
tion of the king, who was inclined to economy, fell into the utmost 
extravagancies of luxury, gaiety and dissipation ; drew largely, 
and without any consideration, on the public treasmy, though the 
finances were in a most depressed state ; invented all kinds of nov- 
elties, and seemed bent upon exchanging the forms and etiquette 
of a court for trifling, though expensive amusements, not oiuitting 
such as promoted and encouraged the spirit of gamblhig. ^ 

21. While these things were going on at court, and too much 
^countenanced, it is to be feared, by the queen, she received a visit 
from her eccentric brother, the emperor Joseph the second, which 
had, or appeared to have, an extraordinary effect on the Parisians ; 
being so timed as to fall in with the new notions that had beeii 
adopted, of manly simplicity, and a republican severity of man- 
ners. The incognito he preserved, carried so far as to dismiss, in 
a very striking manner, all tlie glare and^pomp of royalty ; th3 
frankness of his manners, uno:4entatious and frugal mode of life, 
led the French more particularly to notice, and to condemn more 
severely, the thoughtless luxury and dissipation of their own court 
and princes. 

22. The king had a hard and cruel task upon his hands ; he 
found it impossible to check a course of extravagance and levity 
m his own family, which he could not, and, in fact, did not ap- 
prove ; in his choice of ministers, he was sure to offend one party 
or the other ; thus, when in 1776, on the dismission of M. Turgot, 
he fn'st appointed the celebrated M. Necker, of Geneva, to the 
high oiFice of supreme director of the finances, the privileged or- 
ders took the alarm ; they thought they saw in the citizen of a re- 
public, and a protestant, a decided friend to the liberal ideas that 
w-ere afloat to their prejudice, and the enemy and corrector of all 
abuses of power and place. When, on the removal of M. Necker, 
the management of the fmances was delivered into other hands, 
the people complained that their friend and favourite had been 
sacrificed to intrigue and cabal, and that he had been checked 
and supplanted, at a moment when he was chalking out a system 
oi reform, highly beneficial to the state, and favourable to their 
best inteiests. ^ 

23. In 17ii3, M. de Calonne undertook to restore order to the 
finances, and his measures were exactly such as were calculated 
to bring matters to a crisis, and hasten the revolution which had 
for a long titne been impending. Inclined to favour the lixury and 
prodigfili'y cf the court, and at the same time to provide ibr the dc-^ 
ficiencies ui the revenue, he boldly attacked the privileged or- 
ders, by prop' 'si 'g. as the best impost he could devise, a general 
land tax, lairljr adjusted, and from which there should be no cx- 

29 



338 MODERN HlSTORt. 

«' 
anpfion. To carry this great point into execution, being no fa- 
vourite with the parliament, he recommended the convocation of 
the assembly of the kotari.k& ; (a name given to a former meet- 
ing of select and distinguished persons, in the year 1626.) To this 
advice the king assented, doubtless with the best intentions, 
though many about the court pretended, even at that time, 
to foiesee in this measure the downfal of the monarchy, and the 
ruin of the minister who had proposed it. The king gave his 9©n- 
sent, December 1786, and in February 1787 this extraordinary as- 
sembly met. The minister had undoubtedly acted constitutional- 
ly in calling it, however rashly in regard to his own interests, and 
the king has been supposed to have imbibed from his father a 
strong inclination to consult such public and national councils. In 
this instance, however, both the crown and the minister were de- 
ceived ; the latter, who expected to be allowed to lay his plans 
before them in the way of commands to be obeyed, was soon dis- 
placed, on the remonstrances and demand of the very assembly 
he had ventured to call together ; and though it did some good in 
the way of regulation and reform, during the short period of its- 
sitting, which was only till the 25th of May, 1787, it was far from an- 
swering the purposes for which it had been convoked. Ihe mem- 
bers of it, however, had acquired information hitherto withheld 
from the public, and imbibed principles friendly to liberty. 

24. On the dismission of M. de Calonne, his successor, the 
archbishop of Thoulouse, by an arbitrary and inconsiderate be- 
haviour, involved his sovereign in another unpleasant contest with 
the parliament, who, in a moment of irritation, called for a meet^ 
ing of the states-general. The credit and power of the parliaments 
had hitherto been chiefly owing to the disuse of these national 
councils, so that if it had been proposed with any sincere desire of 
redressing grievances, and resisting oppression, the members with 
whom it originated would have deserved the credit of patriotism ;, 
but probably they were swayed by motives less pure. The king, 
however, consented to their convocation in 1792, but in the mean 
time had many unpleasant altercations with the parliament, and 
on one occasion was treated with so little ceremony, or rather such 
indignity, as it was thought, by the due d'Orleans, as to occasion 
his banishment. 

25. The minister, in order to break or reduce the power of par- 
liament, thus openly at variance with him, and to get rid of the 
younger members, whose refractory spirit was but too apparent^ 
jprojected the appointment of a cour pleniere^ consisting of persons 
selected by the king from the principal nobility, professions and 
offices of state. The court was formed, and sat long enough to 
enforce the ministerial decrees, but amidst such murmuring and 
confusion, such violent remonstrances and objections, attended 
with popular commotions in the capital and provinces, that in a 
short time the scheme was abandoned, and the minister announced 
to tlie public the king's inteuLion of convoking the states-general 
in the year ensuing ; he was then dismi-ssed fiom his high office, 
and, to the great joy of the parliament and peopk-, M. Nec.ker was 
recalled. 



, MODERN HISTORY. 339 

26. The royal word had been pledged for the summoning the 
states-general in 1789 ; and it was soon found to be a promise, 
which, though the chief management of the finances had passed 
into other and more popular hands, conld not easily be abandoned. 
They had not been assembled since the year 1G14, and difficulties 
therefore were started as to the best mode of arranging them ; the 
Icing even condescende 1 to refer the matter to the decision of all 
the corporate and learned bodies of the realm ; an extraordinary 
step to take, but favoured by the minister, "'vho had it in view to 
give consequence to the third estate, or commonalty, in order to 
counterbalance the too great influence of the privileged orders. 

27. This popular design of the minister, besides alarming the 
clergy and nobility, did not meet with the ready concurrence of 
the parliament ; and it was even proposed, by M. d'Esprcsmesnil, 
a member who had incurred both banishment and impriscnnent in 
the course of his opposition to the court, to adopt at once the plan of 
1G14 ; a proposal to which the parliament acceded ; but it had the 
eflect of rendering them immediately as unpopular as the privile- 
ged orders. The claims of the third estate met with the support 
of a large majority of the paople, as njight naturally have been 
expected at such a moment ; the commons of 1788 were very dif- 
ferent from those who were first summoned to meet in 1302, upopi 
a plan which had continued to 1614. It was reasonable to adopt 
new forms ; and it was therefore strongly insisted that they should, 
upon this occasion, in order to be upon a par with the other orders, 
have a double representation, and deliberate together. Had the plan 
of the states-general of 1614 been adopted, the parliament would 
have appeared there with much greater eclat than in any new ar- 
rangement ; this may account for the part they took upon this oc- 
casion. They entirely expected, in demanding the convocation of 
the states, that they should have the chief place in that assembly, 
and continue t© enjoy tlie confidence of the people. 

28. Such was the state of things at this memorable period ; an 
infatuation the most surprising seemed to hurry on the privileged 
orders to their ruin and destruction, and with them the monarchy- 
Instead of bending in any manner to the force of popular opinion, 
or acknowledging the justice of the claims made on them, as a fa- 
voured class, they more strongly than ever stood upon their privi- 
leges, and appeared to treat with contempt that povv-erful and now 
enlightened majority that was opposed to them ; th°y insisted more 
than ever upon the'ir feudal rights, after the whole system had been 
virLnally abolished; Conduct of this kind could not fail to stimulate 
the other party to deeds of violence and retaliation, in which the 
authority of the established laws and customs came soon to be to- 
tally disregarded, and every thing seemed to tend to ruin and de- 
vasta.tion ; when the election of the states-general was appointed 
to take place, both sides exerted themselves with the utmost zeal 
and anxiety, but the result was found to be highly favourable to 
.the democratic party. 

39. Great changes had already taken place in the character 
and manners of the Parisians. Since the Ameiican war, a strong 
.disposition hijtd been shown to imitate the English, in dress, mai^- 



340 MODERN HISTORY. 

ners, amusements, and freedom of speech ; the respect ■which had' 
formerly prevailed for high birth s.nd rank was every day diminish- 
ing' ; persons of all classes u'ere h'='ginning to be raised to situations 
of distinction and confidence ; and somo'of the great themselves, 
instead of maintaining the distance preserved by their ancestors, 
made approaches towards the lower ranks, by intermarriages, and 
the open and general encouragement of literature, trade, com- 
merce, and agriculture ; even the females began to discuss ques- 
tions of state, to express a lively and sentimental concern for all 
oppressed persons or nations, and to wish that all the young raen- 
"K'ho could speak eloquently upon these subjects in their private 
assemblies, should have, as in England, a field opened to them for 
the more public display of their talents and abilities. It is not to 
be wondered that, under these circumstances, every eye should be 
fixed on the meeting of that great national council, whose powers 
had not been called into action for the long space of nearly twa 
centuries. 



SECTIOIff X. 

AUSTRIA, FRO:*i THE CONCLUSION OF THE SEVEN 
YEARS' WAR TO THE DEATH OF MARIA THERESA, 
1763—1780. 

1. With regard to Austria, the seven years' war terminated with 
the peace of llubertsburg, which was signed on the 5th of Febru- 
af-y, 1163, (sse Sect. VI.) and on the 27th of May, 1764, as the 
fruits of that peace, the empress w?.s gratified with the election of 
ixer son Joseph to the dignity of king of the Rom?ns ; a point of 
great importance to her, considering the circumstances that had re- 
tarded tlic elevation of her royal consort to the imperial throne. 
The election was most opportune, for the emperor Francis survived 
it but a very short time, being struck with a fit of apoplexy in the 
month of August of the same year^ whi'.e attending the. nuptials of 
his second son at Inspruck, in the Tyrol. Francis had borne his facul- 
ties meekly, resigning to his imperial consort the cares, as well aa 
the state and parade of government, which, indeed, more regularly 
appertained to her than to himself; he obviously withdrew from 
the authority that seemed to have devolved to him ; and if he oc- 
cupied himself at all with the affairs of government, it was rather 
to supply its pecuniary demandsfrom his Tuscan treasury, than for 
any other purposes ; not so much in the way of gain, as of regular 
business and prudential management. Of the high estimation in 
which he was held by the empress there can be little doubt; her_ 
affection for him had a romantic cast, and seemed founded on what 
so seldom occurs, or can be expected to occur in royal marriages, 
an early, fixed, and solid attachment. 

2. Her majesty employed herself, from the conclusion of th§ 
ttrealy of Hubertsburg, in ameliorating in every way possible the 
condition of her country ; in founding philosophical academics, re- 
formings the schools, encouraging by pvemiijwa the i^a^u^a,GtJ^5;e%^ 



T.IOBERN iilKi'OKY. o41 

liiifi in restrainmg sevcjal feudal abuses : she liad the opportunity 
ufToKdecl her of contributing to the introduction of the variolous ino- 
culation into her dominions. She interfered, and in a very judi- 
cious manner, in the regulations regarding monasteries and nun- 
neries, abolished the dangerous privilege. of asylum, the horrible 
excesses of the inquisition, and the inhuman judicial process of 
torture. She also suppressed the society of Jesuits. 

3. Considering the extreme repugnance Maria Theresa had 
shown to the dismemberment of her own domains on the death of 
her father, it must seem greatly to redound to her discredit that 
she could have become a party to the partition of Poland ; but it 
may very fairly be inferred that she was driven into it. Being una- 
ble to serve the cause of Saxony, she had no other aUernative 
against the combination of Russia, Prussia, and the Porte, than to 
claim a part ; though it is almost proved that she was drawn in by 
Prussia to partake of the plunder, that she might also share the . 
odium excited by it. After the partition indeed began to have ef- 
fect, and was sanctioned by the Polish delegates nominated for that 
purpose, fvTaria Theresa appears to have had no scruples in ex- 
tending her encroachments, and supporting: Prussia in the same at- 
lempts, to such a degree even as to provoke the interposition of 
Prussia. It was not till the year 1-777 that all the three parties 
were satisfied, and brought to an agreement in regard to limits ; 
the portion assigned to Austria being decidedly the greatest in ex-, 
tent. In the same year the empress queen, by a convention, signed 
on the 5th day of February, obtained poscssion of the Buccovina, 
ceded to her by the Porte. Her situation was at this peiiod 
particularly flourishing, her army numerous and well disciplined, 
her iinances in good order, and her alliance with France cement- 
-ed by many marriages with the Bonrbon princes ; but after the 
partition of Poland, arid the connectio;! the empress queen seera^ 
ed tlius to have formed with Russia and Prussia, an anti- Austrian 
party sprang up at the co-.nt of Versailles, who persuaded the 
king to renew his connections with Prussia, in order to secure 

-some check' against the augmentation of the power of Austria ; 
this, howev.er, was done without violating subsisting trealie«, or 
breaking friendship with Maria Theresa. .Lewis XVF. was mucU 
more jealous of the son than of the mother, and not without rea- 
son ; the viev/3 of the former heiug evidently ambitious and eri- 
■croaching, and highly anti-galllcan. 

4. In December, 1777, on the death of th^ elector of Bavarigt., 
both the emperor and empress queen laid claim to his dominions 
as fiefs or allodials, properly descending or reve^'ting to one or oth- 
er of them, having previously taken steps to arrange matters with 
their more immediate competitor, the elector Palatine ; and relying 
strongly on the support of F'rance, as well as on the age and mtlr- 
mitics oi the king of Prussia : but the latter found means to inter- 
pose, by stimulating the duke of Deu->c Fonts, presumptive heir to 
the elector Palatme, to a;ipeal to himself and the king of France 
against the dismemberment of the Bavarian tcrrilcries, referring, 
in connrm;.tion of his rigt>/ \ to the tieaty of Pavia, coniirmed by 
-^iie Golden Bull, and th'^'i^eaty of Westphalia ; all these auth.oji> 



342 MODERN HISTORYc' I 

&:s wove disputed on the part of the emperor an(f empT^ss, ^tra- 
iiisisted on the validity and legality of the arrangements made with 
the elector Palatine. The emperor in the mean while offered to 
suhniit his own claims to the judgment of the diet, and to mediate 
between his m.other and the other claimants : preparations, never- 
theless, were made for deciding the matter- by arm.s, and both the 
emperor and king of Prussia took the field at the head of their re- 
spective forces ; but the empress queen, fearing for her son, made 
many overtures of peace, sought the mediation of Russia and 
Frarjce, and, though contirmal'ly thwarted by the emperor, who 
■was inclined to war, and unwilling to submit to the dictates of 
foreign powers, succeeded in restoring tranquillity, by the treaty 
of Teschen, 1779. By this treaty many arrangements were enter- 
ed into tosatlsfy the king of Prussia, the elector Palativie, the duke 
of Deux Fonts, and the elector of Saxony. And Austria acquired 
•territory, though of no great extent, very important in point of 
situation. She obtained from Bavaria t^lie circle of Burghausen- 
which opened a pcfjsage to the Tyrol, and was not compelled ab- 
solutely to renounce any of her claims, though she found means to 
forego v/ith credit the further prosecution of them. 

France had done enough daring these disputes about Bavaria, to 
^ive umbrage to the court of Vienna ; she had secretly opposed 
the dismemberment of the electorate, she had not supplied the 
succours she was required to do according to the treaty of Ver- 
isailles, and she had manifested a distrust of the emperor, bordering* 
>!pon contem.pt. This conduct had .the effect of throwing the lat- 
ter into the arms of England and Russia ; in the contest with 
..\vneTica, Joseph espoused the cause of England, pronounced it to 
be the cause of all soveieigns, and prohibited all intercourse be- 
tween the subjects of the empire and the revolted colonies. With 
regard to Ftussia he took a more active part ; he visited Catherine 
on her celebrated journey to the Crimea, and at Petersburg ingra- 
tiated himself with her to an extraordinary degree, alienated her 
from the old king of Prussia,' and in so doing procured her assist- 
ance in promoting the advancement of his brother the archdtik^ 
Maximilian to the coadjutorship of Cologne and Munst^r, the last 
v/ish of Mavia Theresa, who had thus, in an extraordina.r.y msji- 
Rcr, found the means to provide, before her death, for all her nu- 
merous family. But her end was approaching: in November, 
1780, she Avas seized with an illness, which termiiaated her exist- 
ence ; her last days were pa?t in acts of devotion and attentions to 
hi'T son, the emperor, and others of her family, particularly stri- 
king* and grand. She displayed at this awful moment a powerful 
mind, £1 v^arm heart, and a truly christian fortitude : she died IN'o- 
vember 29, 1780, in the 64th year of her age, and 41st of her, 
leign. She was not exempt from weaknesses, but her virtues, 
both public and private, greatly preponderated ; the former were 
Tif the mor-t splendid cast, the latter altogether as amiable. Nine out 
of sixteen children survived her. 

Joseph, who succecrled her ; Leopold, great duke of Tuscany; 
Ferdinand, goveJ'nor of Austrian Lombaiuiy and duke of Modena 
by rcYer?.ion ; Maxiniilian. coadjutor j4 Cologne and Mimsler f 



MOD£KN HISTORY. o43 

Mary Ann p, abbess of Prag-ue ; Mary ■Christinu, v.lic of Albert, 
duke of Saxony ; Maria Elizabeth, abbess of Inspruck ; Maria 
Amelia, duchess of Parma ; Carolivie, (jueeu of ISapks : Maria 
Antoinetta, queen of France. 



SECTION XL 

REIGNS OF JOSEPH II, LEOPOLD II, fcc, FROM 1765 TO 

1800. 

1. On the demise of his- father, Francis I, Joseph, who had been 
elected king of the Ptumans in 1764, ascended the imperial throne, 
at the aofe of twenty-four, in the year 1705, his motlser being still 
livino;. It was soon apparent that he projected great changes, and 
the reformation of many abuse?, but in puri.uing these purposes he 
was undoubtedly too precipitate a^id too adventurous ; his educa- 
tion had not been such as to fit him for such high attempts. It was 
impossible to unite in the way he proposed such scattered domin- 
ions ; it was impossible to carry into execution all the schemes he 
had iiivented for the consolidation and improvement of the em- 
pire. In the Belgic provinces, in particular, he rendered himself 
extremely unpopular by the violence of his proceedings, but this 
was not till' after his mother's death ; as long as she lirrd she sedu- 
lously endeavoured to restrain the impetuosity sn-i warlike di-sposi- 
tion of her son, ^apprehending that he had many enemies at hand, 
and that notwifhstanding the pretended courtesy of tlie king of 
Prussia, manifested in private interviews as well as public negotia- 
tions, he could not have much chance of success in coping wiili 
so able, powerful, and experienced an opponent ; in this, perhap?^ 
she showed some sense, though it has been doubted whether 
she did not too much control tlic ardent spirit of lier son. ^, The 
empress queen d>ing in the year 17iivi, Joseph was lci\ to the pur- 
suit of his own whims and projects, in many instancf's most extra- 
vagant, in almost all oopre^^sivc. For though there was an appear- 
ance of liberallly, snd mucli sliow of good, he evidently seemed to 
consult nothing but his ov/n arbitrary will. 

2. Had his education been such as to enable him to form a right 
judgment of tilings, had not his genius been cramped, and his rea- 
son perverted, by a choice of tutors and -preceptors peculiarly ill 
qualitied to fit liim for the arduous and conspicuous station to which- 
he had be^n elevated by the circumstances of his birth and con- 
nections, he might certainly have done great good, and actually 
ameliorated the condition of a large and m-ost interesting portion 
pf the human race, for his manners were such as to have led him 
to a just knowledge of their wants, and a proper sense of their 
claims upon society. He travelled througli Europe, as if he were 
bent on seeing the real condition of his iellow-creatures, in all 
ranks and situations of life ; discarding all pomp and parade, he 
sought the society and conversation of persons far below him, and 
encouraged every one to give him information upon subjects most 
nearly touching their ijiterests. Since Peter I. of ilusciaj. nd 



344 . MODERN HISTORY. 

monarch .hftd taken such p'alns to procure information, and survey 
every thing with his own eyes. 

3. The whole extent of his dominions was supposed to contain 
a population of 24,000,000, distinguished however by a great va- 
riety of laws, customs, religious opinions, and language ; the lower 
orders subject to many restrictions, attaching to the state of vas- 
salage in which they were still held by their feudal lords and* su- 
periors. The Roman catht>Iic religion chiefly prevailed ; the cler- 
gy were wealthy, and possessed great influence. Maria Theresa 
had perceived what was wrong, and had shown an excellent dis- 
position to amend matters, but had partly been compelled by cir- 
•cumstances, and swayed by prudence, to proceed moderately and 
gradually. Joseph was more impetuous ; he was so eager to break 
down all distinctions, that, among other regulations, he insisted 
on having but G?ie language for the whole empire, though no less 
than ten principal languages were spoken at that time, and in 
common use. Within the confines of his dominions, all his other 
projects were of the same description, whether good or bad, ex- 
ceedingly too hasty ; he broke up old systems before he was well 
prepared to establish new ones, and in the interval, necessarily 
occasioned such confusion, disgust, and trouble, as to binder every 
good effect, and thwart his own purposes ; in all his regulations he 
seemed bent upon upholding his ovv-n imperial power, not only by 
omitting to introduce any new checks upon it, but even abolishing 
old ones ; he particularly displeased his Hungarian subjects, those 
faithful adherents of his mother, by interfering wdth their lav/sand 
customs, and offending some of their fondest prejudices. 

4. Though attached to the Roman catholic religion, he showed 
great disregard of the papal authority, by subjecting the monaste- 
ries to episcopal jurisdictioii, suppressing many, and reducing the 
numbers, both of monks and nuns, in ail that were permitted to 
continue, with great want of feeling ; he omitted to make any pro- 
vision for those who were discharged ; he broke through many su- 
perstitions, not rightly judging how deeply they Avere interwoven 
with the religious feelings of the people, and how much the latter 
therefore were likely to be affected by such violence and haste ; 
he abolished the privileges of primogeniture-, declared marriage 
(heretofore regarded as a sacrament) to be only a civil contract, 
and rendered bastards capable of inheriting. 1 he wisest and most * 
truly liberal of all his innovations was that which, by a public 
edict, dated October 31, 1781, established a general toleration for 
all the " oQ.catholici^'''' or dissenters from the Romish religion. This 
and other measures of interference with ecclesiastical matters so 
disturbed and alarmed pope Pius VI, as to induce him to take a 
journey to Vienna, personally to remonstrate with the emperor. 
His plan was opposed at Rome, and entirely discouraged by the 
Austian ministry ; but his holiness persisted, and, after a visit of 
much form and ceremony, returned in about a month, without ef- 
fecting any change in the sentiments or proceedings of Joseph. 

5. In the same precipitate manner, as in at.her instances, he sud- 
denly abolished feudal vassalage, without any suitable arrange- 
ments for the jelief of tho^e who must eYidently suffer by sucii aa 



MODERN HSSTORY. 34i) 

jMiportant dianp:e of tenure ; and while he priJed hnvistlf upon 
putting; an end to slavery, he subjected the emancipated to such ar- 
bitrary imposts of hia own invention, as plainly to couvince them 
that they had not in reality recovered their freedom. I'o coun- 
tervail these errors in legislation and government, he certainly 
showed areat merit in the encouragement he gave to arts, letters^ 
trade aiid manufactures ; in founding numeroas schools- jvnd uni- 
versitie.-?, public libraries, laboratories and observatories; iji im- 
proving the public roads, making canals, and estahlisliino,- free 
ports. In 1704, he obtained permission from the Porte to navigate 
the TurAish seas, which seemed to afford excellent means to his 
Hungarian subielts, who were otberwi-io ill situated for <rade, to 
carry on an extensive commerce by vray ct the Danube^ war, 
however, soon interrupted this accomjaodatiou ; in 1787 it came to 
an end. 

6. In 17<il, Joseph, having concerted his plans with Francs, who 
had altered her measures towards him, probably for the very pur- 
pose, determined to breakthrough the barrier treaty* imposed up- 
on Austria when the Netherlands vrere transferred to Charles VI, 
and which, though undoubtedly avoiding security to Austria itself 
against the French, must be allowed to have constantly carried ia 
it something galling to the feelings of the imperial coiu't, as entirely 
dictated by tiis maritime powers. The fortifications of the barrier 
towns had now fallen into decay, and the connection which had 
for some time subsisted between the courts of Versailles and Vien- 
na, seemed to afford the emperor plausible grounds for declining to 
pay for the military protection of a frontier no longer likely to b« 
disturbed. He therefore directed all the fortifications in the Ne- 
therlands to be done away, except tho^e o{ Luxemburp-h^ Ostcnd'^, 
JWniur^ and Antwerp ; while the Dutch, who had been desired to 
withdraw their garrisons, as no longer necessary, or entitled to 
pay, judged it wise to comply,. 

7. This violation of the barrier tr^^afy, complied will) in the last . 
instance so easily by the united proviaces, v>-as quick];/, followed 
by fresh demands on the latter power, under pretence oi more ac- 
curately adjusting the boundaries of the Dutch and Austrian Ne- 
therlands. The cession of the city of Maestricht and the contigu- 
ous district of Outsr Mouse being among other things insisted up- 
on. At length, however, and about the year 1784, these claims all 
seemed to merge in one sweeping demand, to have the full and free 
navigation of the river Scheld, for tbe purposes of establisliing, 
in favour of his Flemish subjects, a di;\-?L lrri.r?e with the East In- 
dies, and of restoring the cily of Antv.' :in, c. re the emporium of 
Europe, to its proper degree of splendour and importance ; a pro- 
ject, which, if it could have been acccmplished without interfering 
with so many foreign interests, and the manifest violation of sub- 
sisting treaties, may be said to have reflected no disgrace on the 
policy, wisdom, or paternal care of the emperor ; but it was impos- 
sible to expect that such changes should be iillowed to proceed 
without great opposition. It was/soon discovered that both France 

f S^eCoxe j--, V-l, 153, &c. 



346 MODERN HISTORY. 

?ind Prussia were prepared to support the Dutch against him, and 
though the empress of Rassia had endeavoured to deter the latter 
from aiding the Hollanders, the project was laid aside, and Joseph, 
instead of his views on the Scheld, resumed some of his former de- 
mands. In the end, however, every thing was compromised by 
money, through the mediation of the French king, or rather in con- 
formity to the dictates of the French minister. 

8. Another object which the emperer attempted almost at the 
same time, but equally v/ithout effect, was the exchange of the 
Netherlands for Bavaria. He had taught his mother to covet the 
latter country, and its acquisition would undoubtedly have render- 
ed his dominions more compact, and given him a continued line of 
territory, from the frontier of Turkey to the Mediterranean sea, 
while it might have relieved him from the charge of a more distant 
portion of his dominions, held by a very uncertain and troublesome 
tenure. Joseph had calculated upon overcoming allkthe difficul- 
ties that might arise from foreign powers ; had secured the consent 
of Russia, and even negotiated the proposed exchange with the 
elector of Bavaria, (v,-h0, if it took place, was to be made king ©f 
Austrasia or Burgundy.) But Frederic II, at the age of seventy- four, 
again interposed : and,by forming witii the several princes and states 
of the empire what was called the Germanic union, for maintaining 
the integrity and indivisibility of the Germanic body in general, 
effectually prevented the exchange so much desired. The princi- 
pal parties to the union, which was settled and confirmed, July 
1785, were, besides the king oi Prussia, the electors of Hanover, 
Saxony and Mentz, the margrave of Anspach, and the duke of 
Deux Fonts. The whole scheme, indeed, was found to be so im- 
practicable, that the emperor and elector judged it prudent to de- 
ny that any convention to that effect had taken place between 
them. 

9. In 1708, Joseph incurred considerable disgrace, by his attacks 
upon Turkey. He ha.d projected, in conjunction with the em- 
press of Russia, whom he had flattered by a visit to the Crimea, the 
total dismemberment of that empire; but blunder upon, blunder 
defeated his purposes, and he retired from the contest blamed by 
all parties. In 1789, however, hostilities M^ere renewed, and iu 
the battle of Rimnik, which took place in th€ month of Septem- 
ber, the combined forces of Russia and Austria gained an impor- 
tant victory over the Turks, under the command of the grand vizir. 
The capture of Belgrade soon^fter, by the army of Loudon, com- 
pleted their triumphs ; but their success occasioned jealousies, which 
eifectually interrupted the career of victory. England, Holland, 
and Prussia, began to be alarmed at the increasing power of Fvus- 
sia and Austria ; and, by fomenting the troubles in the Nether- 
lands, drew the attention of Joseph from his intended encroa<j:h- 
ments on Turkey. 

10. In no part of his dominions were his attempts at reformation 
woxse received, or worse managed, than in the Netherlands. Di- 
vided into many provinces, and each province governed by distinct 
laws, cu?;toms, and regulations ; some secured by charter, in the 
enjoynieut of important privileges and inimunilies 



I 



MODERN History. 347 

possibly have been thought of more vexations tlian that of redu- 
cing them all under one system of administration, commencing- with 
the sudden and violent abolition of many convents, and the sup- 
pression of many institutions, forms, and ceremonies, by lon^" usage 
become^little less than sacred in the eyes of the people. The 
courts of law, the universities and schools, were subjected to sim- 
ilar changes, nor did the imperial decrees spare any order of men^ 
or any public establishment, however respectable in other respects, 
from undergoing this severe ordeal, and revolutionary process. No- 
thing could exceed the consternation and disgust with wliich these 
new regulations were received by all ranks of persons, from the 
lowest to the highest ; for even the governors -general sided Avith 
the refractory party, a*nd were averse from carrying into execution 
a system so exceedingly repugnant to the feelings of the peo|,ile in 
general, but especially of the principal persons amongst the cler- 
gy, laity, and magistrates. Riots and disturbances took place, as 
might have been expected, in many parts, and France was applied 
to for assistance, as guarantee of their liberties. The whole au- 
thority of government seemed to he vested in the mhiister plenipo- 
tentiary of the emperor, count Belgioso, v/ho bad to contend alone 
against the formidable opposition that had sprung up ; for not only 
the governors-general, as has been before intimated, were on the 
side of the people, but even the imperial minister, prince Kau- 
nitz, who greatly disapproved the violent proceedings of his 
master. 

11. Joseph at first assumed an appearance of rigour and inflex- 
ibility, in the pursuit of his new measures, little suitable to the 
actual situation of affairs. He had not foreseen so formidable a 
resistance, and when it occurred, he depended too much on his 
means for suppressing it ; embarrassed as he was at the time by 
the war with Turkey. After much threatening, therefore, and 
btrong marks of displeasure against the Belgic states, he found it 
advisable to compromise matters, for a time at least : or rather to 
offer to relinquish all the objectionable parts of his new system ; 
to re-establish the ancient constitution, confirm the celebrated 
charter, called La joycuse Enfrec^ and submit to have the case 
referred to delegates on both sides. In this, however, he was not 
f-incere, and his duplicity and arbitrary disposition becoming eve- 
ry day more manifest, it was impossible to pre\-ent things coming 
to extremity. The example of Prance was contagious ; the whole 
])opulation became divided into two parties of patriot? and royal- 
ists, and the former were soon found to be the strongest. In No- 
vember, 1789, the states declared their independence, in conse- 
ouence of a mecti)ig held at Ghent ; the soldiery began to take 
part with the people. On the 26th of December, the states of Bra- 
bant assumed the sovereign power, in which they were soon fol- 
lowed by the states of the other provinces ; a federal union was 
formed, under the title of the United Eelgic States, and a congress 
of deputies to administer the new goveinnif nt, appointed to asceni-. 
ble on the llth of Januarj^, 1790. 

1.2.. Thus were the low countries sacrificed to the iiijudicious 
a;:d ha'rtr measures of the emperor, who was too late rendered sen- 



343 MODERIT HISTORY. 

sible of Kis errors, wlien he found them perfectly irreparable, either 
in the way of conciliation or force. He lived to see his offers of 
pcaceajid reconciliation rejected with scorn and contempt, while 
he tota^y failed in his endeavoitrs to procure the aid of foreig-n 
states to reduce his revoltecsl subjects to obedience. In othtr parts 
of his dominions, particularly in Hungary, the saine spirit of oppo- 
sition to his plans had been excited, a)id kept up by similar mea- 
sures of irritation and defiance, till the time of his decease dre\}r 
near. He would then willingly have retraced his steps, and" did, 
indeed, taice some measures to conciliate the olTended Hungari- 
ans ; but the termination of his life was fast approaching-, hasten- 
ed no doubt by the opposition and ill fortune wdiich had attended 
^almost the whole of his political career. He had weakened his 
constitution in all probability by the restless life he had led, and 
the hards^hips and fatigues to which he had exposed himself in the 
field ; but he suffered severely in his mind from the course things 
had taken in the Netherlands, and though he exhibited in his last 
moments the fortitude, resignation, and composure of a true chris- 
tian, yet it is truly melancholy to think that his wdiole reign was 
passed in rendering himself and others wretched. He expired oa 
the 20th of February.) 1790, in the forty-ninth year of his age ; 
and lea\'ing no issue, was succeeded in -his hereditary dominions 
by his brother Leopold, w ho was also chosen emperor before the 
end of the year in which his brother died. 

13. The reign of the. emperor Leopold IT. was very short, and 
far from a happy one. His brother had left his dominions in a 
wretched state of discontent and confusion ; diminished, in some 
most important instances, and pretty generally exposed to the at- 
tacks of formidable and designing enemies. Leopold had been 
able to do some good amongst his Tuscan subjects before he ascend- 
ed the royal and imperial thrones, but his genius and talents were 
judged to be unequal to the government of a mighty empire. He 
soon gave satisfaction however, to the aching minds of his new 
subjects, by restoring to many their ancient privileges, and revoking 
the injudicious and irritating innovations of his deceased brother. 
Nor did he manage his foreign negotiations ill, which, had they 
failed, might have involved him in inextricable difficulties. By 
flattering the English, and appearing to enter into their views in 
regard to Turkey and the Netherlands, he deterred the king of 
Prussia from prosecuting his designs upon Gallicia, which he wish- 
ed to procure for Poland, in excha)ige for Dantzic and Thorn. Af- 
terwards, by fcNffienting that monarch's resentment against England, 
who appear«jd to have^abandoned him, he managed to form a union 
with the very court which at the com:n;)ncemcnt of his reign had 
manifested the greatest symptoms of rivalry and opposition. This 
accommodation with the king of Prussia greatly 'acilitated his ac- 
cession to ihe imperial crown, which was conferred upon him, Oc- 
tober 9, 1780. 

14. By very firm, but conciliatory behaviour towards the Plun- 
garians, who seem to have imbibed at this time many of the demo- 
cratic principles of the l>ench, he not only effectually ingratiated 
himself with the leading persons of the kingdom, but regal::ed iha 



MODERN HISTORY* 349 

affections of the people at large, which had been sadly alienated 
through his brother's unwise interference with their most favourite 
customs and established vig^hts. 

15. Leopold did not so easily settle his disputes with the Neth- 
erlands. The mediation of England, Holland, and Prussia, had 
been offered, but Jie rather inclined to rely on his own strength, 
and his connexions with France, which were every hour becoming; 
more uncertain and precarious. He had recourse therefore to 
force, and succeeded indeed in re-establishing the imperial author- 
ity, but totally detached from any cordial returns of loyalty on the 
part of the Belgians, which became but too apparent, when his 
subsequent disputes with the revolutionary g-overnment of France 
exposed those parts. of the Austrian dominions to fresh troubles 
and disturbances. 

16. The situation of the emperor Leopold, it must be grranted, 
was very embarrassing in the first years of the Trench revolution. 
The constraint put upon the royal family of France, to which he 
stood so nearly allied, and the threats denounced so openly against 
the queen his sister, in particular, must have grea-tly affected his 
private feelings, while many of the German states, whose rights, 
ecclesiastical and territorial, guarantied by the peace of W est- 
phalia, had been invaded in Alsace, Franche Compte, and Lor- 
raine, by the decree of the national assembly, for abolishing the 
feudal privileges, publicly called upon him to interpose in their 
behalf, as head of the empire ; as he stood bound to do indeed by 
his capitulation with the diet, on receiving the imperial crown. 
In regard to the royal family of France, his first plans, in conjunc- 
tion with the king of Prussia, were clearly injudicious, and injuri- 
ous to the cause he took in hand. The French revolutionists were 
not in a state to be intimidated by angry manifestoes or threats of 
foreign interference. The emperor himself, indeed, did often ap- 
pear cautious of embroiling his country in a war with France, but 
was at length probably provoked into it, by the violence of the 
Jacobinical faction at Paris, rather than persuaded by the repre- 
sentations of the emigrant princes, or royal family at Paris, as was 
so strongly alleged. Beyond the alliance with Prussia, however, 
concluded on the 19th of February, 179.2, the emperor Leopold 
can scarcely be said to have had any share in the war with France ; 
for, on the 27th of that very month, he was seized with an illness, 
which in three days terminated his life, at the early age of forty- 
four, leaving his dominions in a state of more serious danger thaa 
when he began his reign. 

17. The emperor Leopold was succeeded in his hereditary states 
by his eldest son Francis, born in 1768, who became emperor in 
the July following his father's death, and still reigns. This mo- 
narch had to begin those hostilities with France which his prede- 
cessoi- seems to have contemplated with considerable distrust, and 
he became a party to the too hasty proceedings of his Prussian ally 
and the duke of Brunswick, who increased the irritatioi\ and pro- 
voked the resistant* of the French, by menaces extremely impoli- 
tic, coa'idering the ftctual state, of thing?. They endeavoured, in- 
30 



350 MODERN HISTORY. 

deed, to throw the blame on the emigrant princes, who, it was af- 
leg-ed, had misled them by false representations of the ^ood dispo- 
sition of the people in the interior of Frauce. They expected ta 
find a large majority ready to co-operate with them in the over- 
throw of the ruling faction. 

18. The emperor soon found himself in a very awkward situa- 
tion. Instead of invading France with any effect, he had the mor- 
tification to see his own dominions invaded by the French, under 
a general (Dumourier), who had boasted that he would subdue 
the Austrian Netherlands before the eud of the year ; an engage- 
ment which he in a great measure fulfilled, through the disaffec- 
tion of the Belgians, who were ready enough to throw off the Aus- 
trian yoke, heedless tliat they were in the way of having another 
immediately imposed upon them still more galling and vexatious^ 
Tn the month of November, 17r?2, all subjection to the imperial 
authority Vvas openly renounced in the very capital of the Nether- 
lands, and the French allowed to enter the city in triumph. 
While these things were going on in Flanders, Germany itself was 
invaded b]/ the French general, Custine, Mentz taken, and heavy 
contributions levied in the towns of Worms and Frankfort. 

19. Eaily in the year 1793, the Austiians imder general Clair- 
fait and the prince of Saxe Coburg, obtained advantages over the 
French, at Aix-la-Chapelle, which were follov/ed by the capture 
of the towns of Valenciennes and Conde, in conjunction with the 
British array vmder the command of the duke of York. A sepa- 
ration of the two armies afterwards took place, which was attend- 
ed with unpleasant circumstances, and seems to have happened 
very contrary to the desire and wishes of the Austrian command- 
ers. The troops under the duke laid siege to Dunkirk, but were 
\nisuccessful in their attempts against the place, being obliged to 
abandon the undertaking with the loss of the greatest part of their 
artillery and stores. 

- 20. In the year 1794, the allied armies again acted in conjunc- 
tion against the French under general Pichegru, the emperor him- 
i-elf having joined the camp, but the overwhelming power of the 
French baffled all their attempts to defend the Netherlands, which 
fell entirely into the hands of the enemy. 

21. The share which the emperor Francis II. had in the final 
dismemberment of Poland, 1795, will be shewn in the history of 
that unhappy country. The king of Prussia having gained great 
advantages by this transaction, declined any longer assisting the 
allies against Frauce, and in open violation of his engagements 
"with Fngland, made a peace with the French government, April 
5, 1795, to the great disgust of the confederates. 

22. The contests between the armies of Germany and France, 
in the years 1796, 1797, were carried on with the greatest vigour, 
i*kill, and bravery, on the Rhine, in Suabia, in the Tyrol, and in 
Italy. In 1796, the archduke Charles, brother of the emperor, 
acquired great glory by checking the progress of the two celebra- 
ted 1 rench generals, Jourdan andMoreau : ard, though compelled 
to letiie before Buonaparte, in 1797, and to subscribe to the peace 
of Caii'po-iormio, as will be related elsewhere, his credit with the 



MODERN HISTORY. 351 

■Hrniy remained undiminished, and his reputation as a general un- 
impaired. On the renewal of the war in 1799, at the insligalioa 
oC the Neapolitan court, the Anstrians were assisted by the Rus- 
sians, and at the close of the eighteenth century, the tide of af- 
fairs seemed to be turning greatly against the French, when a new 
revolution in the fluctuating government of that disturbed people, 
suddenly changed the face of thiug^s, as will be shewn ia our coa- 
tiuuation of the history of France. 



SECTION XII. 

FRANCE, FROM THE OPENING OF THE ASSEMBLY OF 
" THE STATES-GENERAL, 1780, TO THE DEATHS OF 
THE KING AND QUEEN, 1793. 

1. The states-general met, May 5, 173.9. The king's speech 
has been much admired, as the address of an upright, humane, 
and patriotic prince, to a respectable assemblage of his subjects, 
by whose politcal and legislative exertions he hoped to improve 
the state of the nation. The nobles and clergy had expressed a 
ivillingness to forego their pecuniary privileges, but there were 
other grounds upon which they seemed li]^ely to be at variance 
with the third estate. The latter were for obliterating ail traces 
of di:^tinction in their legislative capacity ; while the former werc 
go imprudent as to talce some steps, not only^ indicative of an in- 
vincible attachment to such distinctions, but bearing an air of ar- 
rogance and defiance in them, ill suited to the times. The very 
costume ?,dopted on the occasion Vv^iis calculated to render the re- 
presentatives of the commonalty almost ridiculous in the eyes of 
their countrymen. The nobles and clergy were distinguished by 
robes peculiarly rich and brilliant; but the whole of the third fes- 
taie were directed to appear in the common and antiquated black 
dre^ of JLhe members of the law, though of various callings and 
professions. As soon, however, as the commons had verified their 
•powers and were prepared to act, v/ithout waiting for the concur- 
:!;ence of the other two orders, it was proposed by a M. Le Grand, 
and seconded by the Abbe Sieyes, to call their meeting the '' J^q^ 
tioTiftl xdssp.inhlij^'''' as forming a national representation one and in- 
divisihle. This was eagerly adopted by a majority of the mem- 
bers, but objected to by the 'king ; at length, hCMVcrei', sorfic of the 
clergy and nobles having joinecf the ihiid estate^ the king himself 
condescended to approve and sanction the union, a matter of great 
triumph to the popular party, and which, in fact, made them the 
arbiters of the destiny of France. 

2. On the llth of July, 1789, the king thought it necessary to 
■dismiss M. Necker ; many tumults and insurre«ction3 Avere the con- 
sequence of this unpopular proceeding ; the Bastille state prison, 
once crowded with the victims of arbitrary pov/er, but at tb.is mo- 
ment, and under the mild reign of Lewis X\'I, almost empty, was 
besieged by the mob, taken, and razed to the ground. After ma- 
/ijt.uspults of this i^ind, the king judged it expedient to comply 



ob'2 MODERN HISTORY. 

■vvith the "wishes of his people,, and to recall the discarded niinis-- 
ter ; he was also induced by ciicumstances, to yield to another 
demand of more i!T5])ortance, namely, the dismissal of all his troops 
from the environs of Paris and \ ersailles. In the meanwhile, the 
liiarquis de la Fayette, who had been engag-ed in America, and 
there imbibed a spirit of liberty, was fixed upon to take the com- 
mand cf the new militia or city guard. Alarmed at the appear- 
ance of thing's at this period, many nobles, and even one of the 
king's brothers, \eft the kingdom. - This had undoubtedly a bad 
effect ; it not only left the king: more exposed to the violence of 
faction, but seemed to betoken a disregard of the liberties of their 
country, and a settltd purpose of invoking foreign aid. 

3. 'Jhe national assembly soon divided itself into two parties ; 
Ihe aridociais^ or such as not only favoured royalty, but to a cei«- 
tain exti-nt, the privileg-ed orders, nobles, and clergy ; and the 
democrat::^ ov advocates of freedom ; the sworn enemies of all op- 
pressive and distinct privileges ; they were also distingfuished into 
royaiiste and pcinois. Among the former we may reckon the mod- 
CTcJcs^ whose speecljts in the assembly are justly to be admired, 
lor iheir extreme good sense and rational politics. Of the nobles, 
it should be observ^ed, that the most obnoxious were those who 
had purchased their nobility, araounling; to many thousands. Of 
true, ancient, and hereditary nobility tliere w^ere. it was compu- 
ted, not ntore tlian two hundred families in the whole kingdom 
when the revolution began, nor were their privileges and exemp- 
tions by any means so great as was pre'tended. It was soon seen 
which party war- the most pov/erful ; on the 4th of August, 1789, 
decrees were passed, as if with t?ie full consent of the v»?hole as- 
sembly, for the abolition of the privileges of the nobles and clerg-)', 
provinces and towns ; while persons of every rank and description 
were pronounced to be eligible to all civil, military, and ecclesi- 
astical app')intments. The roval family were exposed to horrible 
insults an(^ indignities at Versailles, and at length almost forcibly 
conveyed to Paris ; in consequence of which removal, tj;ie assem- 
bly also adjourned its sittings to the capital, a fatal step to take, 
as it could not but expose them to the tyranny of a faction, and 
the fury of the Parisian mob. Among the measures adopted at 
this period, the most important were those which placed all 
church property at the disposal of the nation, dissolved all monas- 
tic establithraents, feudal privileges and rights, and suppressed the 
provincial pavliaMents ar.d assemblies, by artfully dividing the 
kingdom into 83 departments, the work of the Abbe Sieyes ; by 
this act the very name of province was obliterated from the French 
vocabulary, and with it all peculiar lights, laws, and jurisdictions ; 
all provincial governors, commandants, sub-delegates, presidents, 
and tribunals of election; mayors, echevins, jurats, courts of aid, 
chambers of accounts, fee. Every thing was at this time trans- 
acted in the way of violehce and destruction ; every law voted 
by acclamation, with little patience and less judgment ; thus, 
wdien it was proposed to abolish all titles and hereditary distinc- 
tion?, armorial bearings, liveries, &c. the democrats -^vould scarce- 
ly suffer the question to be debated, and it was carried by a lar°;e 



?fIODERN HISTORY. 35B 

majortty., (.hon°:h so many members of the assembly must ha^'e 
been deeply affected by iL 

4". The national assembly was slow in preparing a constitution- 
al code, particularly in deciding npou the three following ques- 
tions. Whether such assemblies should be permanent or periodi- 
cal ? composed of one or two chambers ? and whether the kin^^a 
xtto should be absolute or suspensive? While these things were in 
agitation, the king had attempted to rescue kimselffrom the tram- 
-mels imposed upon him, by a timely escape from Paris ; but he 
was stopped on his journey, and compelled to return. At length 
the assembly terminated its labours ; a constitutional act was pre- 
pared and presented to the king, of which, after an interval often 
days, he declared his acceptance. Had he been free, it is impos- 
sible that he could have given his sanction to a measure which 
subjected tlie monarch to Jhe will of a domineering assembly, and 
was ill-caleulated to repress the efforts and designs of a licentious 
.and restless faction. The asscuibly, hov/ever, having thus comple- 
ted its task, was dissolved by the king on the 30th day of Septem- 
ber, 179]^ being succeeded by auother convention, denominated 
'' the legislative assembly,*'' whose deliberations Vvcrc confined. to 
the space only of one year ; none of the members of the former 
assembly being eligible to tlie latter. 

5. In the year 1792, Austria and Prussia, in coasequenco of a 
declaration and agreement (according to all accounts imprudent) 
determined upon at Pilnitz, in the preceding year, began to inter- 
fere in behalf ot' the king and royal family, but so far from alarm- 
ing the revolutionary party In Fi;ance., their interposition seemed 
only to have ti:ie effect of instigating it to acts of greater violence 
and more determiiied courage. '^'S'ar was without scruple declarecl 
against the king of Hungary and Bohemia, in the month of April, 
and every preparation made to resist all counter revolutionary pro- 
jects. Svv'eden and Russia bad shewn a strong disposition also to 
interfere ; but the assassination of the Sw-cdiib monarch, Gusta- 
vus III. in .1792, and the distance of Russia from France, prevent- 
.ed both those countries engaging in actual bostiiitics. In the 
mean time, Paris became a scene of lireadful confusion ; every 
day some new faction seemed to arise to battle the attempts of 
those v/hohad yet wisdom or temperance enough to prevent things 
coming to an extremity. The legislature v. as at the mercy of the 
Parisian clubs, and of the mobs, too freely a^jmittedinto the galle- 
.lies of the assembly. 'Jl;o king was insi ited in the grossest mau- 
.jjcr for having ventured to iiiterpose his suspentirc negatire to the 
passing of two severe decrees ; one against those who had emi- 
■g-rated, and tlie oth.r against iiie clergy who declined taking ttift 
civic oath. SI. la Fayette, who had bee)i appointed to take the 
command of the army, wrote from his camp to admonish the na- 
tional representatives to rescue the country and the king from the 
factiou.s designs of the em aged jacobins,; but in vain, it served 
.only to exasperate still more the anti- royalists, and to bring fresh 
troubles on the royal family. The design of tJie i'actious seems to' 
■|i5ive,b.ecB3 either to iiitimidate the king to a degree of XibjcctjiL-L- 
30* - 



S54 MODfeRN HISTORY^ 

mission, or to provolre him to act against the constitution m a man' 
ner that mig:ht render him liable to the vengeance of the people. 
The march of the Prussian army, anda threatening manifesto issued' 
hy its commander, the duke of Brunswick, irritated the violent 
party into a frantic determination to abolish royalty. The king 
•vvap supposed, or represented, to be confederate with the enemy, 
and deeply engaged in a plot yith his emi°;rant brothers aiad rela- 
tives-^ to counteract the reYolution. 

G. iV dreadful attack was made on the palace in the month of 
August, the particulars of which are too disgusting to dwell upon ; 
l;nt it completed the triumph of the demagogues ; for in compelling 
the king''s guards to act on their defence, they had it in their pow- 
er to cliarge the king him.self with having made war upon his peo- 
ple. Nothing v/as now heard but the cry of " liberty and equali- 
ty. '' The *■' chief of the executive power," as they chose to de- 
nominate his majesty, was formally suspended from his functions, 
and, under the pretence oi guardianship^ committed with his queen 
and family to the temple. 

7. The assembly appeared from this moment to be as much in 
the power of the faction as the king. The period has been too justly 
distinguished by the appropriate title of " the reign of terror." The 
execrable P».ol)espierrc was in reality at the head of affairs, and it 
v,oukl be impossible adequately to "describe the atrocities of his 
merciless career. It wodld exceed the limits of this work to enter 
far ii;to particular detail?. La Fayette abandoned the aimy, as 
uinvillinu' to s(;rve under such masters ; his conduct has been ar- 
raigned, as reflecting at once upon his loyalty, his patriotism, and 
his courage ; it was thought that with the army so much at his 
disposal as it seemed to be, had his prin(;:iples been such as he pre- 
tended, he would have marched ba«k to Paris, and saved his coun- 
try and his king from the ruin with which they were threatened. 
In the meanwhile the combined troops of Austria and Prussia were 
a}^proaching the frontiers; differences subsisted in the army ; nor 
was general Dumouriez, who had succeeded to the command on 
th'.j retirement of La Fayette, generally confided in, either by the 
army or the faction. To lessen the number of aristocrats, many 
suspected of belonging to that party were hurried to prison, v/here, 
Avithout scruple, and with such barbarity as is not to be paralleled' 
in the records of history, they were almost all assassinated, to the 
amount, as it has been estimated, of nut less than five thousand. 
This happening on the second of September, all who were con- 
cerned in it, as principals or abettors, were denominated Sepitni' 
brizeis. 

8. Thetse were but prelwdes to a catastrophe, if possible, still 
aiore shocking ; a murder perpetrated with a studied deliberation^ 
and with all tlje mocker^/ of legal forms and ceremonies. However 
hastened by the hostile approach of the confederate powers, and 
the injudicious threats they threw out in case an;/ violence should 
be offered to the king''s person, nothing could possibly excuse the 
perversion of justice, and gross inhumanity which marked the triy 
als of the king and queen ; nothing exceed the melancholy cic- 
cumsUnccs of thtir imprisoaraeat aud esecutioa.,' Oa the 11th of 



MODERN HISTORY* 355 

December, 1792, the king; appeared before the convention, to hear 
the char^r>s preferred agamsthim. "• You are accused," said the 
president, " by the French nation, of having committed a multitude 
of crimes, for the purpose of re-establishing- your tyranny by the 
destruction of liberty." He then entered into a few particulars. 
The kin J, with great dig^nity, replied, *' No existing laws prohibit- 
ed me fronv doin^ as I did ; I had no wish to injure my subjects, no 
intention of shedding their blood." Further accusations were 
pressed upon him, from which he defended himself with the same 
firmness and simplicity of lang-ua^e, the same coolness and intre- 
pidity of mind. He declared boldly, that his conscience fully ac- 
quitted him of the things laid to his charg-e, and appealed to the 
Tvhole course of his behaviour and carriage towards them as king, 
to exonerate himself from the horrid imputation of having been 
eager and ready to shed the blood of his people. This charge, in- 
deed, rested solely on the events of the 10th of August, when the 
rabble broke into the palace of the Tuilleries, and not only mena- 
ced the lives of the king and his family, but are allowed to have 
begun the sanguinary part of the conflict, by the murder of five of 
his Swiss guards. It was not till after this event that the rest of 
these faithful adherents fired upon the aggressors, and drew upon 
themselves the vengeance that terminated so fatally, for they were 
all destroyed. 

9. It having been resolved that the judgment and decision of the 
case should rest with the national representatives, the convention 
m«t on the 15ih of Januaiy, 1793, to discuss the question of the 
king''s guilt, upon the charges so loosely and so maliciously brought 
against him, when it appeared that only thirty-seven were dis- 
posed to think favourably of his conduct. Six hundred and eighty- 
three members, v/ith little or no hesitation, some, incieed, with the 
most cruel eagerness and exultation, pronounced him guilty. An 
attempt was made to procure a reference of this matter to the peo- 
ple ; iDut it was over-ruled by a majorit>' of one hundred and thir- 
ty-nine. 

10. Having determined the question of. his guilt, that of his pun- 
ishment became the next subject of discussion. It was proposed 
to decide between detention, banishment, and death. After a de- 
bate, in which the amiable monarch seemed to be regarded by ma- 
ny as despotism personified, no less than three hundred and sixty- 
one, or, according to some accounts, three hundred and sixty-six 
members, voted peremplorily for death ; and on a further question, 
"whether the execution of the sentence should be suspended or take 
place immediately, the votes for the latter amounted to three hun- 
dred and eighty against three hundred and ten. The king was to 
be informed of the result of their proceedings, and to sutler death 
in twenty-four hours afterwards. The advocates (or the king were 
allowed to address the assembly, and to move an appeal to the 
people, but without effect. On the motion of Robespierre, the de- 
cree was pronounced irrevocable, and the king's defenders debar- 
red from any furtlier hearing. 

11. On the Slst of January his majesty, having previously takeit 
leave of his family, and peribrmed the services of devotion, was 



95^ MODERN HISTORY. 

<:onYeyed to the place of execution ; nothing could excceil the pil- 
ous resignation with which he submitted to the cruel and unjust 
sentence which doomed him to death, and during his passage to 
the square of the revolution, where the guillotine was erected, he 
betrayed no symptoms of fear or anger. On the scaffold, he mani- 
fested a strong desire to addrf;ss the crowd ; but tlie drums were 
made to sound louder, and he was rudely bidden. to be siient ; in a 
jnoment after, his head was severed from his body, sMd shewn to 
the people as the htad of a tyrant and a traitor I 

12. History, both public and private, has borne ample testimony 
-to the falsehood of the charges brought against him; every nation 
in Europe concurred in condemning the conduct of the French regi- 
.cides ; and though, in exciting the resentment of fresh enemies, 
England and Spain particularly, it threatened the ruin of th-e 
new republic ; it appeared by no means to have satisfied the 
blood-thirsty vengeance of the ruling faction. The democratic, or 
republican party^ had long been split into two divisions, and their 
opposition to each other seemed at this time to be at the height. 
Brissot, who headed the Girondists^ (so called from the department 
of Girondc^ which some of that side represented,) was still alive ; 
Robespierre, Danton, and Marat, directed the movements of the 
opposite faction ; for some time previously called the Mountain^ 
from the tltvaled seats they occupied hi the hall of the couvea- 
tion. 

13. It seemed now to be a question which of these turbulent 
parties should obtain the ascendancy ; and a contest of this na- 
ture was not likely to be decided without a much larger efl'usiou. 
of blood. " The reign of terror" still continued, and many more 
victims were preparing for the stroke of that fatal instrument, 
which seemed to have been timely invented for the quick and in- 
cessant course of decapitation and destruction now adopted. Had 
any thing been capable of producing domestic union, it might have 
been expecteL-, from the formidable confederacy of foreign powers, 
armed against the nation ; for, in addition to Austria and Prussia, 
England, Spain, and Portugal, were at open war vvilh France ; 
while a royalist party had arisen within its own confines, of rather 
a fojmidable description, considering the strength of the enemies 
without, and the distracted state of the government. 

14. Though Eivch was the situation of tlie country, with regard 
to foreign powers, and royalists at home, the struggle between the 
Girondists and llobespierrean faction was carried on at Paris with 
the utmost violence and precipitation ; but the Mountain prevailed. 
The leaders of the Brissotines were arrested and confned in the 
month of May, and oii the 31st of October following, all executed. 
Brissot himself saw sixteen of his party guillotined before it.cameto 
his turn, and four were beheaded afterwards. Many of them were 
persons of considerable talents, and not destitute of private virtues, 
had they lived in less turbulent and trying times. 

15. Horrible as this execution must have been, one still more 
appalling had engaged the attention of the people^ on the same 
spot, only fifteen days before. Loaded with insults, and deprived 

*f eyeiy j)cssible coirifort or consolation, " the wido>v o.f Lewis 



MODERN mSTOP.Y. 35T 

Capet,"" as they chose to call their- queen, (a princess of Austria, 
and daughter of the high-minded Maria Theresa,) had not been 
suflered to enjoy one tnotiient of repose from the day of the kind's 
execution; preparations were soon after made for her own trial, 
which, if possible, was conducted in a manner still more revolting 
to every feeling: mind, than that which had been adopted in the 
ease of her unhappy consort. Her guilt and her punishment were 
as soon decided upon ; but even after this sad act of vengeance 
and injustice, shocking circumstances of ignoaiiny, degradation, 
and persecution took place, scarcely to be credited as tiie acts o( 
any portion c*' a people at all advanced in civilization ; she was 
cast into a dungeon, and delivered into the custody of a gaoler 
seemingly selected on purpose to insult over her misfortunes, and 
aggravate her sufferings. On the dreadful »day of her execution, 
she was conveyed to the scaffold in a common cart, with her hands 
tied behind her, amid the brutal shouts of an infuriated populace. 
Thus died, in the 38th year of her age, the queen of one of the 
g"reatest kingdoms of the earth ; a princess, who, though not entirely 
free from faults, bad, till this fatal revolution, lived in all the splen- 
dour and luxury of a court, the marked object, not only of adniira- 
Hon and adulcawn^ but of homage so profound, and, in some in-* 
stances so .servile and ensnaring, as to palliate and account for all 
Ihe errors of her short, but eventful life. 



r 



SECTION XIIL 



GREAT BRITAIN, FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE 
AMERICAN WAR, 1783, TO THE PEACE OF AMIENS, 
1002. 

1. From the peace of Versailles, in 17c?3, to the commencement 
of the year 1793, Great Brimin kept free from war, though not 
without some disputes wilh foreign powers, and occasional calls 
upon her to interpose, as an ally or mediatrix, in the afiairs of other 
states, Holland particularly. Soon after the termination of the 
Americari war, extraordinary changes in the administration took 
place. The ministry that negotiated the peace, at the head of 
which was the earl of Shclburne, was displaced, and succeeded 
by "what was called the coalition ministry, from the extraordinary 
circumstance of Mr. Fox and lord North becoming joint secretaries 
of state, after an opposition peculiarly animated, and a positive 
declaration on the part of the former, that they diU'ered so in prin- 
ciple as to render such an union forever impracticable. 

1. The unpopularity of such an apparent dereliction of princi- 
ple, as might reasonably be expected, rendered their continuance 
in power extremely precarious, and it was not long before their re» 
moval was effected, in consequence of a bill brought into parlia- 
ment by Mr. Fox, to regulate the affairs of India. The measure- 
was judged to be iraufi,ht with danger to the constitution, by th^ow-' 
ing too much power into the hands of a board of commissioners^ t<5 



3513 ► MODERN HISTORY. 

be chosen by parlian-ient, and though it passed the commons, it 
was thrown out by the lords, and the ministry dismissed. 

3. Mr. Pitt, a younger son of the great lord Chatham, now came 
into power, not in any subordinate situation, but as premier, though 
at the early age of twenty-four, and under circumstances. peculiaily 
embarrassing, for he had long to contend against a majority of the 
house of commons, who threatened to stop the supplies, and eflect 
his removal, as not enjoying the confidence of the people. This 
being judged too great an interference with the prerogative, and 
many addresses being presented to the king to retain him in his 
service, the parliament was at length dissolved, and the issue 
turned out to be extremely favourable to the choice of his ma- 
jesty. 

4. The affairs of India manifestly requiring the interposition 
of government, Mr. Pitt, as soon as possible, procured a bill 
to that effect to be passed, according to which a board of control 
was to be appointed, not by parliament, but by the crown. Though 
this increased in some degree the infiuence of the latter, it was 
judged to be far less hazardous than the proposal of Mr. Fox, . 
which threatened to throw such a power into the hands of the minis- 
ter and his friends, as might enable theai to overawe the sovereign, 
and render tlieir removal almost impracticable. Mr. Pitt's bill, 
also, was found to interfere far less wiih the chartered rights oi the 
company. It passed the lords, August 9, 1734. 

6. Another measrire of considerable i;npnrtance occupied the at- 
tention of the minister, during the year 17oG, which was expected to 
contribute greatly to the support of public credit. This was the 
•est-ablishmcntof a new sinking fund, by approprialino; the annual 
sum of one million, to be invariably applied to the liquidation of the 
public debt. At a subsequent period, a sinking fund of still greater 
importance was established, by which every future loan was to 
carry with it its own sinking fund. 1'his was proposed to the 
house in 179*2, and readily adopted ',#1 consisted in raising one per 
cent., besides the dividends upon every new stock created, to be 
applied by the commissioners for the reduction of the national 
debt, in the same manner, and under the same regulations as the 
original million.* 

0. From the commencement of the year 1786, to the year 1705, 
the attention of the British parliament was in a very extraordinary 
ananner occupied with the charges brought again?t Mr. Hastingg, 
governor-general of Bengal, in February, 1786. Mr. Burke, whose 
mind had been long affected by the abuses practised in Lidia, by 
■the servants of the company, had appeared lor some time to have 
fixed his eye upon Mr. Hastings, as a fit object of prosecution ; and 
he now moved for papers to substantiate the charges upon which 
•he meant to impeach him. These charges being discussed in par- 
liament, during the session of 1787, and referred to a committee, 
were confirmed by the house of commons, on the 9th of May, and 

* By Ou"? provision every loan would have its own fund, which would 
operate at compound idtcrest, and dischfir/^e the dcbl in forty-seven yeti^s 
at tUe longest, from tlie time it was first iocurrsd. 



MODERN HISTORY. 359 

the articles of impeachment exhibited to the house of lords, on the 
14th ; in consequeiice of which Mr. Hastings was taken into cus- 
tody, but, on the motion of the lord chancellor, admitted to bail. 
The trial did not commence till February 15, 1788, was continued 
not only through the whole of that parliament, though very slow- 
ly, but after- much debate, determined to be pending on the com- 
xnencement of the new parliament, 17&0, and not brought to a 
conclusion till the mouth of April, 17&5. 

7. The question whether the impeachment abated on the dis' 
solution ot parliament, appearing to involve a constitutional point 
of the highest importance, was discussed with singular attention, 
and a large display of le2;al and parliamentar]^ knowledge. The 
law members of both houses were never perhaps so divided in their 
opinions ; but the numerous precedents cited by Mr. Pitt seemed 
clearly to decide the question as follows : that though legislative 
processes are abated by prorogation or dissolution, it is not so with 
regard to judicial proceedings. It appeared to be a nice and curi- 
ous question, and, as aflecting the responsibility of ministers, its 
decision may be regarded as sin a;ularly important. 

8. Though in the cour=e of the proceedings and prosecution of 
tlie various charges against Mr. Hastings, the eloquence of the 
ina)iagers exceeded all that could have been expected, yet never 
perhaps were so great talents employed with less success ; atrial of 
such seeming importance, so strangely protracted \ or a case of 
impeachment brought to an issue so little answerable to the ex- 
pectations that had been excited. It would be impossible to deny 
that flagrant and enormous abuses had been committed in India 
during the period in question, yet, the very length of the trial made 
it appear to most persons in the light of a persecution^ and that of 
an individual to whom the company and the nation stood highly 
indebted for many eminent services. As it ended in the acquittal 
of Mr. Hastings, that gentleman is to "be presumed innocent. One 
good, however, seems to have arisen from the investigation ; all 
succeeding governors-general have certainly been more circum- 
spect and correct in their proceedings. 

9. In the course of the year 1787, great disturbances having 
taken place in the united provinces, fomented by the French, and 
threatening the dissolution of the stadtholderate, an alliance was 
formed between the courts of St. James's and Berlin, to protect the 
rights of the prince of Orange, and resist the interference of the 
French. Preparations for Avar took place, but the Prussian army 
decided matters vvithorit any active co-operation on the part of 
Great Britain. The alarming state of things in France, appeared 
to deter the court of Versailles from rendering that assistance to 
the malcontents of Iloliand, which the latter had been taught to 
expect. 

10. Inuring the session of 1788, the attention of the house o( 
commons v/as first called to the horrible circumstances attending 
the African slave-trade. It is quite snr))riying that such a tratiic 
should have beoi so long carried on, without exciting the resent- 
ment of every sensible muul, and disgusting the; feelings of a civil- 
ized people ; unfortunately, when first noticed; it was found tooe 



360 MODERN HISTORY. 

so deeply Interv-'oven with the interests of our settlements in the 
West Indies, and to depend so much on foreign states, as well as 
cur own, as to render it almost necessary to proceed slowly and 
(.autiously, thougrh it was impossible not to be horror-struck with 
the information laid before the house, particularly in regard to 
what was called the middle-passage, or transportation of the un- 
happy Africans, from their native shores to the several islands. As 
it would be inconsistent with the nature of such a work as the 
present, to enter into the detail of the proceedings upon this very 
interesting sul ject, Vv'hich took up a long time, and can scarcely 
now be said to be terminated, it may be sufficient to note, that, 
after cojitinual renewals of the subject in the two houses of parlia- 
ment, yet, owing to many untoward circumstances, it was not finally 
abolished till the year 1806, nor has it even yet been in the power 
of any ministry, or any of oar diplomatists, effectually to prohibit 
the trade, as carried on by foreign states, thaugh every person of 
humane feelings must devoutly wisK and desire that it Should be 
so. It must, however, always redound to the credit of our own 
country, that the voice pi compassion and mercy was first heard 
amongst us, any that the first arm stretched out to save and to 
rescue a large proportion of our fellow-creatures from the most 
abject slavi-ry and cruel tortures that ever were inflicted, was the 
arm of a fJriton. ' 

11. The parliament being prorogued on the lith of July, 1788, 
to the SOth of i^N'ovember, was compelled to meet on the day ap- 
pointed, by circumstances of a most distressing kind. His majesty, 
probably through excess of business, to which he was known to 
devote more time and labour than could well be consistent with 
his health, was seized with an illness which totally incapacitated 
'him from discharging the fwnctions of his high and exalted station. 
It must appear strange, that by the laws and constitution of the 
realm, so little provision had been made for a catastrophe by no 
means out of the line of probability, that it became a question in- 
to what hands the suspended executive had devolved, and this 
led, as might be expected, to very warm and hnportant debates in 
parliament. I'hough the prince of Wales, being of full age, did 
4iot personally claim the regency as matter of right, his party did. 
The minister, Mr. Pitt, contended that it belonged to parliament 
to supply the deficiency, ; and this question being staled, it was 
judged expedient to debate it, and settle it by vote. The decision 
upon this occasion v. as entirely in iavour of the power of parlia- 
ment to appoint the regent, none doubting, however, that the heir 
apparent was the fit object of such appcintaient. Other ques-- 
tions were agitated at the same time, of equal importance ; par- 
ticularly how far restrictions could be imposed by par]ian\ent, ^rx 
regard to the ejiercise of prerogatives, the n-hch of y.'hich were. 
reasonably enough supposed to be essential to the government of 
the country, 'ihis question also was decided in favour of the minis- 
ter, who had proposed restrictions, v»'ilh an understanding, how- 
ever, that they could only apply to a temporary suspension of the 
kingly power. In this case .also, the care of the king's person was 
ansigned not to the regr>i?,t, but to the queen. One great difficuity 



I 

MODERN HISTORY. 361 

renifiined after all the discussions upon the regency. It was doubt* 
ed how the lord chancellor could be empowered to put the great 
seal to a commission for opening the sessions of parliament, so as to 
restore " the efficacy of legislation ;"' it was decided that he 
might be directed to do it in the name of the king, by authority of 
the two houses. 

1*2. Fortunately for the public, this first illness of his majesty 
was of so short dura.tion, as to render unnecessary all the changes 
that had been contemplated. Early in the year 1789, the lord 
chancellor was able to announce to the houses of parliament, the 
perfect recovery of the king. Nothing could exceed the transports 
of joy with which this intelligence was received throughout the 
whole kingdom. A natioral thanksgivi'ig was appointed., and his 
majesty went himself in great state to St. FauPs, to offer up his 
;rrateful devotions on the event. The illuminations on the occasion 
were so general, that it is probable, from the accounts given of 
them, that scarcely a cotta2;e in the most remote parts of the island 
was without its shew of loyalty and affection. 1"ne appearance oi" 
the metropolis, in particular, was most extraordinary, and notwith- 
standing the immense concourse of people that continued almost 
the whole night in the streets, and the crowded throng of carriages 
and horses, so strong a disposition \/as shewn by ^1} ranks and de- 
scriptions of persons to conduct tilings peaceably, that fewer acci- 
dents occurred than were ever known before in similar cases. 

13. It should be noted, as a matter of general history, that had 
jdot his majesty recovered so opportunely, diihculties of an extra- 
ordinary nature might have ensued, from the ^Afferent proceedings 
of the two legislatures of Great Britain and Ireland. VVhile in the 
former it was decided that the prince could not assume the regen- 
cy, as matter of right, and that the parliament had a powei; to 
impose restrictions, in Ireland, his right appeared to be acknow- 
ledgtd by the two houses agreeing to address him, to take upon 
him immediately the government of that kingdom, during the 
king's incapacity, and with the usual powers of royalty. 

14. In the year 1789, the proceedings in France began to occu- 
py the attention of Europe, and of England in particular. A strug- 
gle for freedom seemed to be so congenial to the spirit of the peo- 
ple of the latter country, that it is not to be wondered that the 
commencement of so extraordinary a revolution should excite the 
strongest sensations. Unfortunately the abuses in the French gov- 
ernment were so many, and some of them so entirely contrary to 
every principle of reason and equity, that it soon became apparent 
that nothing less than a radical chailge, and revolution of every 
existing institution and establishment, would satisfy the disturbed 
minds of that volatile people ; D.inds unhappily prepared not mere- 
ly to resist oppression, but to throw off every restraint of religion 
and morality. Such an example, therefore, required to be watch- 
ed and guarded against, in a country whose free constitution sup- 
plied its own means of reformation in every case of necessity, and 
where tumultuary proceedings could only lead to ends the moat 
fatal and deplorable. Mr. Pitt seemed aware of this, and though 
hra measure« of precaution were suppwe^ occasionally to press too 

31 



862 MODERN HISTORY. 

hardly on the liberty of the subject, it must be aidimtted that ^ 
very improper intercourse was at times carried on between the 
several popular associations in England and Ireland, and the na- 
tional assembly of i^rance. The object of the latter, In its replies 
to the addresses presented to it, being-, according to all reasonable 
interpretation of the terms used, to invite and encourage the dis- 
contented of all countries to follow their example, which was eve- 
ry day becoming more violent and anarchical. This was not all ; 
emissaries were employed to propag-ate their principles in other 
countries, many of whom came to England, and met with an en- 
couragement not to be overlooked by a government properly sen- 
sible of the dangers to be incurred by any adoption of s:ich senti- 
ments and principles, in a country so very differently situated- from 
that of France. ]uigland had long ago done for her?eif what France 
Avas now attempting ; and though no such changes and revolutions 
can be expected to take place without some violence, yet England 
liad passed throu^2;h this ordeal^ and accomplished her point a whole 
century before France began to assert her liberties. It was little 
less than an insult to every true Englishman, therefore, to attempt 
to stir him up to such violent proceedings as had already been 
countenanced and sanctioned by the French revolutionists ; but 
that SI oh attempts were making, could not but be too obvious. On 
the 19th of November, 1792, the national assembly passed a de- 
cree, that they would grant fraternity and assistance to all who 
might wish to recover their liberty. This was two months after 
they had proclaimed the eternal abolition of royalty, and imprison- 
ed the king ; after they had declared hereditary nobility to be in- 
compatible with a free state ; and thus, by implication, declared 
that England and most of the other states of Europe were not free. 
It was afterwards proved, by their own acknowledgment, that be- 
fore any declaration of war, more than a million sterling had been 
sent to England from the national treasury of France, for purposes 
strictly revolutionary. No country was free from these political dis- 
turbers ; even general Washington, as presiaent of the United 
States of America, was obliged to publish letters patent, to with- 
draw his countenance from the accredited French ministers in that 
country, who had grossly insulted him as head of the executive 
government. 

15. In the year 1790, an unpleasant dispute arose between the 
courts of St. James"'s and Madrid, which had nearly involved the 
two countries in a war. It related to a settlement on the north- 
western coast of America, which had been attempted by some, sub- 
jects of Great Britain, at ]N%)tka Sound, for the carrying on a 
fur trade with China. The Sf^niards, conceiving this to be an 
invasion of their rights, uftdcr a claim to these distant regions the 
most extravagant and absurd, with great precipitation attacked 
the English settled there, took the fort which had been erected 
with the consent of the Indians, and seized upon the vessels. It 
was not possible to pass over so great an outrage ; but by the vigor- 
ous aiad timely preparations made to procure reparation, and the 
little hope of assistance to be derived from France, in case things 
should come to extremities, the Spanish court was brought to terms 



MODEPvN HISTORi". 363 

before tijc- espiratiou of tlie year ; and not only every point in dis- 
pute ceded to the English, but many advantages granted with re- 
gard to the navigation of the Pacific ocean. 

16. In tlic course of llie same year, tlie British court intcrf .red 
successfully to restore peace between Austria and Turkey, and 
was further instrumental, though not without some hindrances, in 
reducing: the revolted Netherlands to the dominion and authority 
of the former power. Her attempts to mediate between P»-ussia 
and the Porte, were by no means so successful, and had nearly, in- 
deed, involved the nation in war, for an object of very little im- 
portance in the eyes of the public at large, though the minister 
seemed to think otherwise. In consequence, however, of the oppo- 
sition he met with, he was induced to forego the plan he had ia 
view, of preventing llussia getting possession of the town of Ocza- 
kow, and a peace was concluded with that power at Yassi, Janu- 
ary, 1792. 

17. Towards the close of the same year, after the king of France 
and his family w'ere in a state of confinement, many attempts 
were made by the national assembly to ascertain the views of Eng- 
land with regard to the confederacy formed against her, and the 
question of peace or Vv^ar seemed nearly brought io an issue, be- 
fore the horrible execution of the king, in the month of Ja'^.uary, 
1793. That event being followed by the dismissal of the French 
minister at London, appeared so totally to dissolve all friendly 
communications betv^feen the two countries, as to induce the I'Yencii 
government, by a decree of the assembly, I-ebruary 3, 1793, to de- 
clare war against the Jang of Greal Britain and the sladlholder of 
Holland ; in which decree, there was evidently an attempt in the 
very wording of it to separate the ptcplt of the tv/o countries from 
their respective sovereigns. 

18. By this time, indeed, the encroaching disposition of the 
French revolutionists was manii'ested in their annexation of Savoy 
to France for ever, as soon as they had gained any advantages over 
it ; and in their conduct in the Netherlands, by declaring the navi- 
gation of the Schejd free, contrary to all subsisting treaties Avith 
the Dutch. '1 he same spirit w^as apparent in their refusal to ex- 
empt Alsace and Lorrahie uo\n the operation of the decrees for the 
abolition of feudal rights, and in their forcible seizure of Avignon 
and the comtat Venaisiin, which had belonged to the P4,oman see 
for m.any centuries. It is true, the indiscreet manifestoes of the 
con;jbincd arjiaes were sufficient to stinialate a people, already iu 
a high degree of irritation, to acts of severe reprisal, in all cases of 
success ; but it was very manifest that they had already violated 
their own principle of not acting on a. system of aggrandize- 
ment, of which they made such boast at the beginning of the revo- 
lution. /Pheir glaring abandonment of this principle, and the injury 
done to "the Dutch by opening the Scheld, were the ostensible 
grounds of the -war on the part of England. The declaration of 
l^ance, in some degree, saved the minist-ir from the responsioility 
of having actually commenced hostilities, however, in the opinion 
oi opposition, he might be said to have provoked them ; but it should 
fiJiU be cbseryed, that there was a treaty subsisting between the 



364 MODERN HISTOHY. 

two countries^ afFrnnngthat the recal or dismission of public minis- 
ters should be considered tantamount to a declaration of war. If 
so, and the treaty was not invalidated by the change of things at 
Paris, as many asserted, the first declaration of war proceeded from 
the English gfovernnient, who, on the suspension of the kingly au- 
thority, had recalled lord Gower from Paris, (many other court?, 
however, having dene the same.) and on the death of the king, ab- 
ruptly dismissed the French minister, M. Chauvelin, from Eng- 
land. 

19. The exact objects of the hostile interference of England 
"were never formally explained in parliament, though in the l<ing''3 
declarntion they were regarded as too notorious ; every thing con- 
duced to rtnder it apparent, that they had in viev/ as much to op- 
pose the propagation of anarchical principles, as the violence of 
territorial aggressions ; that previously to the declaration of war 
on either part, the English government had shown a disposition not 
to interfere with the internal affairs of France, seems manifest from 
many circunistances_. 

20. It is not necessary to enter into the details of the war that 
took place after England joined the confederacy. The extraor- 
dinary progress and success of the French appertains to the history 
of thai country, and may therefore be found cisew^hera. Though 
the British troops fought with their accustomed braverj'-, and ob- 
tained in their first campaign some signal advantages, yet, owing" 
in some measure to the want of harmony and cordiality betv/een 
the confederates, but still more to the ovcrv/helming force of 
France, now risen en ')7iasse^ they ultimately met witVi great re- 
verses, and were compelled to abandon the country they had un- 
dertaken to defend ; but thoHgh unsuccessful by land, on the ocean 
England maintained her wonted superiority. Many of the French 
West India islands fell into her power in the summer of 1794, and 
a most decisive victory was gained by lord Howe, over the Brest 
fieot, on the 1st of June. The island, of Corsica also was subdued, 
and by the anti-gallican party, with the celebrated Paschal Paoli 
at their head, erected into a monarchy, the kingly pov/er and pre-r 
rcgatives being freely confcired on hii; majesty George III. In the 
month of October, however, 1796, the French party recovered the 
ascendancy, and the island IJfeing evacuated by the English, was 
re-annexed to France. 

21. At the conclusion of the year 1794, though France had on 
the continent ma.de surprising acquisitions, the spirits of the English 
were far from being shaken, and the utmost efforts were cheerfully 
made for continuing the contest on the ocean ; and in all the colo- 
nies qf the enemy, the advantages were clearly on the side of the 
British, during the years 1795, 1796, and 1797, when negotiations 
for peace took place, but without being brought to any l"avourable 
issue. At the close of 1797, his majesty, attended by the two hou- 
ses of parliament, and the great officers of state, v/ent to St. PauPs,- 
to offer up a public and national thanksgiving for the naval victo- 
ries obtained in all parts of the world ; upon which occasion, many 
flags ajid colours taken from the French, Spaniards, and Dutch, 
w(Je borne in sclemn pomp to the calhpdral, and deposit^4 ou tl^g 



IIODEHN HISTORY. dbb 

altar. Notiiinj^ could exceed the enthusiasm with which the Brit- 
ish nation at tiiis period appeared disposed to resist the threats of 
the enemy. The national militia havin.^ offtred to transfer their 
services to Ireland, to suppress a rebellion which had broken out 
there, volunteer corps were formed in all parts of the kingdom to 
supply their })lace, and the people were readily induced to submit 
to a measure of finance, then first adopted, naimdy, of raising^, by a 
triple assessment, (afterwards converted into an income and prop- 
erty tax,) a large proportion of the supplies wa,nted for carrying on 
the war M'iV/i/n the year ; so much, in short, of the loan, as should 
exceed the sura discharged by the operation of the sinking fund, so 
that no addition should be made to the permanent debt. 

£2. In th':; year 1798, the affairs oflrtdand occasioned great dil- 
ficulties. A regularly organised rebellion, the leaders of which 
were in constant communication with the enemy, threatened to- 
tally to diss'-.lve the connection subsisting between that country 
and Great Britain, and to invite the aid and co-operation of France, 
at the manifest hazard of rendering Ireland a dej^^end^ncy of the 
latter power, as had already been the case with Savoy, IJeigium, 
Lombardy, and Venice. Ireland had but lately obtained conces- 
tioas from England of no inconsiderable importance, a free trade, 
and the recognition of her political independence ; but the caiho- 
IIcs were dissatii-ned with the national representation, to the de- 
fects in which they attributed the continuance of the penal statutes 
still directed against them. The French revolution led to the for- 
mation of the society of United Irishmen, in 1791, which had ma- 
ny reforms and changes in view, tbough short perhaps of an entire 
revolution. In 1795, from representations made to it of the oppress- 
ed state of Ireland, the French government regnlarly proffered its 
tissistance to subvert the monarchy, and separate Ireland from 
Briiain. Fortunately the plans of the traitors were timely discover- 
ed, and though it was not possible to prevent a recourse to arms, 
which alilicted many parts of the kingdom between .'\pril and Oc- 
tober, yet the principal ringleaders were for the m^ost part seized, 
-executed, or compelled to fly, and under the able government of 
lord Coruwallis, tranquillity was happily restored, with less dilii- 
cuity and damage than had been expected. 

- 23. The situation of affairs in Ireland during 1790, led in the fol- 
lowing year to the project of an union between the two countries, 
which Mr. Fitt submitted to the British, parliament in the form of a 
message from the king, January 22, 1799. The Irish legislature 
having been declared independent in 17i]2, it was obvious that no, 
such measure could be carried into execution without the free con- 
sent and acquiescence of the Irish parliaaieiit. I\lany circt;mstan- 
i.us seemed to conduce to render tbt proposed union desirable and 
beneficial to both nations, and at this particular moment, to recon- 
cile most people to it. The catholics of Ireland had become dis- 
satisfied with the parliament oftiiat country, v»hile the protestants, 
who were greatly outnumbered by the catholics, though they pos- 
&jssed four fifths of the property of the kingdom, had good reasoa 
to suppose their interests and ascendancy would be best secured 
ia oxii' united and ijnperial parliament, thaa ia a distinct le^isl56= 
31* 



366 



MODERN HISTORY. 



ture, in a country where the catholics had already obtained their 
elective franchise, and composed the bulk of the population. They 
miofht also reasonably apprehend the consequences of the overtures 
that had been made to France, and the alarming- progress of revolu- 
tionary principles. In the case of the regency, the dangers incident 
to two distinct leg-isiatures, had been rendered sufficiently apparent. 
On all these accounts, though the measure was at first very coldly 
entertained, and even rejected by the Irish house of commons ; the 
minister wrs g-reatly encouragred to proceed, by the strong support 
he received in both countries, from persons of all ranks and parties. 
A series of resolutions -was proposed to the house, to belaid before 
his majesty, recommendatory of the proposed union, which, after 
some opposition, was sent to a committee by a majority of 140 to 
15. In the lonls, the address passed Vv'ithout a division ; a protest, 
however, beiu,^ entered on the books, signed by three lords, Hol- 
land, Thanet, and King., 

24. The last year of the eighteenth century was distinguished 
by the most important events in India, where the English, under the 
government of the tarl of rvlomington, totally defeated the most 
ungrateful, insidious, and powerful enemy, the forces in that re- 
mote country ever had to Contend with ; Tippoo Saib, the sultan of 
■Mysore, son of the celebrated Plyder Ally Khan, who had usurped 
those dominions in 1761. In the years 1784, and 1792, treaties of 
peace had been concluded betv/een the suKan and the English, 
which, however, had had very little effect on the former, who had 
shov>'n himself constantly attached to the French interests; and 
having been compelled by the last treaty to cede one half of his 
dominions to the conquerors, and to deliver two of his sons as iios- 
tages into the hands of lord Cornwallis, the governor-general, ap- 
pears to have harboured the most inveterate hatred again'it the 
English fro)n that mom tnt, and to have meditated, by the, aid of 
tlie French, and certain of the native powers, nothing less than 
their total extirpation, it would be impossible, perhaps, to find in 
history stronger instances of duplicity and treachery, than were 
practised by this celebrated potentate against tlie British interest?, 
during the years 1797 and 1793, in the spring of the latter of which, 
lord Mornington arrived in In'iia. With the Frencli directory, 
with the French colonial government in Mauritius, witli the king 
of Candahar, with the courts of Poocah and Hyderabad, with Buo- 
naparte in Egypt, and even v»'ith the Ottomcm Porte, at the same 
time, the wily sultan managed to carry on seciet negotiations, 
amidst the strongest professions of amity and attachment towards 
the English government. It has been conj • cturtd, that had he ob- 
tained elTectual aid from the French, in extirpating the Erglish, 
jae v/ould as willingly have tut rfcd against his European abettors; 
the purport of all his negotiations with the native powers, being 
to stir them I'.p to a general combination against the injidtls and 
enemies of the prophet^ without any distinction of the two nations. 

25. P.y the extreme vigilance and cautious proceedings of the 
aevj governor-general, the intrigues of the sultan, notMithstanding 
iiis reiterated assuraiices of fidelity, were so amply discovered and 
fcx,posf:dj as to yiiiditate^ iu the fulleat wanner^ th® declsgratiou of 



MODERN HISTORY. 367 

war t\h!ch look place in February, 1799, and \rhich was speedily 
followed lip ty the most vigorous proceedings on the part of the 
army, terminating in the capture of Seringapalam, the capital of 
the 'Mysorean dominions, May 4, and the death of the sultan, 
whose body was found, after the action, covered with heaps of dead. 
His immense territories were divided amongst the allied powers, 
the remains of his family provided for in the Carnatic, and a boy of 
five years old, the surviving representative of the Ilirldoo dynasty/ 
restored to the throne of his ancestors. 

26. In the first year of the new century, the projected union and 
incorporation of the two legislatures and kingdoms of Great Britain 
and Ireland, was brought to a conclusion. Doubts were expressed 
in the Irish house of commons, and supported by great strength of 
argument, whether, as a delegated body, and without a fresh ap- 
peal to their constituents, they coiild Tormally consent to their own 
annihilation. Strong suspicions also were thrown out, tha^i the plan 
had no other object in view than tht^t of recovering to England the 
domination she had surrendered in 1782, when tKe independ%ncy of 
the Irish legislature had been fully, and, as it was alleged, finally 
acknowledged and established ; but these objections were over- 
ruled. It was no surrender, it was urged, of their legislative rights, 
to Consent t® be incorporated wath the parliament of Great Britain, 
but a consolidation of them ; and their consent would acquire a 
character iVom the regulations of 1782, highly honourable to the 
nation ; she could new treat as an independent state, and upon a 
footing of equality, instead of being in any respect compelled, as 
might otherwise have been the case, to au union of subjection. 
Early iu the year 1000, the assent of the two houses of parliament, 
in Ireland, was signified in addresses to his majesty, transmitted 
through the lord lieutenant, which being submitted to the British 
parliament, after much discussion and debate on the bill in general, 
as well as its several provisions, the union of the two 'kingdoms was 
finally arranged to take place from the first of January, 1801 . 

27. The act of incorporation contained eight articles : the first 
three decreed the union of tl]e two kingdoms, the maintenance of 
the protestant succession, and consolidation of the parliament. By 
the fourth, it was settled that four prelates should sit alternately 
in each session, and twenty-eight lay peers be elected for life, while 
two members for each county, (thirty-two in all) and thirty-six 
citize)is and burgesses, should represent the commons. The fifth ar- 
ticle united t'.je churches of England and Ireland ; the sixth and 
fc\'enth provided for the connnercial and financial arrangements of 
the tv/o countries, and the eighth f©r the maintenance of laws then 
in force, and continuance of the courts of judicature. 

28. On the first of January, 1801, a royal declaration was issu- 
rd, regulating the style and titles appertaining to the imperial 
crown of Great Britain and Ireland, with the arms, flags, and en- 
signs thereof. In these arrangements, the opportunity wa? judi- 
cioujly taken of laying aside the title of king of France, and the 
i-'rench arms ; the title in English was confined to Great Britain 
and Ireland ; in Latin, " Britanniarum Rex^''"' and the quartering 
of the ^"-Jiiurs di Us^''^ omitted ia the blazonry. 



3d8 modern histohy. 

29. A fresh revolution in the government of France, about 
this time, having thrown the executive power, in a great measure, 
into the hands of a supreme mag-istrate, the first consul, and over- 
tures for peace having been made by Buonaparte in that capacity, 
much discussion upon the subject took place between the minit-*- 
ters of the two countries, but without effect. The Austrians hav- 
ino- sustained a defeat in Italy, had solicited and obtained a sus- 
pension of hostilities, and entered upon some negotiations for 
peace, to which England was invited to become a party, upon con- 
senting- to a naval armistice,but her maritime power stood so high, 
that while Malta continued subject to France, and the French ar- 
my unsubdued in Egypt, she could not reasonably be expected to 
forego such advantages, and to pl'ace herself upon a footing with 
her continental ally, whose situation was so diffLrent. lier deter- 
mination to continue the war, was soon followed by the surrender 
cf Malta,! on the 5th of September, 1800, and in the course of tlie 
next yea^ the French troops were compelled finally to abandon 
Egypt f thus terminating an expedition, in a great degree mysteri- 
ous, l)ut which, no doul^t, might have led to the disturbance of 
our power in India, had it not been for the interruption it met with 
on its way thither, and the overthrow of Tippoo Saib. 

30. In the course of the year 1800, the enemies of England were 
o-reatly increased by the revival amongst the northern powers, of 
the armed uentralily, originally devised and adopted in i7(j0. As 
this dispute involved a very curious point of international law, it 
would have been w^ell, if it could have been brought to such an 
issue as might have settled the question for ever ; but, after much 
negotiation, and some very unplca.ant conflicts at sea, (particu- 
larly with the Danes,) seizures and embargoes, the matter termi- 
nated rather in an uncertain compromise, than any positive ad- 
justment. The right of search by belligerents, however inconve- 
Kient to neutrals, seemed to have been acknowledged for many 
centuries, as a principle of maritime law ; upon the system of the 
armed neutrality, it was contended that ships under convoy should 
pass free, the flag of the neutral fower being sufficient pledge and 
security that the cargoes were not contraband of war. T he claim 
in this case being evidently directed against England, then, and at 
all times mistress of the sea, rendered it a point of extreme im- 
portance ', one which she could not surrender without a contest, 
or armed negotiations ; otherwise, and if it had not been decidedly 
in favour of her opponents, the countenance given to the new sys- 
tem by so many states of Europe, Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Prus- 
sia, Naples, France, Spain, Holland, Austria, Portugal, Venice, 
and Tuscany, (for by some steps or other they all seemed disposed 
to adopt the spirit of it,) might have been expected to amount to 
a formal recognition of its principle, as a proper law of nations ; 
the dispute, however, upon this occasion, was settled at Peters- 
burg, by negotiation, after the accession of the emperor Alexander, 
and attended with concessions on the part of the Baltic powers, of 
singular importance, thou.gh less complete than they might have 
1t.&«iij owing to the counttr coucessiojis of Britaia. Thus; though 



MODERN IIISTORy. 309 

ti was tieckled that enemy's property embarked on board nei?tra! 
ships, should be liable to confiscation, and that the right of searchins; 
merchant ships, even under convoy of a ship of war, should be recog- 
nized, yet, it was at the same time determined that arms and am- 
munition only should be considered as contraband, and that the 
right of searching merchant ships under convoy should appertain 
exclusively to vessels belonging to the royal navy. If not entirely 
decisive, however, the stipulations of this celebrated convention 
highly deserve to be looked up to as a proper standard of the rights 
of neutrality. 

31. During- the contest that arose with England, out of this con- 
federacy of the northern powers, the king of Prussia, one of the 
contracting parties, saw fit to take possession of the king of Great 
Britain's electoral states of Hanover, but on the change of affairs 
in Russia, was speedily induced to restore them. 

32. By the treaty of peace concluded at Luneville, between the 
emperor of Germany and France, February 9, 1801, England was 
left without an ally, and a change of ministry having taken place 
about the same time, may be said to have laid the foundation for 
more serious negotiations for peace, on the part of England and 
France, than had hitherto taken place since the commencement of 
the revolution. Nothiog, however, seemed to hasten it so much 
as the defeat of the French army in Egypt, and the settlement of 
the differences between England and the Baltic powers, which 
enabled her lo negotiate with more advantage, and greatly lower- 
ed the spirit of the French government. Preliminaries were signed 
on the first of October, 1801, and a definitive treaty concluded at 
Amiens, between Great Britain and the French republic, Spain and 
Holland, on the 25th of March, 1802. By this treaty, England 
obtained Ceylon from the Dutch, ar.d Trmidad from the Spaniards, 
relinquishing all her other conquests ; Malta being given back to 
the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, under the guaranty of the 
principal powers of Europe. 



SECTION XIV. 

FRANCE, FROM THE DEATH OF THE KING AND QUEEN, 
AND OVERTHROW OF THE GIRONDIST OR BRISSOT- 
INE PARTY, 1793, TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE 
DIRECTORY, 1705. 

1. The situation of France, tov/ards the close of the year 1793, 
was deplorable in the extreme. ,It lay at the mercy of a faction, 
not merely blood-thirsty, but which nothing but blood would satis- 
fy. The jacobins, or Robespierrean party, determined to root out 
every thing that could, by the remotest implication, be denounced 
as adverse to their plans, procured a decree to be passed, exceed- 
ing every thing that can be conceived in atrocity. Such "was the 
^'- Loi sur les sicspecls^'''' passed in September, by v/hich their agents 
in all parts of the country, were empowc.rfd to arrest, imprison, 
*Qd thereby doom to destruction, whomsoever suspicion in any 



a/0 MODEP.iS HISTORY. 

iTianncr attached to, not merely as principals, but a? couwectetl with 
principals, however unavoidably, naturally, or accidentally. One 
article alone will explain the rest. The following are the ptsrsons de- 
nounced in the 5th : — All of the ancient class of nobility ; all hus- 
bands,'wivvs, fathers, mothers, sons, or daughters, bi other?, sisters, or 
agents of emigrants, who shall not have constantly jnanillsttd an at- 
tachmtnt to the revolution. The queen, the twenty-two victims of 
the Girondist party, and general Custine, may be considered as 
among the earliest and m-^st distinguished persons that fell under 
the power of this horrible faction. The due d^Orleans, though not 
belonging to the Girondist party, was denounced by Robespierre 
kimself, as connected with themj and publicly executed on the 6th 
of November ; but his life and conduct, both public and private, 
had been suc"h, that he fell totally unregretted. It would be vaia 
to attempt to relate the many dreadful events which marked this 
bloody period. It is to be hoped history will never again have to 
record such complicated cruelties and miseries, such premeditated 
murders, such studied torments, mental and bodily. 

2. On the 17th of November, of this memorable year, thecath- 
elic religion, (at the instance of an arclibiihop of Paris., Gobet !) 
was publicly abjured by the convention, and decrees past, aoiidst 
the most tumultuous acclamations, f&r substituting a religion of 
reason, in its room. The churches were quickly despoiled of their 
ornaments, the altars destroyed, civic feasts instituted mstead of 
religious festivals, and Liberty., Equality., itc. consecrated as ob- 
jects of worship. These revolutionary and anti- catholic decrees 
Xs'&'e moreover ordered to be translated into Italian^ on purpose 
that they might be transmitted in that most intelligible, and theie- 
fore most offensive shape, to the pope. 'Ilie calendar underwent 
also a correction. A new repuulican form and sera being aJopt- 
ed and established, to commence from the 22d of September, 1"92, 
the day on which the national convention began its sittings, and 
royalty w^as abolished. The year was divided into .twelve parti?, 
of thirty days each, distinguished according to the prevalent sea- 
sons, Vendtviiaire^ September a.nd October ; Brumaire., October 
and November; Friiaaire., November and December; J'i'iiose., 
December and January ; hlaviose., January and I'ebruary ; Ven- 
iose., February and iSlarch ; Geymmr//, March and April; Floreal^ 
^pril and May ; Prairial., May and June ; Mtssidor., June and Ju- 
ly; Tliermidor., July and August; Fruclidor^ August and Septem- 
ber. The Sabbath was abolished, and five complimentary days 
added, all commemorative of the revolution. Lach month was di- 
vided into three decades, and a respite fi-am labour allowed en 
every tenth day. 

3. It was not possible to suppose that those who ruled during 
this dark " reign of terror.,'''' could long be suffered to retain their 
power and station in the republic, r ortunately for the good of 
human society, their very crimes rendered them jealous and sus- 
picious of each other, so that before many months had passed, af- 
ter the execution of the queen and the Biissotines, the earth was 
rid of such monsters, proscribed and driven to the scaffold by their 
own friends and associates in wickediiesa ; Robcs^ucrre, from wboiu 



M0DERN HISTORY. 3Tl 

die fraction chiefly took It? df nomination, being at leii^tk accused, 
conJcnned, and executed, ia the course of a few hours ia the 
month of July, 1"794, to the sati?faction of the whole civilized 
Avorld. Before this great day t:»f retribution, howevej, one more 
victim of royalty was brouofht to the scaffold, whose sole offence 
must have been the heroic display she had made, in her constant 
Attendance upon the kin^, her brother, and his nio^t unhappy 
far.'iily, of every amiable virluo that could adorn a woman. 'J'hc 
princess Elizabeth, who had cr>ntinued in the temple, with the two 
children of the unhappy Lewis XVI, from the period of his execu- 
tion, was brought before the revolutionary tribunal, accused of 
" acco opanyinti; the late kinjs; when he attempted his escape ;'' of 
having " attended upon and administered help to the wounded in 
the (-onflict with the g-uards ;" and of " having- encouraged her 
infant ncph.^w, Lewis XVIT, to entertain hopes of a'-cendin^ the 
throne of hi? father •,"*' and upon these charp;es sentenced to die, 
May 10, 1794, and execntcd without pity or remorse. 

4. It was duria<2,(he year 1793, that Napoleon llaonaparte, a na- 
tive of Corsica, had first an opportunity of distino^uishing hir, leif in 
the French army, bein?. e r.ployed in the direction of the artillery at 
the sie^e of Toulon, which had fallen for a short time into the bauds 
of the Entrlish. Hitherto the war aaraii^st the powers in opposition to 
France, had been carried c^n in a most desultory and extraordinary 
manner, with more succs certainly on the part of the French than 
could have \-e. n expected, from the extraordinary condition and cir- 
cumstance? of their armies, and the s'ran^e state of responsibility in 
which their commanders were placed by their rulers at home. Some 
of their generals were compelled to desert, many were proscribed, 
and many, after displayingf the utmost valour in the field, were actu- 
ally brought to the scaffold. Nevertheless, the impulse given to the 
revolutionary arm.y, by the circuTistances of their country, aided 
by mistakes and jealousies on the part of their opponents, enabled 
it to combat effectually against much better organized troops, and 
to resist the attacks that were made upon it in all quarters ; for in 
addition to the iVustrians and Prussians, Sardinians, English and 
Spanish, in La Vendee and other dcpartinents, a civil war prevail- 
ed, where many acts of heroism, indeed, were displayed by a 
brave, but unsuccessful band of royalists, who ultimately paid 
dear for their revolt, by the most horrid and disgraceful punish- 
ments. 

5. The French revolution had now attained that pitch of extra- 
vasfAnce and disorder, which left no hopes of any check or termi- 
nation, but that which actually ensued, namely, a military despot- 
ism. According to the reiuarks of one of the ablest members of the 
first national assembly, one who was sacrificed at the period we 
have been treating of, in a way the most treacherous and revolting 
to every feeling mind, the French revolution being undertaken, not 
for the sake of men, but for the sake of opinion, had no distinct 
leader, no Cromwell or Fairfax. All were leaders, all institutors, 
aU equally interested in the course of affairs. Such a revolution, 
he observes, must be commenced by ali, but he was sagacious 
enough to foresee that it would probably be terniinated by one. 



372 MODERN IIISTOilY. 

All, howeTcr, for a certain time, being leaders and institutor^, 
uothino^ could ensue from such a state of things, but coutinukl 
struggles to be uppermost ; continual denunciations and proscrip- 
tions of rival parties ; and a strange succession of new constitu- 
tions, and new forms of government, as any opening seemed to oc- 
cur for bringip? things to a settlement. 

6. I'he death of Itobe^pierre, and of many of his accomplice?, 
clearly afforded such an openiiig, if not for settling, at least for 
ameliorating- things ; but for some time the convention and the na- 
tion seemccl to be in too groat a surprise and consternation to pro- 
ceed with any method to so desirable an end. The former having 
had its origin in the days of anarchy and confusion, seemed little 
prepared to defend or support its own dignity, but the cry of hu- 
manity began again to be raised, and to be heard, and in no long- 
course of time after the defeat of Robespierre, the jacobin club, 
from which had emanated all the previous acts and decrees, so 
disgraceful to I'rapce, was abolished and dissolved, by a decree of 
the convention. The reformation of the laws and government 
gave greater trouble. The pain of death had been decreed against 
any who should propose to set aside the constitution of 1793, and 
with this sentence hanging over them, all the people had sworn to 
uphold and maintain it. 'J'ired, however, of the absolute and un- 
controllable power they had exercised, many members, even of the 
convention, sincerely wished for more limited authority. A com- 
mittee was appointed to prepare a new code of laws, and, in the 
mean time, processes were carried against some of the most violent 
'of the abettors of the late tumults and disorders, particularly the 
commissioners who had sanctioned the most dreadful proceedings 
at Lyons, Nantes, Orange, and Arras. The execrable law under 
which they had acted, *' Loi des suspects," was repealed, and a 
just vengeance directed against those who had been most forward 
to carry it into execution. 

7. At length a new constitution was framed, presented to the 
convention, and approved. Two legislative councils, one of five 
hundred members, and the other of two hundred and fifty, were 
to enact the laws ; the former to propose, the latter to sanction or 
reject them. The executive government was committed to five 
directors, chosen by the legislature, but whose responsibility was 
ill-defined, and their connection with the legislative bodies not 
sufficiently p.'ovided for, either as a balance, or controlling power. 
It wa5 not without other faults anM blemishes, but it may undoubt- 
edly be regarded as iraking a muchnearer approach to order and 
regularity, than the one which it was intended to supersede. It 
was formally accepted and proclaimed, September 23, 1795.* 

8. Ihis may be considered as the third constitution established 
since the first meeting of the states-general, in 1789 ; great objec- 
tions were made to one article, which secured the return of a very 
large proportion of the members of the convention, to serve in the 

* The directors being ReuVel, Lcfourneur, Larevcillere-Lepnux, B»r- 
ras, and Sieves ; but the latter declining the honour, Carnot supplied his 
4)lace. 



MODERN HISTORY. ' 375 

new legislature. Tumults were raised in the sections of Pari?, and 
an attack made upon the convention, v/hich, however, was at last 
rescued from the violence of the mob. Buonaparte, who was then 
at Paris, was appointed to act upon this occasion in defence of the 
assembly. 

9. Externally, the affairs of France may be said to have been at 
this moment in a high and extraordinary degree of prosperity. The 
Campaigns of 1794 and 1795, committed to the charge of very able 
generals, Pichegru, Souham, Jourdan, Kleber, Moreau^ and Du- 
gommier, had hitherto succeeded beyond their utmost expectations. 
The Belgian states, and the united provinces, had not only been 
wrested from the hands of their defenders, the Austrians, Prus- 
sians, and British, but associated with the French republic in a 
close confederacy. The stadtholdership was again abolished, and 
the stadtholder and his family obliged to take refuge in England^ 
In the mean time, peace had been concluded with many of the bel- 
ligerent powers, highly advantageous to France ; with Prussia^ 
Spain, the landgrave of Hesse, the grand duke of Tuscany, and 
others ; while the navigation of the rivers Rhine, Meuse, and 
Scheldt, had been rendered free, in all their courses and branches, 
to the people of France. These proceedings, with regard to the 
Belgian states and Holland, were the commencement of a system 
pursued from that time on all the frontiers of the new republic. 
By a decree of the national assembly, the Frcncb generals were 
directed to proclaim every where the sovereignty of the people^ to 
suppress all authorities and privileges, to repeal all taxes, and es- 
tablish provisional governments on democratic principles. By this! 
system of '•''fraternisation^'''' as it was called, the subdued coun- 
tries being formed into republics, '' repuhliques satellifcs^^'' as they 
were significantly denominated by the French themselves, were as- 
sociated with France as subordinate states. Of the states first revo- 
lutionized in this manner, the Batavian republic took the lead, sur- 
rendering to France, without hesitation, the chief of her fortresses, 
and thus extending, and at the same time protecting her frontier. 
The mistake she made in thus welcoming the French, was but too 
soon discovered. The French levied heavy contributions ; the 
English took from them manj of their foreign settlements, and par- 
ticularly the cape of Good Hope, and the island of Ceylon. 

10. In the month of June, 1795, Louis XVII, the unfortunate son 
of Louis XVI, died in the temple, under circumstances extremely 
suspicious, and very deplorable, having been some time in the cus- 
tody of a low-born drunken wretch, v/ho did every thing he could 
to insult and torment him, and undermine his health. He was in 
the eleventh year of his age at the time of his death. His sister, 
the princess royal, (the present duchess of Angoulerae) was soon 
afterwards most happily released from her miserable prison, whence 
a father, mother, and aunt, had been successively led to execu- 
tion, and where an only brother had died a victim to cruelly, and 
perhaps poison. Her royal highness was exchanged for certain mem- 
bert-' of the late convention, who had been delivered up to the allies, 
by the generals who had incurred the displeastu-e of their rulers at 
Paris, or had iaXlen into the hands of the enemy by other accidents^ 

32 



S74 MODERN HISTORY. 



SECTION XV. 

FRANCE, FROM THE ESTABLISPIMENT OF THE DIREC- 
TORY, 1795, TO THE PEACE OF AMIENS. 

1. The appointment of the five directors, was an act of policy 
on the part of the ruling- members of the convention, who thought 
it better to hazard such a division of the executive power, than to 
give umbrage to the people, by the renewal of a first magistrate, 
thoug-h an elective one. As these new officers, however, owed 
their nomination to the influence of those members of the late con- 
vention who were chosen to form a part of the legislative body ; a 
close union was soon found to subsist between the directors and the 
majority of the council. 

2. The council of ancients, consisting of two hundred and fifty 
members, at first appeared to form the bulwark of the new consti- 
tution ; having no share in the framing- of the laws, they were able to 
interpose with the greater dignity in pronouncing their judgment 
upon such as were referred to them, and often exercised the re- 
stored privilege of the rdo beneficially for the public. The judi- 
cial murders of the reign of terror were terminated, and the gov- 
ernment displayed, in many instances, a return to moderation and 

humanity, extremely desirable and praiseworthy, but in the south- 
ern drparlment, a system of reaction and retaliation prevailed, 
which it w;as beyond their power to control. An organized body 
of assassins kept all those parts of the nation in a state of incessant 
alarm. The metropolis was in some degree restored to its wonted 
gaiety, but every thing bespoke, as might reasonably be expected, 
a most demoralized state of society. The stage became intolerably 
licentious, and the public amusements wer« disgraced, by a free- 
dom of manners, and indelicacy of dress on the part of the females, 
beyond measure ofiensive. Those whose nearest connections had 
been doomed to the scaffold, could find no better mode of com- 
memorating their loss, than by festive me stings, called '-''Balsa 
la Viciime^''^ to which no one could be admitted but such as had 
lost a father, a mother, a husband, a wife, a brother, or a sister, by 
the guillotine I 

3. Hitherto the prowess of the French armies had been mani- 
fested much more in the north, and on the Rhine, than in the 
southern parts of the continent ; towards Italy, the Austrians and 
Piedmontese seemed to hold the French in check. Dugommier had 
indeed invaded Spain with effect ; and by his attacks contributed 
to bring about a peace with that country ; but now a new scene 
was about to open, leading to such a succession of victories and 
revolutions as it would be impossible fully to describe in such a 
work as the present. 

4. Early in the year 1796, general Buonaparte obtained (being 
then twenty-six years of age,) the chief command of the army of 
Italy, as it was called. His eagerness to commence operations 
drew upon him some remonstrances. It was suggested to him that 
jnany things were v/anting in his army necessary to the campai°;n<. 



MODERN HISTORY. 375 

*' I have enough," said he, " if I conquer, and too many if I should 
-be beaten."" The Austrian army in those parts was commanded 
by general Bea ilieu, an officer peculiarly active and enterprising. 
General Baon:\pr\rtc took the command of the French anny on the 
30th of March, and between the 12th and 15th of April, boat the 
Austrian troops in three distinct engagements, at Montenotte, Mil- 
lesimo (or Montelezino.) and Dego. In the space of four days, it 
has been computed, that the Austrian army was diminished to the 
amount of 15,000 men, being separated at the same time from their 
Piedmontcse allies. After the battle of Dego, jBuonaparte advan- 
ced rapidly into Piedmont, nor did he stop till he had arrived at the 
very gates of Turin. There he agreed to an armistice solicited by 
the king, who Was ignominiously compelled to submit to his occu- 
pying with French troops all the principal fortresses of his coun- 
try. Happy to be allowed to retain the capital, he was also obli- 
ged to cede Savoy, Nice, Tende, and Beuil. From Turin, Buona- 
parte pursued his course into Lombardy, and by the celebrated 
battle of Lodi, on the lOLh of May, obtained complete possession 
of the Milanese. 

5. Unwilling to enter immediately into the narrow parts of Italy 
in this svage of his proceedings, he satisfied himself vvith threaten- 
ing the pope and the king of iVaples, till he brought them to tetma 
of peace ; the former surrendering to the French republic, Bolo-"na, 
Ferra.ra, and the coasts of the Adriatic, from the mouths of the Fo^ 
to Ancona ; and the latter consenting to contribute largely to the 
inai;itenance of the French army, and to close his ports against 
the enemies of France. The dukes of Parma and Modena, mad© 
submission in time to save their countries. The grand duke of 
Tuscany had previously acknowledged the French republic, but 
was bidden very peremptorily to exclude the English from the 
port of Leghorn. The submission of all these princes and states 
to ihe overwhelming force of the army under the command of Buo- 
naparte, was but part of the victory he obtained over them. In 
every step he took, he was careful, by new laws, treaties, and po- 
litical arrangements, to " revolulioni;^^'''^ the countries over which 
he obtained an ascendancy by arms', and to incorporate them with 
the French republic. Savoy, iN'ice, and tlie Milanese, were thus 
brought under his dominion, and ultimately erected into distinct, 
though subordinate republics. 

6. It was at the very cojnmencement of the military career of 
this extraordinary man, that he adopted a system of plunder, which, 
for a long time, engaged the attention of the whole civilized world. 
In all the treaties concluded with the Italian princes, he stipulated 
that French artists should be admitted into their public galle- 
ries, museums, and palaces, to select as many as they might 
choo3c, of the choicest performances of the celebrated painters and 
sculptors of all ages, and cause them to be conveyed to Paris. 
French sentiment has dwelt iipon the circumstance of the immor- 
tal Raphael, Titian, and Domenichino, having thus had it in theii' 
power, and in such critical moments, to pay the ransom of their 
native countries, overlooking the sad violation of sentiment occa- 
sioned by the removal of tli^ese precious pledges of their stupendous 



376 MODERN HISTORY. 

talents from the hands which had so long: preserved them,- and 
4om places of which they had been so justly regarded as the 
choicest and most valuahle ornaments. 

7. The siege of Mantua was attended with many severe con^ 
flicts. On the reduction of that important place, Buonaparte is 
stated to have thus addressed his soldiers : '^ The capture of Man- 
tua terminates a campaign which has justly entitled you to the 
♦jverlastin^ gratitude of your country. You have tiiuniphad over 
the enerny in three pitched battles, and seventy inferior en^rage- 
inents ; you have taken a hundred thousand prisoners, lifty field- 
pieces, two thousand battering' cannons. The country you have 
subdued has nourished, maintained, and paid the army duiiug- the 
•whole campaign, and you have remitted thirty millions to the min- 
ister oi finance, in aid of the public treasury. You have enriched 
the museum at Paris, with more than three hundred of the choicest 
and most vaV^able works of art, both of ancient and modern Italy, 
and which it had taken thirty ages to produce.*" 

a. I'hough we know from subsequent accounts of French victo* 
jies, that they are not always to be depended upon, yet there can 
ke no doubt, that the above address does pretty fairly describe the 
extraordinary rapidity and extent of Buonaparte's first operations 
-.HI the field. 1 he years 1796 and 1797 were indeed marked by 
aucl? surprising instances of this nature, that they deserve a place 
in history, though the prudence and good generalship of such pre- 
cipitate steps has been reasonably questioned. Mantua capitu- 
lated on the 2d of P'ebruary, 1797, and Buonaparte pursued his 
course in the direction of the Austrian capital, leaving Italy behind 
him, with a view of penetrating to Vienna. Though obliged to 
]6ght his way, he succeeded, March 2, 1797, in taking possession 
4>f Gradisca, which iaitl opeQ to him the provijices of Goritz, Car- 
iiiola, and Carinthia. 

9. 7'he Austrian grand army was commanded by the emperor's 
brother, the archduke Charles, an able general, a great favourite 
with the soldiers, and who had combated the French on the Rhine 
with signal success. He was not, however, strong enough to await 
the approach of the French, who soon reached Leoben, only thirty 
miles from Vienna, where great consternation was excited, and the 
imperial family compelled to retire. As both armies, however, 
were brought into a very critical position, negotiations were en- 
tered into at this place, an armistice concluded on the 8th of 
April, and preliminaries of peace signed on the 15th of the same 
month, 1797. 

10. Before we notice the celebrated treaty of Campo-Formio, 
fey which the peace was settled and contirmed, it may be fit to 
consider the state of those countries which Buonaparte had left be- 
hind on his march upon Vienna. ?Ie had made peace on his own 
terms (most advantageous ones for France) with Parma, Modcna, 
Rome,, and Naples. He had overrun Savoy, obtained possession 
of the Milanese, and reduced Mantua. He had erected Genoiai 
into the Ligurian republic, and the Milanese he converted into the 
C^isalpine republic, after having first given it the name of Transpa- 
danc m refercnc<j to the river Po, and ift contfajii>ti^.tIoa to !-)^ 



MODERN HISTORY. 377 

Cispadanc republic, consisting of Modena, Bologna, Reg-gio, and 
Ferrara, confederated in 1796T He had passed Venice on his way 
lo Trieste, of which he took possession on the 3d of April, 1797. 
The Venetians had afforded an asylum to Lewis XVIII, and waver- 
ed greatly in taking- part either with the Austrians ©r the French, 
not being ahle to calculate upon the issue of the contest. They 
had also fallen into domestic broils and dissensions, which gave the 
French commander the opportunity he always sought, of intro- 
ducing a French army to allay their differences. The consequen- 
ces were, that they immediately seized upon the fleet, the Ionian 
islands, and, in fact, all the Venetian states, which enabled Buo- 
naparte greatly to improve the peace he was making with the 
Austrians. Albania and the Ionian islands he kept to himself; to 
the Cisalpine republic he assigned the western dependencies of 
Venice, reserving for Austria, the capital, Istria, Dalmatia, and 
the islands of the Adriatic, in exchange for the Netherlands and 
the duchy of Luxemburg. He had professed to enter upon the 
Venetian states, merely to rescue them from the hands of Austria, 
but by this extraordinary manoeuvre, he not only delivered them 
over to the very power from whom he undertook to save them, but 
he obtained from Austria the very object for the sake of which her 
English allies had refused to make peace in 1790. Such appears to 
have been the chief foundation of the celebrated treaty of Campo- 
Formio, concluded between the emperor and the French republic, 
October 17, 1707. 

11. Previously to the conclusion of the treaty of Campo-Formio, 
the allies had lost three of their confederates, the dukes of \A'ir- 
temburg- and Bavaria, and the Margrave of Baden, ail of whom 
bad found it necessary to purchase peace of the directory by heavy 
contributi(ftis. .Such great advantages in its external relations 
were, however, far from contributing to the internal tranquillity of 
the republic. The first five directors, as mig:1it naturally have been 
expected, were by no means accordant in their views, or of equal 
talents and abilities ; and provision seemed to have been made 
for fresh revolutions, by the continual recurrence of nev/ elections, 
both in the legislative assemblies and directory. One of the five 
directors Avas annually to go out, and one third of each of the le- 
gislative bodies to be renewed. The first event of this kind, aa 
might be expected, revived all the jealousies of rival parties, and 
produced an explosion almost as violent as any that had yet oc- 
curred ; the explosion of the 18th of Fructidor, as marked in the 
short-lived republican calendar. Le Tourneur quitted the directo- 
ry by lot, and was succeeded by Barthelemi, who soon appeared 
inclined to join Carnot against Pyeubel, Barras, an'. Larevilliere- 
Lepaux. The three latter were for assuming a despotic power ; 
their opponents were divided, some inclined to the restoration of 
royally, others to the emancipation of the councils from the sway 
of the directors, Reubel and his tv/o associates ; but as they formed 
^ minority, and their enemies were prompt in their measures of re- 
venge, and had moreover the command of the military, it was not 
long before the latter obtained the victory they sought. On the 
^^h'of September, 17^, the legislative assemblies were surround- 
52* 



373 MODERN HISTORT. 

ed with troops, and at the instance of the three ruling dire'clor», 
two of their colkag-aes, (Carnot and Baithelenii) several members 
of the two councils, many public ministers, and many men of let- 
ters, declared guilty of anti-republican measures and principles, 
arrested and imprisoned ; and, on the 5th, sentenced to deporta- 
tion to the unhealthy and remote settlement of Guiana, in South 
America. The authors, editors, directors and proprietors, of no less 
than forty-two public journals were included in the sentence. 
Some of the proscribed members found means to escape ; but those 
'tvho were conveyed to Guiana, suffered dreadfully from the voy- 
age ; many died from the unwholesomeness of the place, some 
found means to return to Europe, particularly general Pichegru 
and the ex-director, Barthelemi, who were conveyed to England 
from the Dutch settlement of Surinam. 

12. Buonaparte returned to Paris not long after these disturban- 
ces, and was received with peculiar honours. The people began 
to look up to him for deliverance from the tyranny of three direct- 
ors ; and the latter were as eager to remove him from the metropo- 
lis. In tb.c midst of the honours paid to him, on account of his vic- 
tories in Italy and Germany, Banas, with great emphasis, nomina- 
ted him as the hero destined to place the tri-coloured flag on the 
lower of London. Troops were actually assembled on the coasts 
<){ Flanders and Normandy for the purpose ; but Buonaparte him- 
self, seeing the impracticability of such an attempt, meditated a 
Hiore distant expedition. 

13, In the course of the year 1798, the system, began so suc- 
cessfully in f'landers and Holland, of revolutionizing the countries 
inio vv'hich the French armies should penetrate, was carried to a 
Ifreat extent. \\'atchful to seize upon every opportunity afforded 
them by internal dissentions, the French this year obtained posses- 
*sion of ilon^.-, Switzerland, the Pays de Vaud, the Giisons, and 
Geneva, under circumstarices peculiarly distressing to the existing 
governments, and commonly attended witii heavy exactions, 
jind the plunder of their churches, palaces, and museums. The 
pope v>'as driven from Borne, partly by his own subjects, and partly 
through an overwecming confidence in his own power and influ- 
ence, 'i he lloman republic was proclaimed February 15, 1798 ; 
and the llnances being found in a bad state, the Vatican and other 
public buildings stripped of their contents. The Pays de Vaud,' 
wliitherthe French had been invited, to protect them against the 
aristocratic despotism of the Bernese, was formed into the Leman^ 
and Switzerland, after many crueisticrif:ces, into the Hdvttic re- 
public, or rather into three republics, for that was ultimately the 
;irrangement u'lopted ; provisional governments being in all places 
appointed, conformably, in a great degree, to the principles of the 
i'rench constitution. iN'o remonstrances en the part of the free can- 
tons could save them from the directorial decrees. An address to 
this effect, peculiarly pathetic and eloquent, from the cantons of 
SchwitE, Uri, Appenzei, Glaris, Zug, and Underwalden, had no 
-sffcct whtUevor in preserving them from a change of constitution, 
forced upon th^im ''oy democralic France. The degenerate Romans 
isid appeared to priie the:a.seiyes upcja eiE.«iatin°^ theii" heroic ±ip^ 



MODERN HISTORY. 379 

cestcr?, in re-establishing the republic, under the auspices of Gal- 
lic invaders. But the brave Swiss resisted to the utmost the rude 
disturbers of their ancient freedom. The modern republicans of 
Rome chanted a Te Deura, to hallow their deliverance. The Swiss 
aung their antiquated songs of patriotism and freedom, till the most 
dire necessity compelled them to surrender their established con- 
stitution to the dictates of a French directory. 

14. On the 5th of May, Buonaparte left Paris for Toulon, to take 
the command of an expedition, the real object of which has scarce- 
ly been ascertained to this day, though it appears most probable, 
that he designed to join Tippoo Saib in India, and to subvert the 
British empire there. He was accompanied by many artists, natu- 
ralists, and antiquarians, and a large proportion of the army which 
had served under him in Italy. Malta lying in his way to Ejrypt, 
he failed not to take possession of it, partly by force, and partly by 
intrigue, subjecting that island and its dependencies, Goza and 
Cumino, to the French republic, June 12, 179^. Its conquest had 
for some time previously been meditated, but it had lately been 
put under the protection of the emperor of Russia, Paul I: it was 
treated by the French as ill as other places, notwithstanding the 
utmost assurances to the contrary. The knights were driven from 
the island, many of the people compelled to join the French army, 
and new laws imposed under the authority of the directory. In the 
month of July, this year, 1798, a triumphant entry into Paris, of 
all the works of art collected in the several places subdued by the 
French arras, took place amid the acclamations of the people. The 
French fleet had narrowly escaped at Malta the pursuit of an Eng- 
lish one, under the command of Nelson ; and after the subductiou 
of the island, it was able to proceed, still undiscovered, to Egypt, 
where the English had already been to look for them in vain. On 
the 2d of July, Buonaparte took possession of Alexandria, ^flooring 
his fleet in the bay of Aboukir. In less than three weeks from his 
landing, and after a severe action with the Mamelukes, called the 
battle of the pyramids, Cairo, and the whole of the Delta fell into 
his power ; but his triumph was lessened by the loss of his fleet, on 
the 1st of August, which, being attacked in the bay by Nelson, was 
almost totally destroyed or taken, the French admiral Brueys be- 
ing killed and his ship burnt ; four ships only, two of them frigates, 
■were all tiiat escaped. When Buonaparte left Toulon, his fleet 
consisted of 400 sail, including thirteen ships of the line, and it 
•was rather increased than otherwise by his enterprise at Malta. 

15. The victory of Nelson gave a new turn to the war against 
the French. On his quitting Egypt, he carried his fleet to Naples, 
where the utmost joy was manifested by the court at the blow which 
had been given to the French preponderance. The queen invoked 
the Austrians to renew the war against France ; and the expedition 
to Egypt and attack upon Malta having excited the czar, and even 
the grand seignor, to resist aggressions so unprovoked and alarming, 
Francis 11. was not insensible to the call made upon him. England 
was not backward to encourage and aid such movements, in every 
part of Europe. The king of Sardinia, and the grand duke of Tua- 
€,:kaj skewed tkemsely^a -sfiiiiug to joia the aew coaiederac/ 5 but 



380 MODERN HISTORY. 

the king of Prussia was not to be prevailed on to abandon his neu- 
trality. 

16. The Neapolitan court, which had been the foremost to ex- 
cite this new war, were the first sufferers from it. Having invaded 
the territories of the church, and even obtained possession of Pvome, 
they were suddenly driven back by the French, the capital taken, 
and the royal family compelled to retire to Palermo, in Sicily. Na- 
ples was not taken possession of without a formidable insurrection 
of that extraordinary portion of its population, the Lazzaroni^ with 
whom the king, whose amusements were often unbecoming- his high 
rank, happened to be popular. This resistance provoked reprisals 
exceedingly distressing to the inhabitants, and almost ruinous to 
the city ; the tumult, hoAvever, was at length appeased, and the 
kingdom of Naples converted into the Parihenoptan^ or jYtapoli- 
tan republic. 

17. The king of Sardinia, and the grand duke of Tuscany were 
also made to pay dear for the renewal of hostilities, both being de- 
prived of their dominions, as allies of the Neapolitans, and com- 
pelled to abandon their capitals. The aged pope, who had indeed, 
by many unwise provocations, irritated the French, a refugee in 
the Tuscan territories, unv/illing to accompany the deposed prin- 
ces in their retreat from Florence, and too confidently relyir.g on 
the reverence that would be paid to his years and station, was ac- 
tually arrested in his monastic retirement, and conveyed to Va- 
lence, in Dauphiny, a prisoner, where he died broken hcarfed, 
August 29, 1799. On the establishment of the consular govern- 
ment, his body '^^as honourably interred, and a monument erected 
over him. 

18. But the directory, in the mid~t of these arbitrary seizures of 
states and kingrloms, acted with too little foresight, as to the effects 
of the r<.rmidable confederacy of Russia and Austria, The French ar- 
mies were widely separated, and many of the most snx:cessfal gene- 
rals, through a pernicious jealousy, disgraced and removed from 
their command. This disheartened the soldiers ; and reverses were 
preparing for them, both in Germany and Italy. The Russian ar- 
my, under Souvaroff, entered the latter country early in the spring of 
the year 1799, and on the 18th of April v/as at Verona. The charac- 
ter and manners of this northern general, made a great impression 
both upon the allied armies, and upon the inhabitants of the coun- 
tries he invaded. The French, under the celebrated Mor can, were 
obliged to fall back, leaving the Milanese exposed to the combined 
forces. After various actions, Milan was invested ; and, after a 
nineteen days^ siege, taken May 24. Turin, Alessandria, Mantua, 
and Tortona, v>^ere reduced in the months of June and- July; 
and in most of these places, as well as in other parts of Italy, 
Tuscany, Naples, and Rome, great indignation was manifested 
against the French, of whose tyranny they had all lasted, and of 
whose friendship they were already become we'ary. In a short 
time the French retained, of ail their conquests in those parts, on- 
ly Genoa and Savoy. 

19. While these things were going on, the councils at Paris be- 
gan to distrust the government of the directors, and to ask why 



MODERN mSTOS-Y, 381 

Buonaparte was at such a distance. Inquiries of this kind were 
ofttn pat to his brother Lucien, who had a seat in the council of 
five hundred. A party was formed against the most obnoxious of 
the directors, and three found it necessary to retire. Another revo 
Jution in the g-overnment was evidently preparing. Buonaparte's 
absence and object seemed equally mysterious. It wis supposed 
that he meant to open the old channel of trade between the East 
Indies raid tbe Mediterranean. After the destruction of his fleet, 
i(.s though banished from France, he appeared eager to establish a 
colony in Egypt, which, perhaps, was originally in his view, in 
carrying thither all that the arts and sciences of Europe could con^- 
tribute of 'utility or beauty. All his works were superintended by 
persons of known celebrity for talent and knowledge of every de- 
scription ; but he was turned from this object by the jealousy of 
the Turks, who, after the battle of Aboukir, (or of the Niie, as it 
is generally called in England,) were ready enough to join the 
English in attacking the French, confined, as it were, within their 
territories. Buonaparte, to be beforehand with them, marched in- 
to Syria, where the pacha of Acre, a man of most ferocious charac- 
ter, commanded. He succeeded in taking many fortresses, and 
for three months maintained a war in the very heart of the coun- 
try, but his artillery having been intercepted by the English, who 
had also been admitted into Acre,- his attempts upon the latter 
place were frustrated, and, being threatened on all sides, he re- 
solved to return to Egypt ; there he received letters to inform him 
of the reverses in Italy, and the disorders at Paris, and "to press his 
return ; but the Turks had landed at Aboukir, and taken posses- 
sion of the fort, and it was judged necessary for his fame, that he 
should not quit Egypt without beating them. He hastened to at- 
tack them, and succeeded ; but not v/ithout many severe conflicts, 
and an eight days' siege of the fortress of Aboukir. Soon aft^r this 
Siiccess, he embarked clandestinely for France, leaving the army 
under the command of general Kleber, (who complained greatly 
of being so duped and abandoned,) and in a very extraordinary 
manner escaped all the English ships cruising in the Mediterra- 
nean. 

20. Buonaparte arrived just in time to take advantage of the 
distracted state of the government. The legislature was a prey to 
faction ; the directors divided in opinion ; the jacobins and anarch* 
ists extremely troublesome, and not unlikely to recover their sway ; 
while many departments were in a state of insurrection and civil 
war. Sieyes, the most wise and politic of all that had yet been in 
tlie directory, foresaw the necessity of a change, and wanted anly 
some military genius to support his measures, and to whom he 
jcould confide his designs. Three other important characters ap- 
peared to rest their hopes on the interference of Buonaparte ; 
Fouche, minister of police ; Cambaceres, mmister of justice ; and 
the ex-minister for foreign aftairs, Talleyrand Ferigord. 

21. Within a month after the arrival of Buonaparte, a proposal 
■was made in the council of ancients, to remove the legislative bo- 
dies to St. Cloud, and to confer on Buonaparte the command of the 
tro.ops at F;;^ris, At the moment llie decree was passed, BupafSi- 



382 MODERN HISTORY. 

parte, accdmpauied by iPiany of the generals who had distinguished 
themselves under him, appeared at the bar, denouncing threats 
against all who should traverse the decree just passed. The coun- 
cil of five hundred, taken by surprise, niade some show of resist- 
ance ; and Buonaparte appearing amongst them, gave such offence, 
that he was in danger of assassination, amidst the cries of" Down 
•with the tyrant i*'^ '^ No dictator !'' His brother Lucien, at that 
time president, was loudly called upon to pronounce a decree of 
outlawry against him, which he evaded by throwing aside his ofFi- 
cial dress, and renouncing his seat in the assembly ; after which, 
Buonaparte, in some alarm, having joined his troops, the meeting 
was dissolved, and violently dispersed by the soldiery. It was al- 
lowed however to assemble again under the former presidency, the 
Jacobinical members being excluded, when a new order of things, 
approved by the council of elders, was brought forward, decreed, 
and proclaimed. The directory was abolished, and three new chief 
magistrates appointed under the name of consuls, while committees 
were formed to prepare a new constitution. Eighty persons v/ere 
to compose a senate, one hundred a tribunate, and three hundred 
a legislative body. 

22. The time seemed now to be arrived when the excesses of the 
revolutionary movement had prepared men's minds for a transition 
from a state of anarchy to one of despotism. Popular liberty had 
fallen into disrepute, fsom the violences of the jacobins ; and a 
strong executive government seemed indispensably necessary to re- 
store things to any degree of order and consistency. Though the 

Jive directors appeared to be exchanged for three consul^-, there 
was, in the last instance, no correspondent division of power and 
authority. To the first consul were assigned functions and pre- 
rogatives exceedingly distinct from those of his colleagues. " Unity 
of thought and action was declared to be a fundamental quality in 
the executive power.*' So far they were evidently going back to 
the first and best principles of monarchy. Hitherto, however, an 
elective and limited consulate was ail that was contemplated. 
General Buonaparte was appointed first consul, Cambaceres the 
second, and Le Brun the third ; the first tn^o for ten, the last for 
only five years ; Buonaparte, to say the loast, having all the pow- 
er of a king, though not the name, assigned to him, — a power 
approaching too near to absolute and uncontrollable despotism. 

23. In the first discharge of his new functions, however, he was 
careful to display a spirit of moderation, forbearance, and con- 
ciliation, in many popular acts at home, and overtures of peace to 
England. The latter were without effect, and a large subsidy be- 
ing granted by the British parliament, to enable the emperor to 
continue the war, no time was lost by the French in endeavouring^ 
to recover their footing in Italy. In the month of May, 1000, the 
first consul left Paris, to take the command of the army In those 
parts ; and after a most surprising passage through the mountain- 
ous parts of Switzerland, and the capture of the town of Costa, 
with the celebrated fort of Bard, succeeded so far as to be able to 
enter Milftn once more in triumph, the Austrians retiring bvfore him, 
i"ttie expecting that he could find a way iuto Loaibardy by tha 



MODERN HISTORY. 383 

road he had chosen. The Rus;3ian army had heen withdrawn in 
disguet, after the proceedings in Switzerland, which had greatly 
offended the czar. Previously to the entrance of the first consul 
into Milan, the French, under Massena, had heen compelled to 
evacuate Genoa : but the Austrians were doomed to sufftr a re- 
verse ; and thou^-h in the famous battle of Marengo, which took 
place on the 14th of June, they fought v»-ith the most desperate 
courage, and sustained an action of fourteen hours with great he- 
roism, and the fairest prospects of success, the enemy received re- 
inforcements at so critical a moment as to enable them to obtain a. 
complete victory, which was soon followed by a suspension of hos- 
tilities, solicited by the Austrian general. 

24. Negotiations for peace were entered into at Paris, and the 
preliminaries were sigpned ; but, through the remonsti-ances of the 
English government, (as it is supposed,) the emperor refused his 
ratitlcation, and the war was continued, both in Germany and 
Italy, till the 25th of December, 1000, when another suspension of 
hostilities being agreed to, at Steven, a town in Upper Austria, soon 
led to the treaty of Luneville., between the French republic and 
the empire^ signed February 9, 1801; by which the Rhine was 
made the boundary of the French republic, leavins: the several 
princes dispossessed, in part or in whole, of their territories on the 
left side of the river, to be indemnified in the bosom of the empire ; 
the Adige, in the same manner, being fixed to be the boundary be- 
Uveen the Austrian territories in Italy and the Cisalpine republic, 
7'he Grand duke of Tuscany renounced his dukedom in favour of 
the infant duke of Parma, created king of Etruria ; and the inde- 
pendence of the Batavian, Helvetic and Cisalpine republics, was 
recognized and guarantied by both parties. 

25. The English g-overnment had refused to enter into a naval 
armistice, though in danger of being deserted by the 'emperors of 
Germany and Russia, and had declined every offer of peace upon 
such terms, while Malta and Egypt continued in the hands of 
France. But after the re-capture of the former, and the defeat of 
the French under Menou, at Alexandria, in September, 1801, both 
parties seemed more disposed than before to enier into negotiation, 
with serious views of bringing things to an accommodation. On 
March 27th, 1802, a definitive treaty was signed at Amiens, more 
favourable to France than to England, though nothing could ex- 
ceed the joy expressed in the latter country, on the termination of 
hostilities with the French republic. It was soon found to be no 
better than a truce of very short duration. 

26. The power of the French republic at this moment was enor- 
mously great. In addition to the former possessions of France, it 
had gained the Netherlands, and a considerable portion of Ger- 
many ; Geneva, Piedmont, and Savoy had been incorporated with 
it ; Holland and Switzerland were rendered effectually dependent 
upon it. The Cisalpine republic, including the Milanese, the 
duchies of Modena, Mantua, and Parma, and part of the V^enetian 
a)id Roman territories, was placed under the presidency of tlie first 
consul, for a term of ten years. Genoa, or the Ligurian republic, 
h:id been i-ecovercd by the treaty of Luuerille ; Spani\;as entirely 



304 MODERN HISTORY. 

at the command of France, as well as Tuscany, uftder Its next 
possessor, the vassal king of Etraria. It had recovered also its 
West ii'.dian settlements, and acquired a conpiderable footiag iu 
South America. 



SECTION XVI. 

FRANCE, FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS TO THE TREATY 
OF TILSIT, 1807. 

f 
1. It has already Iveen observed, that the first steps of the consu- 
late were of a conciliatory nature. Endeavours were made to pa- 
cify the rebellious departments; the lav/ of hostage, which had 
been in its operation exti-'^-mely vexatious, was repealed ; and the 
list of emigrants closed. On the first change of the government, 
measures were taken to repress the violence of the jacobins, and 
awe the factious ; but the sentences passed on the most obnoxious 
were afterwards mitigated. 

. 2. Soon after the conclusion of the peace of Amiens, the first 
consul gave great satisfaction to the bulk of the nation, by restoring 
the catholic religion. On Eastor-day, 1{J02, the peace Vv-as ratified 
in the metropolitan church, with ail the sanctions of the ancient 
religious forms, and a large attendance of new prelates. The basis 
of the convention with the pope had been settled and arranged in 
the preceding year, upoii the follov/ing principles: — That a new 
division of the French dioceses should be made, suited to the re- 
publican division of the country ; and that the first consul should 
nominate the new archbishops and bishops, leaving ii to the pope, 
as a matter of course, to confer canonical institutions. The bish- 
ops to appoint the parish priests, subject to the approbation ol gov- 
ernment. The pope to procure the ancient bishops to resign, and 
to engage not to disturb the alienated property of the church. No 
bull, rescript, &c., from the court of Rome, no decrees of synods, 
or general councils, to be received, or promulgated, without the 
consent of government. No national or diocesan meeting to take 
place without the same authority ; or any nuncio, legate, or vicar, 
to be allowed to exercise his functions. 

3. Such were some of the principal articles of the concordaium, 
of 1801. The pope seemed to be glad to make any concessions 
that might recover France from the depths of infidelity ; while the 
articles thcrrselves plainly show that the first consul, in restoring 
Catholicism, had no intention to subject the nation, as heretofore, 
to the dominion of the Roman see, even in spiritual matters. A 
still stronger proof, however, of which, appears in the liberty af- 
forded, at the same time, to the Lutherans and Calvinibts, w^ho 
were placed nearly upon the same footing with the catholics ; and 
were even allowed to have three seminaries of education ; two in 
the eastern parts of France, for the Lutherans, and one at Gene- 
va, for the Calvinists. Provision was also made in the new con- 
cordatum for the supposed case of a protestant being chosen chief 
magistrate of the republic. 



MODERN HISTOKV. oS5 

4. Oil the second of August, 1802, by an extraordinary expres- 
sion of thy public will, the consulate, the term of which, in the 
case of Buonaparte and Cambaceres, had been limited to ten years, 
was conferred on the former for life. The original proposal had 
been only to extend the term ; but the people in the diiferent com- 
munes being called upon to give their opinion, voted, almost 
unanimously, for its being continued to the first consul for life, 
which was readily sanctioned by the senate. 

5. This appointment was soon followed by a new form of con- 
stitution, calculated to throw greater power into the hands of the 
first magistrate, w^ho was permitted, not only to nominate his col- 
leagues, but to make war, form alliances, conclude peace, pardon 
criminals, and virtually to choose the members of the le£;i3lative 
body, by means of the senate, which was almost entirely undcc 
his influence. He was careful, at the same time, to put the gov- 
ernments of the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics, and other new- 
}y acquired states, upon a similar footing, reserving to himself, iu 
all cases, the supreme power as first magistrate. All these steps 
were so artfully taken, as to appear to be the regular result of pop- 
ular choice and deliberation. Liberty, equality of civil rights, and 
national representation, were professed to be the objects in view ; 
but care was taken to render each dependent on the domineering 
influence and directions of the first consul. It was at this period that 
the Cisalpine was converted into the Italian republic. 

6. Switzerland v/as not so easily to be brought under the French 
yoke, though its struggles for liberty and independence were 
finally unavailing. Many of the cantons displayed an almost in- 
Tincible attachment to their ancient constitution, and resisted, in 
every way they could, the menaced invasion of their rights and 
privileges ; but the znore they were divided amongst themselves, 
which unhappily proved to be the case to a high degree, the great- 
er opportunity was afforded to the despotic ruler of France to in- 
terpose his offices to restore peace, nominally as a mediator, but 
really and efiectually to the subjugation of the country, which, 
when reduced, was in mockery declared to be free and inde- 
pendent. Remonstrances on the part of the English court, are 
supposed to have had some effect in mitigating the rigour of his 
exactions, and rendering the new constitution prepared for them, 
more congenial to their feelings than might otherwise hare been 
the case. 

7. In 1802, by the death of the duke of Parma, and in. virtue of 
a previous convention with Spain, the first consul, in the name of 
the French republic, took possession of the duchies of Parma, Pla- 
centia, and Guastalla, and incerporated them soon after with 
France. The only son of the deceased duke of Parma, by a Span- 
ish princess, having assigned to him by the treaty of Luneville, the 
Tuscan states, under the title of the kingdom of Etruria. 

8. Though, by the above treaty, the indemnification of those 
princes, whose rights and property had suffered from the progress 
of the French, seemed to be left chiefly to the decision of the diet 
of the empire, Buonaparte found means to interfere to his own ad- 
vunt-age, favoux'ing those most from whom he had the most to fear, or 

3S 



386 MODERN HISTORY. 

•who were most likely to be subservient to his views. For the duke 
of Wirtemburgh, the landgrave of H^isse Cassel, and the margrave 
of Baden, he secured the electoral dignity ; while the indemnifi- 
cations were provided for by the secularization ^f many ecclesias- 
tical states on the right side of the Rhine. 

9. It was soon found that, by the peace of Amiens, little cordi- 
ality was produced betwen the two nations. The first consul pro- 
fessed to be bound by that treaty only to particular specified 
points, and appeared through his agents, secret or avowed, to be 
preparing for a renewal of hostilities. He had some reason, it 
must be confessed, to be offended with the liberties taken with him 
in some of the public journals of England at this time ; and though 
it can scarcely be supposed that peace could be his object, yet he 
appears to have been provoked and irritated by the distrust of the 
British government and nation. So early as the month of May, 
1803, the two countries may be said to have been again in a state 
of war with each other. 

10. On this quick renewal of hostilities, the first consul had re- 
course to a most extraordinary measure, in detaining all the Eng- 
lish who happened to have come over to France during the peace, 
for business or pleasure, as a sort of hostages for the future conduct 
of their country. He also projected a powerful invasion of Eng- 
land, which had only the efiect of rousing the latter country to 
such vigorous and patriotic exertions as entirely to frustrate all his 
schemes and intentions. A levy en masse was proposed, subject 
to the regulations of parliament. As another act of vengeance 
against England, an army was sent to occupy Hanover, though 
the king, in his electoral capacity, had determined to remain 
neuter. 

11. The first consul had now, for some time, exercised not only 
kingly, but almost despotic power, and artfully placed himself in 
such a situation of control and influence, with regard to all the 
public bodies, assemblies, and councils of the nation, that it is not 
to be wondered that he should have aspired to, and obtained, the 
highest dignities it is in the power of a nation to bestow ; though, 
had he acted with less prudence and policy, nothing certainly could 
have occurred more surprising than the undisturbed elevation of a 
Corsican adventurer to one of the most splendid thrones of Europe. 
By an organic senatus consultum of the 18th of May 1804, Buona- 
parte was declared Emperor of the Frerch. The title to be 
hereditary, as to his immediate descendants, and, in case of failure 
of male issue, granting him a further power to adopt the children, 
or grand-children, of his brothers. All laws were to originate with 
the sovereign, or to be proposed in his name ; and due care was 
taken, by rendering the legislative body and tribunate dependant 
on the senate, in the appointment of which the emperor was to 
have almost the whole power, to prevent the passing of any laws 

- contrary to his will. The imperial title thus conferred on him, 
was acknowledged by most of the states of Europe, though not by 
England. 

12. This assumption of the imperial title, by Napoleon Buona- 
parte, and the subsequent confederation of the Rhine, led the em" 



MODERN HISTORY. 387 

peror of GeriTianj*, Francis II, to abdicate the Germanic empire, 
and to change his title to that of emperor of Austria, thereby se- 
curing the same hereditary honour to the house of llapsburg, and 
at the same time, not entirely resigning his political relationship to 
the states and empire of Germany. 

13. On the 2d of December, 1804, Napoleon was crowned, in 
the church of Notre Dame, with extraordinary pomp and splen- 
dour, having previously invited, or rather compelled the humbled 
pontiff of Rome to be present at the ceremony, and to anoint him. 
His empress, Josephine Beauharnois, to whom he had been some 
time married, was crowned at the same time. 

14. One of the first acts of the new emperor was to change the 
name of the Code civil des Francais^ introduced under the consu- 
lar government, for that of the Code JVapoieon. His two brother^ 
Joseph and Lewis, and his two colleagues, Le Brun and Camba- 
ceres, were declared grand elector^ constable^ arch- chancellor^ and 
arch-treasurer^ of the empire ; and the dignity of mareschal was 
conferred on the most distinguished of his generals. But, in order 
to give more stability to his throne, or intimidate his enemies, under 
pretence of a royalist conspiracy, he had many eminent persons 
brought to trial ; among others, the two celebrated generals, Pi- 
chegru and Moreau. The former was, soon after, found dead in 
his prison, under circumstances implying little less than a most de- 
liberate murder ; the latter, an equal object of dread and alarm, 
and y/hose death was probably contemplated, was permitted, how- 
ever, to retire to North America. It is scarcely credible, though 
it certainly appears upon record, that the French minister at Berlin 
was directed to move the king of Prussia to deliver up the unfortu- 
nate Lewis XVIII, then at Warsav/, and to send him to France, to 
answer for the concern he v/as stated to have had in this con- 
spiracy. 

15. Having obtained the imperial dignity in France* Napoleon 
appeared dissatisfied to be only president of a republic with regard 
to his Cisalpine conquests. Means were found to induce the con- 
stituted authorities of the new Italian republic to offer to him the 
crown of Italy, an offer he was quite prepare(4 to accept, as though 
the whole of that devoted country had been already subdued. On 
the 2Gth of May, 1805, he repaired to Milan, and taking the fa- 
mous iron crown from the altar of the cathedral, placed it on his 
own head, denouncing vengeance against all who should dispute 
his right to it. Having done this, he appointed the son of the em- 
press Josephine, Beauharnois, to be his viceroy, and agreed, that 
upon his death the two crowns should be separated. Soon after 
he seized\upon Genoa, dispossessed the doge and senators of their 
power, and decreed, that henceforth the territories of the Ligurian 
republic, as it was called, should be annexed to France. These 
rapacious proceedings at length provoked a fresh confederacy 
against him, so that before the year was passed, not only England, 
but Russia, Prussia, and Austria, were in arms to resist his en- 
croachments. Sweden had joined the confederacy, but retired in 
disgust. Such, however, was the dread of the power or vengeance 
of France J that several of the German princes, particularly the 



388 MODERN HISTORY. 

elector of Bavaria, sided with Napoleon, in opposition to tlie may 
peror Francis. 

16. By sea, the power of the French and Spaniards combined 
failed of gaining- any advantages over the allies. On the 21st of 
October, 1805. in the battle of Trafalgar, a complete victory was 
©btained by the British fleet, under lord Nelson, who perished in 
the action. There was a disparity in the number of ships, in fa- 
vour of the French and Spaniards, of thirty-three to twenty-seven. 
On the continent, the course of the war was very diiferent. The 
king of Prussia was dilatory in his proceedings, and even treach- 
erous. Sweden had withdrawn. The emperor Francis employed 
an inefficient commander, if not worse, (general Mack,) and the 
Russians, who Avere more in earnest, were baffled by the unsteady 
proceedings of their allies, and distressed by want of provisions, 
sickness, and fatigue. After the battle of Austerlitz, in Decem- 
ber, the emperor of Austria, whose capital had been in the hands 
of the eneoiy, solicited peace, submitting to surrender what had 
been allotted to him of the Venetian territories, together with the. 
principalities of Lucca and Fiombino ; and to acknowledge Buo- 
naparte ai king of Italy. Bavaria acquired a part of the Brisgaw 
and Tyrol. Such M'cre the terms of the peace of Presburgh, Go* 
tober, 1804. 

17. 1'he secession of some of the German states from the empe- 
ror of Austria, had, in the mean time, produced changes that re- 
quire to be noticed. The electors of Bavaria and Wirtembufgh 
were elevated to the rank of kings of their respective countries ; 
j'nd Eugene Beauharnois, viceroy of Italy, son of the French empress 
.Tosephine, obtained in marriage the daughter of the new king of 
Bavaria, though she had been previously betrothed to the prince of 
Baden. 

18. The court of Naples, during this war, through the Injudi- 
cious, but natural, resentment of the queen, sister to the late un- 
fortunate queen of France, had the misfortune to incur the high 
displeasure of Napoleon, by admitting a British and Russian army 
to land on its territories. The French despot lost no time in pro- 
nouncing sentence on the rebellious neutral. He quickly made it 
knovm that the Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign at Naples. 
The royal family v.'as compelled to retire to Palermo, and in a 
ahort time after. Napoleon conferred the Neapolitan crown on his 
brother Joseph ; much to the discontent, however, of the people, 
whd for some time gave him great disturbance. Joseph was pro- 
maimed king, March 30, 1806. 

19. The emperor of the French had another kingdom in view 
for his brother Lewis, constable of France. Holland had submit- 
ted to several forms of government, v%ithout obtaining that order 
and tranq'-iillity which was supposed to be in the contemplation of 
those vvho directed her affairs. It was suggested that a monarchy 
would remedy all the disorders to which she ivas exposed ; and it 
was hinted, too plainly to be misunderstood, that it would be agree- 
able to the emperor, if the leading persons of the state, not the 
the community at large, would give countenance to such a change. 
So great was the infatuation, or timidity, of the persons to whom 



MODERN HISTORY, 389 

these snggestfons were made, that they did not scruple to solicit 
the appointment of the emperor's brother, who declared himself 
king of Holland accordingly, June 5, 1806. To the credit of the 
new king, it should he observed, that he soon fell into disgrace 
with his imperial brother, by being too lenient to his subjects, 
and by endeavouring to mitigate the rigour of the French de- 
crees. 

20. In the year 1806, Napoleon succeeded in subverting the 
constitution of the German empire, by detaching maiiy ol the prin- 
cipal states, chiefly of the western and southern divisions of Ger- 
many, to form what was denominated " The Confederation of the 
Rhine^'''' by which the several princes consented to renounce the 
laws of the empire, to contract a federative alliance with the 
French emperor, and to supply him with troops whenever he should 
demand them. In consequence of this gross defection of so many 
members, the emperor, by a solemn edict, abdicated the govern- 
ment of the Germanic empire, absolving all the electors, princes, 
and states from the obligations by which they stood bound to him, 
as their legitimate head ; thereby terminating, as it were, a °^ov- 
ernment which had subsisted for a thousand years, and been un^ 
interruptedly confided to the house of Hapsburgh from the vear 
1438. 

21. It seemei as if every thing, at this time, was doomed to fall 
before the power of the Corsican. Prussia, which had hitherto 
acted a most unwise part, in neglecting to add its weight to the 
confederacy of 1804, and even submitting to be cajoled into an 
alliance with France, became, in the course of the year 1806, sen- 
sible of her error; but to no g'ood purpose. She now precipitately 
entered into a war for which she was ill-prepared ; v/ith no sup- 
port but that of Saxony ; and having put her army under the coni' 
mand of the duke of Brunswick, sustained two signal and almost 
fatal defeats, at Jena and Averstadt, laying' the capital open to the 
advance of the enemy, who entered it in triumph ; and, being too 
well received and entertained by the people, did not fail, as in all 
other cases, to take due advantage of their willing submission. In 
the course of the contest, the Saxons were detached from Prussia^ 
and the duke of Brunswick being wounded, and obliged to quit 
his dominions on the advance of the French, died miserably at AIv 
tona. Kapoleon, in resentment, meanly refusing to suli'er his body 
to be buried amongst his ancestors. 

22. It was during his sojournment in Berlin, November, 1806, 
that the French emperor dictated that extrordinary decree, de- 
claring the British islands to be in a state of blockade, though he 
had no naval force capable of interrupting their commerce in any 
part of the world. By this decree, the v/ho'C trade of Britain was 
proscribed ; no intercourse of any sort was allowed to take place ; 
all British subjects on the continent were threatened with arrest 
and confiscation of property, and every port shut against English 
vessels, in Prussia, Denmark, the Hans towns, Holland, Fiandersj 
France, Spain, Italy, &c. 

23. The progress of the French, in the territories of the king of 
Frussia, occaaioaed fresh alarm to the emperor of Russia, and ti> 

33* 



390 MODERN HISTdRir. 

the British government, and procured for Frederick that assistance 
-which his former supineness and intrusion on the Hanoverian state? 
ini^ht very reasonably have rendered hopeless. The king of Swe 
den was also subsidized by England, to send an army into Pome- 
rania ; but all the efforts of the allies were insufficient to stop the 
career of the French. The Russians fought many severe battles, 
at Eylau, Friedland, fee, but were unable to prevent the French 
gfetting possession of Dantzic and Konigsberg ; losses so severely 
felt by the king of Prussia, as to compel him to conclude a sepa- 
rate peace, as a conquered enemy ; while Napoleon, with consum- 
mate art, not only persuaded Alexander to abandon the king of 
Prussia to his fate, but to form an alliance with himself, for the 
farther spoliation of the Prussian dominions, and to concur in ar- 
rangements very adverse to the general interests of Europe, and 
serviceable only to his own family. By the treaty of Tilsit, July, 
1807, the emperor of Russia agreed to acknowledge the Rhenish 
confederacy, now consisting of many states, and Joseph and Lewis 
Buonaparte, as kings of Naples, and Holland. He suffered the 
French emperor to confer on his youngest brother, Jerome^ with the 
title of king of Westphalia, the Prussian provinces between the 
Elbe and the Rhine, the states of Hanover, and the territories of 
the duke of Brunswick, and landgrave of Hesse Cassel, while the 
greater part of Prussian Poland was given to the elector (now king) 
of Saxony, with the title of duke of Warsaw ; and by secret arti- 
cles, as it has been alleged, most of the usurpations of the French, 
in all parts of Europe, were sanctioned and confirmed. During the 
•whole of the years 1806 and 1807, the German states were un- 
dergoing continual changes, through the overbearing tyranny of 
Napoleon. Ail the princes who joined the Rhenish confedera- 
tion were rewarded with titles or territorial possessions ; all who 
favoured the allies, dispossessed of their dominions, and declared 
enemies of France. To particularize all these revolutions, few 
of v/hich were permanent, would exceed the limits of the present 
work. 

24. Among other acquisitions resulting from the treaty of Tilsit, 
Napoleon recovered the Ionian islands. These islands, subsequent 
to the treaty of Campo-Formio, had been greatly agitated and dis- 
turbed, and it seemed difficult to know what to do with them. In 
iNIarch, 1800, however, by a convention between Russia and the 
Porte, it was settled that Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, Ceri- 
go, St. Mauro, and Paxo, should be formed into one state, under 
the guarantv of the contracting parties, by the name of the Ionian 
republic, ny the treaty of Amiens, 1802, Napoleon engaged to 
acknowledge the Septinsular republic ; but, by the treaty of Til- 
sit, it was restored to him again by Russia. This treaty, in short, 
appeared to be dictated entirely by the despot of France. Prussia, 
a.tsandoned by her Russian ally, suffered dreadfully. The king of 
»7weden refused to become a party tc this memorable convention, 
•and manifested a determination to resist, to the utmost, the en- 
croachments of the French ; but he had little judgment or pru- 
dence to direct him ; and he had not the means to contend against 
such s!i adversary as Buonaparte. After many ia^ffeetual attempts 



MODERN HISTORY. 391 

to save Stralsund, and keep his army in Pomerania, he was at 
length compelled to retire, with the loss both of Stralsund and the 
isle of Rusfen, 



SECTION XVIL 

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL FROM 17GS TO 1814. 

1. These two countries are by nature so connected, that though 
their interests are, and g-enerally have been, very different, and 
the people little disposed to friendly associations, yet, with regard 
to the affairs of Europe, they have very commonly been involved 
in the same troubles, and never long permitted to enjoy tranquilli- 
ty, while the leading powers of the continent have been engaged 
in war. This has been already sufficiently manifested in the his- 
tory of these two contiguous kingdoms, during the former part of 
the eighteenth century, but has been rendered still more conspicu- 
ous by the events of the subsequent years. 

2. Charles IV. of Spain, came to the crown in December, 1788, 
when the French revolution was just beginning-; and it was not 
till some few years after, and in the midst of the reign of terror, 
that his kingdom became involved in the disturbances of that great 
catastrophe. The Spaniards, in the year 1793, offended with the 
violence offered to the royal family of France, had invaded the lat- 
ter country, and taken the town of Bellgfarde, little foreseeing the 
gpeedy aud severe reprisals to which they were exposing- them- 
selves. >^arly in the year 1794, the French, vmder general Du- 
gommier, invaded Spain, and succeeded, not only in beating- the 
Spanish army, but in securing the occupation of many places of 
importance. These successes were not only available to the res- 
toration of peace with Spain, but procured for the French, by 
the treaty of 1795, the Spanish portion of the valuable island of 
St. Domingo, in the West Indies, and, in 1796, an alliance with 
the Spanish monarch against England, — an alliance fatal to Spain 
in m-auy respects ; her tleet being beaten by the English in battle, 
off the cape of St. Vincent, the island of Trinidad taken from her, 
aud retained by Great Britain at the peace of Amiens, and her 
commerce crippled and impeded in all parts of the world. 

3. Though she sought, by a large subsidy to France, to be per- 
mitted to remain neuter, after the renewal of the war in 1803, yet 
she was not long- alUwed to be at peace. In 1804, the Eng;lish, 
suspicious of her close connection with France, seized upon some 
of her treasure ships, coming from South America, with a sudden- 
ness judged by many to be not strictly justifiable; and, in 1805, 
war was formally declared against Great Britain. But in this new 
war she was again doomed to suffer misfortune, her fleet being to- 
tally beaten by lord Nelson, on the 1st of October, 1805, in the cele- 
brated battle off cape Trafalgar. (See Sect. XVI, $ 16.) 

4. During; the year 1806, Spain appeared disposed to break with 
France, had any misfortune befallen the latter power ; but her 
successes ia Prussia seem to have ifttimidated Spain, and to have 

f 



392 MODERN HISTORY. 

induced her, in 1807, through the manoeuvres of Godoy,the Span» 
ish minister, who had a view to the principality of Algarves, to 
enter into a regular treaty with France, for the partition of Por- 
tugal. 

5. Hitherto the latter country, since the elevation of Buonaparte 
to the chief magistracy, had been suffered to remain neuter. The 
reigniug queen having- been declared insane, the power had devol- 
ved to the prince of Brazil, crown prince, in 1799, who, in vir- 
tue of his purchased neutrality, had been able to keep his com- 
mercial relations with England, unmolested by the French, till 
the treaty just mentioned between the latter power and Spain. 

6. France was not long in availing herself of the permission she 
had obtained to march an army through Spain, for the subjugation 
of Portugal. Having made demands on the regent of Portugal, 
■with which he could not, in honour, comply, it was declared that 
the house of Braganza had ceased to reign ; and, shortly after- 
wards, the French army, under general Junot, passed the frontiers. 
In these extremities, instigated by the English, the royal family 
determined to embark for America. They set sail on the '21st of 
November, 1807 ; and, on the 30th, Junot, with his army entered 
Lisbon. 

7. The state of Spain, at this period, was undoubtedly such 
as to encourage the most ambitious views of the French em- 
peror. Nothing could exceed the weakness of the court of Madrid, 
or the confusion of the national affairs. At the very moment of 
the partition treaty, the hereditary prince, Ferdinand, who had re- 
fused to marry the minister's sister-in-law, on the suggestion of the 
court, was arrested, imprisoned, and threatened with a ciiminal 
prosecution, for having secretly sou^^ht a matrimonial alliance with 
Buonaparte's family. This was followed by disturbances, and the 
imprisonment of the obnoxious minister, Godoy^ duke of Alcudia, 
and, since the convention of 1795, generally called the "prince 
of peace." Charles IV, harassed and distressed by these tumults, 
was induced, on the 19th of March. 1808, to resign his crown in 
favour of his son, now become Ferdinand VH ; but he soon after- 
wards revoked his abdication, as forced upon him, and extorted 
by the dread of personal violence. Nothing could be more directly 
calculated to promote the views of Buonaparte than these divis- 
ions, whose constant policy it was, in all cases of premeditated 
conquest, to promote dissention, in order to be called in as an ar- 
bitrator or mediator, which was the case in this instance. After 
Buonaparte had been baffled in his hopes of compelling the king 
and queen to emigrate, through the resistance of the people of 
Spain to such a measure, the whole royal family" were invited to 
repair to Bayonne, to confer on the state of affairs ; an invitation 
the most insidious, but which had its effect. On the 14th of April 
Buonaparte arrived there ; Ferdinand on the 20th, and on the 1st 
of May, Charles IV. and his queen, after the favourite, Godoy, 
had been released, on their application to Buonaparte. 

8. The transactions at Bayonne exceeded almost every thing to 
be met with in any preceding history. The persons invited were 
exactly those whom Buonaparte wokild have been glad to have 



MODERN nisroRv. 3^^ 

seen driven into his tolls : in this case they were weak enough to 
go thither of their own accord. Hariagthe two kings completely 
in his power, and beyond the frontier of Spain, he compelled 
Charles to resume his authority, on purpose that he might resign 
it into the liands of the French, proposing", on the terms of an 
equivalent elsewhere, a similar act of renunciation on the part of 
Ferdinand ; which the latter indignantly refusing-, was at once de- 
clared to be excluded from all he had, and all ho might have had, 
and even threatened with the loss of liberty. This so intimidated 
the degraded prince, that at length he unconditionally resigned his 
royal dignity, first into the hands of his father, and through him, 
into those of Buonaparte, who soon obtained, though in a manner the 
most extraordinary, the consent of most of the principal personages 
of the state, as well as of the constituted authorities, to the appoint- 
ment of his brother Joseph, then king- of Naples, to the vacant 
Spanish throne, and to render it hereditary in the family of the 
usurper. In the mean while, Ferdinand was sent to V'^alancey, and 
afterwards to Foniainbieau, as a prisoner, and Charles and his 
queen to Compiegne : their joint abdication of the Spanish crown 
was publicly announced at Madrid on the 20th of May, to the 
great disgust of the Spanish people in general, who soon resolved 
to be revenged for the horrid indignities they were made to un- 
dergo. 

9. In the course of the very month in which all the transactions at 
Bayonne took place, and Joseph Buonaparte entered the capital of 
Spain as king, the national resentment was manifested by a gene- 
ral rising, and insurrection in all the principal provinces ; but it 
was first in Andalusia that any thing like an organized government 
was formed for the conduct of the war, ou the part of the patriots ; 
there, a provincial junia^ or council of magistrates, inhabitants, 
and constituted authorities, was formed, at Seville, which led to 
other conventions of the same nature, in places least molested by 
the French, and in all of these Ferdinand Vil. was proclaimed king, 
and v/ar openly denounced against the French, accompanied with 
proclamations and manifestoes, highly creditable to the good sense, 
.spirit, ardour, and patriotism of the ^ panish nation, and expressed 
in terms very different from the language to which the French ty- 
rant had been accustomed. Joseph Buonaparte entered Spain 
ou the 9th of July, 1808,- escorted by four thousand Italian 
troops, and followed by upward? of one hundred carriages, convey- 
ing his suite and the members of the junta assembled at Payonne, 
to assist at his inauguration. He was ill received, or rather sul- 
lenly treated by the inhabitants, on his passage to the capital. 
Joseph entered Madrid on the 20th of July ; at v/hich very time 
the Spaniards obtained an important victor3'- over a French army 
marching upon Cadiz, vvhich were compelled to capitulate to the 
amount of fourteen thousand men, while the French fleet at Ca- 
diz was seized by the vigilance and activity of don Thomas Morla. 
These successes on the part of the Spaniards, compelled the ne\^ 
king to retire from the capital to Burgos, after plundering' the 
treasury and securing the crown jev/els. 



394 MODERN HISTORY. 

10. In the mean while, it was soon discovered that the aid of 
other poTv'crs wonld be -U'anted, in order to rescue the king-dom 
and peninsula from the grasp of Napolf -^n. Application was ac- 
cordingly made to the court of London, to the Swedes, and to the 
Portuguese and Austrians. The former paid a ready and willing 
attention to the call ; and the whole British nation evinced, in an 
extraordinary manner, the utmost desire to render effectual assis- 
tance to Spain, whose cause seemed to be justly interesting to 
every friend of freedom. 

11. While these things were passing in Spain, a similar spirit 
had arisen in Portugal, against the tyranny and usurpations of the 
French ; and the arrival of a British army, in the month of August, 
under sir Arthur Wellesley, (afterwards duke of Wellington,) gave 
timely effect to these patriotic movements. The relief of Portugal 
•was sooner accomplished than proved to be the case afterwards 
•with Spain. On the 21st of August a decisive battle took place 
at Vimiera, between the French and combined armies of English 
and Portuguese ; in v/hich the former were so entirely beaten as 
to be obliged to evacuate the country ; and which they were ena- 
bled to do, by a convention concluded at Cintra, under circum- 
stances considered far too favourable, by Europe in general, and 
which was resented by the people of England. 

12. The evacuation of Portugal, however, at all events, set an 
army free for the use of Spain, which, at the latter end of the 
month of October, to the amount of twenty thousand men, entered 
that country, nnder the command of sir John Moore ; the emperor 
Napoleon having quitted Paris just about the same time, to take 
the command of the French army there. Unfortunately, the state 
of Spain at the moment of this first attempt on the part of Eng- 
land, to give aid to the patriots, was such as greatly to embarrass 
the British commander : he had been taught (or rather, the gov- 
ernment at home had been so) to expect a strenuous co-operation 
on the part of the Spaniards ; in which he was exceedingly disap- 
pointed, while he continually received advice of the augmenta- 
tion of the French forces, to an amount far exceeding all his cal- 
culations : nor did he consider even his ov/n army so well-appoint- 
ed as to enable him to contend, in the heart of the kingdom, 
■whither he was directed to proceed, with any fair probability of 
success. He was evidently dispirited with the prospect before 
him ; and though a perfectly brave officer, felt himself so ill-sup- 
ported by the Spaniards, at least, by those who directed the public 
affairs, (if not even deceived and betrayed,) and so embarrassed 
by want of money and other supplies, as to be compelled to retire. 
The retreat of his army, though unhappily disgraced by many 
irregularities and disorders amongst the soldiery, was conducted, 
in the face of the enemy, (Buonaparte himself being sometimes 
present,) with singular courage and dexterity, till they reached 
Corunna, v/here, at last, the transports not being arrived, an ac- 
tion with the pursuing army took place, which terminated in fa- 
vour of the English, though with the loss of the gallant, but unfor- 
tunate, commander, whose death was greatly lamented. After 
this action, on the arrival of the transports, the English troops em^* 



MODERN HISTORY. 395 

barked without molestation, and on the 18th of January, 1009, set 
sail for England. 

13. Before sir John Moore finally determined upon retiring-, he 
had learned that Buonaparte had recovered possession of the capi- 
tal, which, after the departure of Joseph, the patriots had endea- 
voured to fortify and defend ; hut it was surrendered to the enemy 
early in the month of December, 1808, by the temporary •;overnor, 
Don Thomas Morla. Spain was far from being subdued at the 
close of the year 1808, though the aspect of things was alarming, 
and the French extremely confident of success. Joseph re-enter- 
ed Madrid, in great pomp, in January, 1809. In the mean time, 
Napoleon had decreed that the inquisition should be abolished, ma- 
ny monasteries suppressed, and the feudal privileges abrogated. 

14. After the affair of Corunna, the French a.rmy under general 
Soult, (duke of Dalmatia,) invaded Portugal again, and v/as able 
to get possession of Oporto ; while another army, under general 
Victor, threatened Lisbon. It was at this moment that fi esh troops 
arrived from England, under the command of sir Arthur Wellesley, 
who quickly recovered Oporto, and then turning against Victor, 
once more relieved Portugal from the presence of the French. In 
June he entered Spain, and by the 20th of July was in a situation 
to threaten Madrid ; on the 27th and 28th, at Talavera del Reyna, 
he was attacked by the French under Joseph Buonaparte, assisted 
by four marshals ; but was able, in conjunction with the Span- 
iards, after a very hard fouglit battle, to repel them with great 
loss. Though this victory was not attended with any immediate 
advantages, and would appear to have been rather rashly hazard- 
ed, the British general, for his great skill and conduct during the 
action, was raised to the peerage by the title of viscount Welling- 
ton of Talavera. 

15. Though a central junta had been appointed in 1808, to give 
consistency and strength to the proceedings of the patriots, they 
were still ill-prepared either to contend against the enemy alone, 
or conjointly v/ith the British. In the battle of Talavera, and af- 
terwards, their movements had rather embarrassed than assisted 
the operations of the latter. It would have been well if the Span- 
iards, from the first, could have been prevailed upon to appoint 
lord Wellington generalissimo of all the forces acting against the 
French. The latter, hov/ever, were much harrassed by a sort of 
desultory war, carried on by guerilla parties, who intercepted their 
supplies, and without attempting any regular engagement, (for 
which, indeed, they were unfit,) were continually attacking them 
in the vv'ay of ambuscade and surprize ; for which their superior 
knov/ledge of the country evidently gave them great advantages. 

IG. It is not to be wondered that the extraordinary situation of 
Spain should occasion great crabarrassmeut in the management of 
the war. In the place of the supreme central junta of 1800, a 
regency had been appointed, and the cortes assembled, but with- 
out sufficient effect. The Spanish armies acted without system, 
and the nation at large manifested a jealousy of their English al- 
lies, which prevented such a co-operation as might have brought 
the whole under one command, to the evident advantage of the 



396 ^ MODERN HISTORY. 

cause, in %Yhich they must have heen, though with diifereiit dcr 
grees of zeal and judgment, equally interested. This distrust ou 
the part of the Spaniards exposed them also, it is to be feared, to 
treatment far from conciliatory on the part of the English. The 
war which was renewed between France and Austria, in 1809, 
drew the attention cf Napoleon in some degree from Spain: but 
those differences being soon adjusted, early in the year 1810, pow- 
erful reinforcements were sent from France to the Peninsula, to re- 
conquer Portugal, and " drive the English into the sea.'' What 
has been said of Spain is by no means applicable to Portugal : in 
the latter country, not only a better spirit was manifested, but the 
army being placed under British command, and regularly organi- 
zed, by general lord Beresford, was soon rendered capable uf af- 
fording very effectual aid and assistance. 

17. During the whole of the years ISiO and 1811, the contend- 
ing armies were occupied in striving to gain advantages over each 
other, which called forth all the skill and judgment appertaining 
to the science of war. The. detail, however, of the several ac- 
tions v/hich took place, of the investment and capture of the 
strong holds of the two portions of the Peninsula, do not belong to 
such a work as the present. It was not till the summer of 1812, 
and after the victory g-.iined by lord Wellington over the French 
under m.arshal Marmont, in the battle of Salamanca, that the to- 
tal expulsion of the J'rench, and overthrow of the throne of Jo- 
seph, became a matter of little doubt. The battle of Saiamancai 
may be said to have opened the g^ies of Madrid once more to the 
patriots and allied army, and restored the Spanish crown to Ferdi- 
nand. The battle was fought on the S'Sd of July. On the 30th, 
lord WqlUng-tou entered Valladolid, the enemy retiring before him ; 
and on the 12th of August, _\iadrid surrendered to the British arms. 
Joseph and his suite having' previously quitted it. Lord Welling- 
ton was received in the capital with the acclamations justly due 
to the liberator of Spain ; but had the Spaniards themselves used 
the exertions they might have done, (Napoleon being: at this time 
engaged in Russia,) the Peninsula might probably have been soon- 
er delivered from the French, after the recovery of the capital, 
than proved to be the case, 4» 

18. The latter made a stand at Burgos, which was invested by 
the English, but after a siege of more than a month, abandoned 
with considerable loss ; the British forces being once more obli- 
g-ed to retire as far asCiudad Rodrigo, on the frontiers of Portugal. 
The Spaniards, however, at length appeared to be roused to a pro- 
per sense of their situation, and wisely confided to lord Wellington 
the termination of this protracted war. In December, 1812, he 
was appointed generalissimo, and distinguished by extraordinary 
powers. 

19. It seemed now to be practicable to end, by a decisive ac- 
tion, the contest for the possession of Spain; and lord Wellington 
lost no time in seeking the opportunity : lie took the field in the 
middle of the month of May, 1813, and on the 21st of June, brought 
the enemy to action on the plains of Vittoria. Never was a vic- 
tory more decisive them tlie Qne obtained at this time by the coni^ 



MiSDERN IIISTORy. 397 

bmed British, Portngtiese, and Spanish armies. Joseph and his 
troops -were compelled to quit the field with such extreme precipi- 
tation, as to leave behind them fifty pieces of artillery, two thou- 
sand carriages of different descriptions, stores, provisions, and an 
immense booty, consisting chiefly of the plunder of Madrid, fortu- 
nately rescued upon tliis occasion from the usurper, -who was pre- 
sent, and very narrowly escaped. 

20. After the battle of Vittoria, and the fall of the strong towns 
of St. Sebastian and Pampeluna, the British, Portuguese, and 

^anish troops crossed the Bidassoa, and entered France. Early 
m March, the city of Bordea,ux freely opened her gates to general 
Bsresford,, in the name of Lewis XVIII, at the same time admitting 
the king's nephew, the duke of Angouleme. On the 10th of April, 
the British stormed the French entrenchments near Thoulouse. On 
the 12th, general Soult filed out of the town, under the muzzles of 
the British guns. On the 13th, news arrived of the abdication of 
Buonaparte, and the entrance of the allied sovereigns into Paris. 
It is conjectured that the French commander knew of these thiiags 
before, but in the hope of gaining seme advantage over the inva- 
ders of France, concealed it. 

21. Before the allies reached Paris, Napoleon had released Fer- 
d-inand VII, whose return to Spain was, however, rendered very 
tinacceptablc to many who had espoused his cause in his absence,, 
particularly the members of the regency and existing cortes, with 
whose proceedings, in regard to the new constitution proposed for 
his acceptance, he expressed himself extremely displeased ; they 
iiad previously refused to acknowledge a treaty concluded by Ferdi- 
nand with Buonaparte. He threw himself also into the hands of 
those who were friends to the ancient system, which, with extreme 
bigotry, he endeavoured to re-establish in its worst forms. From 
that time to the present the nation has been kept in a state of con- 
siderable ferment and confusion. By a revolution in March, 1020, 
the cortes were restored, and the free constitution of 1812 pro- 
claimed and sworn to by the king. The inquisition also was finally 
abolished : but the effects of these last movements remain to be 
proved. 

22. The old king, Charles IV, died at Rome, m 1819. The battle 
of Vittoria, jR^hich relieved Spain from the presence of the French 
armies, restored Portugal to her former independence. On the 
20th of March, 1816, the queen, Maria Isabella, died; and was 
succeeded by the present king, John VI, who had been regent 
since 1799, the seat of government being still at Rio de Janeiro, in 
Brazil. 



SECTION XVIII. 

PRANCE, FROM THE PEACE OF TILSIT, TO THE ABDI- 
CATION OF NAPOLEON, 1814. 

1. The treaty of Tilsit left Napoleon at liberty to pursue his career 
of vengeance and usurpation in other countries. He obtamed by it 
34 



398 MODERN HISTORY. 

such an infuienceovcr Russia, Austria,and Prussia,as to induce them 
to break with England, without any other reason ; and as soon as he 
had thus disposed of matters in those quarters, he turned his views 
to the Spanish peninsula, where a Bourbon dynasty still existed. 
In three months after the signing- of the treaty of Tilsit, he concluded 
the famous partition-treaty with Spain, already spoken of, in vir- 
tue of w^iich, French troops were to be allowed to pass into Por- 
tugal, for the sacrifice of that ancient kingdom ; and afterwards, 
no doubt, in the views and designs of the French emperor, of Spain 
itself. 

2. Of his subsequent invasion and occupation of both countries, 
and of the war for several years carried on, before he could be 
compelled to renounce his usurped dominion in Spain, an account 
is given in the preceding section. On the Hth of December, 1807, 
in the same spirit of- resentment against Great Britain, which had 
dictated the celebrated decree of Berlin^ declaring the British isles 
to be in a state of blockade, the French emperor issued another 
decree, at Milan^ (in consequence of the British retaliatory orders 
of council, November 21st,) by which every ship which should 
submit to be visited by the English, or consent to any pecuniary 
exactions whatsoever, should be liable to confiscation as a lawful 
prize ; but his vengeance fell hardest upon Portugal, whose com- 
mercial and political relations with England so exasperated him, 
that, in an audience given to the foreign ministers at Fontainbleau, 
he openly declared, that if the regent of Portugal did not within 
two months conform to the continental system, and totally renounce 
his connections with England, the house of Braganza should cease 
to reign. Such was the haughty language of this extraordinary 
man, in the face of Europe, after the convention at Tilsit ! 

3. In a few days after this denunciation of the Portuguese dy- 
nasty, the regent closed his ports against English ships of all de- 
scriptions, but not in time to stop the French armies, who pressed 
so closely upon him, that on the 29th of November, (see the pre- 
ceding section,) he was obliged to quit his European dominions for 
E-io Janeiro, in the Brazils, and on the very next day Lisbon 
•»vas occupied by French troops under general Junot. 

4. The short-lived kingdom of Etruria was brought to an end 
about this time ; and the queen-regent, late duchesalof Parma, 
with the king, her son, obliged to depart for Spain, her native 
country. 

5. In March, 1808, a decree was passed in France, ordaining the 
renewal of titles of honour, princes, dukes, counts, &;c., and cre- 
ating a new order of hereditary nobility, as essential to an heredi- 
tary monarch. About the same time, Joseph Buonaparte was re- 
moved from Naples, and made king of Spain ; and Joachim Mnrat, 
grand duke of Berg, married to the sister of Napoleon, was de- 
clared king of Naples. 

6. The kingdoms of Naples and Italy being thus entirely in the 
hands of Buonaparte, in order to prevent their communication from 
being interrupted by any hostile power, he seized upon the pope's 
temporalities, for which Pius VI. ventured to excommunicate him. 
He had the autjctcity to remind the pope, in thus despoiling him^. 



, MODERN HISTORY. 399 

that the kingdom of Christ was not of this world ; though the only 
reason alleged for what he had done, was, that Pius had refused to 
declare war against England ; a friendly power, and one from 
■which the pope declared he had never received the smallest 
injury. 

7. On the 9th of April, 1809, war was renewed with Austria ; 
and so rapid was the progress of the French, that after three se- 
vere actions at Abensberg, Eckmuhl, and Ratisbon, Vienna was 
compelled to capitulate on the 12th of May. The Austrians, af- 
terwards, under the archduke Charles, gained some advantages 
over Buonaparte ; but, before the autumn was passed, a peace was 
concluded, at Vienna, extremely humiliating to Fraiacis II. To 
France he was obliged to cede the Illyrian provinces ; to Eavaria, 
Saltzburg ; to Saxony, the whole of West Gallicia ; and to Russia, 
East Gallicia ; he was, moreover, compelled to accede to the con- 
iinental system against England, and to acknowledge Joseph Buo- 
naparte as king of Spain. 

8. But as if these concessions were not sufficient to mortify the 
pride of the head of the empire, and representative of the house of 
Hapsburgh and Lorraine, the French emperor, to the surprise of 
Europe, demanded and obtained in marriage the daughter of Fran- 
cis II, the archduchese Maria Louisa, having previously been, with 
great form, divorced from the empress Josephine, with her own 
consent, for the express purpose of forming a connection of higher 
hopes, and affording a prospect of an heir to his newly acquired 
imperial dominions^ The marriasre took place at Paris, April 2, 
1810. 

9. Intent upon providing for every brairch of his family, the 
grand duchy of Tuscany was revived by Napoleon, in 1809, and 
conferred on his sister Eliza^ princess of Lucca and Piombino. 
The grand duchy of Berg, vacated by the removal of his brother-in- 
Jaw, Joachim Murat, to the throne of Naples, v/as given to IjouIs, his 
nephew, son of the king of Plolland ; and on the 17th of May the 
pope's temporalities were declared to be incorporated with the 
French dominions^ and the title of king of Rome appropriated to the 
imperial prince, heir to the French empire. The situation of the pa- 
pal territories, between the kingdoms of Italy and Naples, was such 
as in hostile hands might be made use of to intercept the communica- 
tion between the two ; and therefore the pope, who appeared 
ji'riendly to En^^land, was of necessity to be despoiled of his do- 
minions, but to receive a revenue of two millions of francs. The 
new constitutional government was to be in full activity and force 
on the 1st of Januaiy, 1810. On the 14th of January, 1810, the 
electorate of Hanover was amiexed to the dominion of the empe- 
ror's brother, Jerome, king of Westphalia ; and on the 20th of 
March, 1811, Napoleon was gratified with the birth of a son, who, 
according to the arrangements already spoken of, was immediately 
dignified with the title of kinjr of Rome. 

10. In June, 1812, Napoleon, offended with some parts of the 
conduct of the emperor of Russia, who had begun to appreciate 
more justly the character of the artful and ambitious Corsican, 
*»ce J^oyje declared war against him, having influence, besides, to 



4^0 MODERN HISTORY. 

prevail upon Prussia and Austria to join him. His advance towards 
the Russian dominions was most rapid ; but, considering the distance 
to which he was carrying his army, and the inveterate hatred and 
indignation he had excited by his bold threats against his imperial 
adversary, his subjects, and his empire, extremely rash. His pow- 
er, it is true, was immense, 400,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry, and 
1.200 pieces of artillery ; Germans, Polanders, Dutch, Swiss, Ita- 
lians, Spaniards, and Portuguese, being numbered amongst his 
troops ; but nothings could exceed the anger and resentment of the 
"llusiians. 

11. On the 9th of May the French ruler left St. Cloud ; on the 
24th of June he crossed the Niemen, and on the 14th of September 
attained his grand object of entering the capital of the Muscovite 
dominions. But his reception was far from being such as he expected, 
or such as he had met w^th in other capitals. The city was fired 
Vy order of the governor^ and by the hands of the enraged inhabit- 
ants ; and the French had only ruins to occupy, in a latitude to 
which they w^ere totally unaccustomed, and with all the horrors of 
.a Siberian winter before them. 

12. On the lOtli of October, after having solicited an armistice, 
and proposed peace, both of which were peremptorily refnsed, 
Buonaparte and his disappointed army began their dreary and 
perilous march back to France. Nothing could exceed the diffi- 
.culties and distresses to which they were exposed, from the severi- 
ties of the weather and climate, and the attacks of the Russians, 
from Moscow to the capital of Lithuania, where they arrived on 
the 10th of December. On the 6th, the emperor Napoleon totally 
abandoned his harassed army to its fate, having quitted it at Smor- 
gonie in disguise ; destroyed the bridjres by which he passed, re- 
gardless of those he left behind ; and traversing Poland and Ger- 
many, made the best of his way to Paris, where he arrived at mid- 
night, December 18, having lost, or rather sacrificed, upwards of 
150,000 men, including prisoners, 167,500. 

13. It v/as naturally expected that this total defeat of all his 
projects in regard to Russia, together with the miserable condition of 
Lis army when it reached the confines of France, would have termi- 
iiuited his giddy career of pride and ambition : but in this the world 
Avas deceived. In the following year, he eagerly resumed hostilities^ 
but manifestly to great disadvantage. Though he was readily fur- 
nished with afredi army, amounting to 350,000 men, he had soon 
opposed to him not only Russia, but Austria, Prussia and Sweden,. 
tubsidizedby I^nglund, Sevcro.l of the confederates of the Rhine 
ventured to abandon his cause ; and it became very apparent that 
the allied powers were more in earnest and more united now than on 
any former occasion. Many battles were fought in the course of the 
summer, with doubtful success, till, at last, the great " Battle of Na- 
tions," as it has fitly enough been called, took place at Leipzig, m 
which the French sustained so signal a defeat, as seemed evidently 
to prognosticate the ruin and discomfiture of the g-reat disturber of 
Europe. This celebrated battle, or succession of engag^ements, 
took place on the IGth, 18th, and 19th days of October. Leipzig- 
w a:i taken only two hours after Buonaparte had effected his escap^v 



MODERN HISTORY. 401 

The king of Saxony fsnd all his court were captured "by the allies ; 
a French garrison of 30,0<30 men, besides 22,000 sick and wound- 
ed, T\'ith the French magazines, artillery, and stores. The enl- 
peror of Russia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of Swe- 
den, each at the head of Uieir respective troops, made their 
entry into the town at different points, after th<! engagement 
of the 19th, and met in the great square, amidst the univer- 
sal acclamations of the people. Just before the battle o{ Leipzig, 
the allies derived great advantage from the defection of the kings of 
Bavaria and Wirtcmberg, and the grand duke of Baden, Irom the 
cause of France, and the consequent junction of 55,000 of the Ba- 
varian troops ; and during- the action of the 18th, a party of the Sax- 
ons, bringing with them 22 guns, deserted to the crown prince of 
Sweden, and desired to be led directly against the French. So 
much was the aspect of things changed with regard to the desti- 
nies of Buonaparte, who, on his return to Paris, had bnt too muck 
reason to declare, (as he did in his speech to the senate on the 
14th of November,) " All Europe v/as with us a year ago, — all Eu- 
rope is now against us.'" i 

14. The immediate consequences of the victory at Leipzig were, 
the dissolution of the new-erected kingdom of Westphalia, and 
the grand duchies of Berg and Frankfort. The dukes of Bruns- 
wick and Plessc Cassel recovered their dominions, and the prince 
of Orange wiis not merely restored to his stadtholderate in Holland, 
but proclaimed sovereign of the United Netherlands. On the 2d 
of December, 1813, the allies passed the Pi,bine ; the southern 
frontier of the Pyrenees having been invaded by the British and 
Portugiiese in October preceding. 

15. Though four great armies of the allies were now within the 
territories of France, their work was not accomplished. The 
French generals, and Buonaparte himself, who, in a very affecting 
manner, quitted Paris on the 25th of January, 1814, interrupted 
the progress of the Russians, Prussians, and Austrians, endeavour- 
ed to prevent, in every way they could, their advance upon the 
capital ; but all theu- exertions proved vain, though the attain- 
Tnent of that great object was deferred for some months. It was 
not till the 31st day of March, that their triumph may be said to 
■have been completed : on that day the emperor of Russi^ and the 
king of Prussia, at the head of their recpective armies, entered 
Paris in the most solemn and imposing manner. On the 2d of 
April, Buonaparte was formally deposed by the senate, and on tile 
11th he was permitted to abdicate, upon terms judged by many 
to be far too favourable. He was allowed to retire to Elba, (a resi- 
dence of his own choice,) retaining his imperial titles, and having 
that island and its dependencies assigned to him as sovereign, with 
a revenue of two millions of francs. Tl^e duchies of Parma, Guas- 
talla, and Placentia, were at the same time secured to the empress 
Maria Louisa, and her descendants, and provision made for all his 
other relations. Buonaparte, having previously had a guard ap- 
pointed, set out on the 20th for the seat of his new and very re- 
duced dominions, much exposed occasionally on his pass^tge tp 
;popular resentmeatc 

34* 



402 MODERN HiSTOHro 

16. Oil the entrance of the allies, they were cafeful in thet 
manifestoes to distinguish between the French people, or nation at 
large, and the tyrant whom they had conspired to overthrow ; and 
evinced the strongest disposition to bury in oblivion, with becom 
ing magnanimity and forbearance, the numberless insults and inju 
Ties they had»received at the hands of the French, while under the 
dominion of their now prostrate foe. They took no steps to force 
upon them the exiled family, but left the settlement of their gov- 
ernment and constitution entirely to the senate and provisional 
.administration. The Bourbons had been proclaimed in the south, 
and the count d'Artois appeared at Paris on the 13th of April ; but 
the recal of the king was the w^ork of the French themselvesiF 
as we shall have occasion to observe in a subsecjuent section. 



SECTION XIX. 

POLAND, FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE EIGH- 
TEENTH CENTURY TO THE TREATY OF VIENNA, 
1815. 

1. No country in Europe has suffered more from a faulty con- 
stitution than the kingdom of Poland. No country has afforded 
more convincing proofs of the mischiefs appertaining t« an elective 
monarchy, the constant source not only of internal commotion'fev 
cabal, and intrigue, but the occasion generally, upon every vacan- 
cy, of foreign interference. At no ssra did Poland suffer more^ 
perhaps, from this combination of evils, than tov/ards the com- 
mencement of the eighteenth century ; nor has she ever since been 
able to recover her independence. The arbitrary, though not un* 
jirovoked, proceedings of Charles XII. of Sweden, in 1704, when 
he deposed Augustas, and insisted upon placing Stanislaus on the 
throne, in despite of Austria and Ptussia, plainly showed how little 
power a divided country possesses against the encroachments of 
an ambitious neighbour, and how naturally the interference of one 
yuch neighbour exposes the invaded country to similar measures 
on the part of others ; fcr Augustiis himself had been previously 
forced upon the Poles by Prussia. From the above period to the 
present day Poland has been exposed to a continual recurrence of 
such events ; and to promote the views of a combination of foreign 
potentates, kept in a state of internal disunion snd distraction, con-* 
.ftantly favourable to their ambitious designs. 

2. Augustus, elector of Saxony, who was deposed in 1704, and 
rompelled formally to abdicate the throne by the treaty of Alt- 
Ranstadt, in 1706, v/as restored by the assistance of Russia, after 
the battle of Pultawa in 1709, and reigned for the space of twenty- 
four years, dj/ing in 1733. (Sect. I.) His reign was far from being 
an happy one : he offended the Poles by the introduction of Saxon 
troops, and by residing too much away from them in his electoral 
dominions : he lived in the midst of factions and conspiracies, being 
continually at war with the dissidents ©r anti-c-afholics, while be 



MODERN HISTORY. 403 

totally failed in his endeavours to render himself absolute, or the 
crown hereditary in his family. 

3. The war which arose upon the death of Augustus, has been 
already noticed. Had the Poles been wise enough to remedy that 
great defect in their constitution, which rendered the crown elec- 
tive, they could not have done better, perhaps, than to have made 
it hereditary in the person and family of Stanislaus Lescinsky, the 
principal competitor of the house of Saxony, he being a Pole by 
birth, and very amiable in his private cliaracter: but they -were no 
longer their own masters ; and th?y were divided amougst them- 
seves to such a degree as to rende/ the interposition of some foreign 
power almost necessary to detennine their choice. Upon this oc- 
casion the emperor of Germany, whose niece the young elector of 
Saxony had married, assisted by the Russians, overcaaie the French 
influence which had been exerted in favour of Stanislaus, and, by 
effectually removing- the latter, procured the election to fall on the 
son of the late king, Augustus II!. 

4. This king of Poland, on the death of the emperor Charles 
\1, 1740, laid claim to the whole Austrian succession ; and hot 
altogether without reason, had not the Pragmatic Sanction stood in 
his way, his wife being the eldest daughter of the emperor Joseph, 
elder brother of Charles VI. ; the object of the Pragmatic Sanc- 
tion being to secure the inheritance to the females, in default of 
male issue ; and on the demise of Charles VI, his dcnighier hecom- 
ing his iuimediate heir and representative, it certainly appeared 
hard that the daughter of the elder brother, who had been empe- 
ror, should be so entirely excluded. The hope of succeeding 
to some parti, at least, of the late emperor's hereditary dominions, 
induced the king of Poland to enter into a confederacy with Bava- 
lia, Prussia, and France, against the house of Austria ; but he de- 
rived no advantage from the alliance : he afterwards changed 
sides, and at the commencement of the seven years'" war, as has 
been before shown, (Sect. VI,) suffered most severely io'^ having 
espoused the case of the empress queen, and entertained viev/s 
against Prussia, which the wary sovereign of the latter country 
found means to detect, and cruelly to revenge. 

5. It was not likely that a king who OAved his election so entirely 
^,0 the interference of foreign powers, should acquire any thing 
.ake independence, or authority at home or abroad. During the 
reign of Augustus III. great feuds and animosities prevailed among 
the Magnats, v/hile the king himself was entirely subject to the 
iuiluence of Russia ; a circumstance so resented by his subjects as 
'0 induce them to avail themselves of the privilege of the Liberuni 
i-^tto^ to dissolve all the diets he convoked, and thus leave the 
kingdom almost v/ithout any government. Augustus III. died in 
the year 1763, at a period when the Russian sceptre had passed 
into hands well fitted to promote, in everyway possible, (just or 
unjust,) its aggrandizement and splendour. Catherine il. is sup- 
posed to have had her eyes upon Poland before the demise of Au- 
gustus, and to have been prepared not only to set aside the son of 
the latter, bat to advance to the vacant throne some creature of 
h&x owa .; she paid no attention therefore to the solicitations of the 



404 MODERN HISTORY. 

house of Saxony,and was very shortly relieved,indeed, from all com- 
petition in that quarter, by the early death ofthe new elector. In 
conjunction with Prussia she succeeded, but not without a spirited 
opposition on the part of a few Polish patriots, in bestowing^ the 
crown of Poland on count Poniatowski, one of her favourites, and 
a Pole by birth ; a man of talent, and amiable in his disposition, 
but likely to continue, as well as bis predecessor, entirely under 
her control. 

6. Nothing could be a greater mockery than the care which the 
czarina and the king of Prussia pretended to take of the liberties of 
Poland, at the very moment that they were forcing- upon the na- 
tion a king of their own choice and nomination. So far from try- 
ing to amend their faulty constitution, aad eradicate the seeds of 
future animosities, they particularly entered into an agreement to 
prevent the king rendering the crown hereditary in his family, or 
becoming absolute ; that is, in fact, indcptndtnt^ or powerful ; for 
this was their great object. And when it was to be submitted to 
the diet to approve their nominee, and declare count Poniatowski 
king, a Russian army was sent to Warsaw, to support \.\\c fretdom of 
the election. The choice of the diet of course was soon decided to be 
in favour of the Russian favourite, who became king accordingly, 
September 7, 1764, under the name and title of Stanislaus Au- 
gustus. 

7. From this perio<iJ, the three neighbouring powers, Russia, 
Prussia, and Austria, the two former, hoAvever, most particularly, 
maybe said to have been interested in the internal dissentions of 
that unhappy kingdom, which afforded them plausible grounds of 
interference, and v^hich they could therefore have no sincere in- 
clination to allay or adjust till they had effectually gained their 
own ends : the object of Russia probably was to maintain her 
■own power and ascendancy over the whole country ; but Prussia 
meditated a partition, which might put her into possession of Polish 
or AVesiern Prussia, a district of much importance in every point of 
\iew. 

S. Whatever may have been originally the distinct views of the 
-several parties, it i^ very certain that they derived peculiar advan- 
tages from the extremely unsettled state of the country, which was 
at this time torn to pieces by the contests and disputes between 
the catholics and di^sidents^ or dissenters from the established re- 
ligion : the latter, who since the middle ofthe sixteenth century had 
ac juired many privileges,were supported by several different foreiga 
powers ; those of the Greek church by Russia, and the protestants 
of all persuasions by Prussia, Denmark, and Great Britain, all of 
whom were ca/lled upon to interpose as guarantees of the famous 
treaty of Oiiva, 1660. The diet, instigated by the court of Rome 
and heads of the church, judged it right to uphold the established 
faith, and Stanislaus, though his principles were more tolerant and 
liberal, appeared to take the same side, being jealous also of the too 
great power of Russia, of which he could not fail to be continually 
reminded, not only by the open favor shown to the dissidents by 
Catherine, but by the insolent superiority assumed by her general, 
ccmmauding in Poland, prince Repnin, and the extremely arbitrary 



MODERN HISTORY. 40 i 



Tcid sanguinary manner in which the empress sought to maintain 
her preponderance. 

9. In the mean while confederacies w6re forming in all parts of 
the kingdom to restore, if possible, the independency^ their 
country, (such at least was the object of the catholics,)flpto pro- 
cure for the protestants all the rights and privileges to viCich they 
laid claim, and of some of which they had been unjustly deprived. 
The latter, under prince lladzivil, supported by Russian troops, 
compelled the diet of Warsaw, in the year 1767, to accede to 
their demands ; this hastened the grand confederacy of the catho- 
lics at Bar, in Podolla, in 1768, whose object was to throw off the 
Russian yoke, with the aid of Turkey, who had been induced by 
France to declare war against the Russians in that very year, upon 
the occasion of the latter having passed their frontier in pursuing' 
a Polish party, and committed considerable depredations. 

10. Though the confederate catholics had clearly the good of 
their country in view, yet such was the influencs of Russia, that 
the king and senate were compelled by Catherine to declare war 
against the Porte, and so far to counteract, as much as possible, 
the efforts that were making to accomplish their own independence. 
In Austria, indeed, during this stage of the business, the confede- 
rates at Bar had a friend in Maria Theresa, v/ho espoused the 
claims of the Saxon family, and who sent them both arms and 
money, to enable them to check, if possible, the domineering pro- 
ceedings 'u the czarina, of v/hich indeed she had aood cause to be 
jealous. But the time was approaching in which, notwithstanding 
the most striking and formal declarations to the contrary, Poland 
v/as to become a prey to her three more powerful neighbours, and 
when all other feelings were to give way to that of duly appor- 
tioning and dividing the spoils of that unhappy country. 

11. It seems now to be pretty generally agreed, that the plan 
of dismembering this unfortunate kingdom originated with the king 
of Prussia, or his brother, prince Henry ; and that it was owing to 
particular circumstances that they were able to bring the two other 
parties so readily to acquiesce in their measures of partition. Had 
Frederick himself been more rapacious, it would probably not have 
been so easily accomplished, but, in order to gain what he most 
coveted, for his own share, he appeared willing to allow the other 
two partitioning powers to acquire rather more than fell to his lot, 
both in extent of territory and amount of population. In admitting 
Austria to any share at all, he made no scruple to assert that his 
principal motive was, that she should bear her part in the blame 
that must attach to so arbitrary and rapacious an act. 

12. Though the Polish king and nation were compelled to ac- 
quiesce in these proceedings of the three powers, they did not do 
so without remonstrating in terms the most striking and dignified ; 
accompanying their remonstrances and manifestoes with an open 
appeal to the several states which had guarantied the integrity of 
Poland ; but all in vain. They obtained no assistance from for- 
eign states, no abatement of their demands on the part of the par- 
titioning powers, and were at lengtli obliged, by a solemn diet, to 
sanction this gross dismembenneiit of their country. In two seye- 



406 ' MODERN HISTORY. 



ral discussions of the case, however, in the senate, and assembly 
of Nuncios, the minority on the division was most numerous and 
respectable. In the former, the question was carried by a major- 
ity of «^ only, in the latter by one. The motive alleged by the 
partit^Hmg powers," for this extraordinary proceeding was, that 
they ^^ anxious to amend the constitution, to preserve the liber- 
ties of Poland, and to appease the disorders which had for so longf 
a space of time disturbed the country, but they fulfilled none of 
these pretended purposes. They did nothing to amend the consti- 
tution, but imposed a new one upon them, fraught" with those very 
imperfections, of which they might for ever continue to take ad- 
vantage. They perpetuated the elective monarchy, abridged 
more than ever the authority of the king, and continued the libc' 
Turn veto^ a sort of tribunitial privilege, exceedingly inimical to 
the peace of the country. So far from upholding, they trampled 
upon their liberties in every way they could, and promoted the dis- 
orders they pretended to remove, by encouragingp, rather than 
■ checking, the licentious conduct of their soldiery. In fact, a 
greater act of atrocity, or a more barefaced mockery of national 
feelings, never perhaps took place, or was even attempted, than in 
the dismemberment of the kingdom of Poland. Austria and Prus- 
sia did, indeed, make an attempt to vindicate their claims to the 
countries they took possession of ; but ivussia scarcely judged it 
necessary to make any declaration to that eifect. The archives of 
Prussia and Hungary were ransacked, and titles reviv*^d and in- 
sisted upon, which, to say the least, had been in abeyance for ma- 
ny c^i'jtiiries. linw far this measure may justly be said to have 
affected the balance of power in Europe, is a distinct case. For a 
long series of years, if not of ages, Poland had been so ill govern- 
ed, or so weak, as to have had little iniJuence on that balance, 
though her situation seemed to point her out, and still appears io 
do so, as capable of materially intiuencing £>r counteracting the 
operations of her many powerful and ambitious neighbours, Rus- 
sia, Prussia, Austria, and Turkey. The worst consequence, how- 
ever, arising from the confederricy against Poland, seems to have 
been the countenance thereby given to the partitioning system in 
general. 

13. It was in the year 1773 that the division was finally agreed 
to, and settled, and even sanctioned by the Polish diet. Of some-- 
what more than tkirttcn thousand square German leagues Of terri- 
tory, the partitiojiing powers took a good third, taking at the same 
time no measures to lessen the evils arising from the defective con- 
stitution of Poland, in the portion allotted to the natives. It must 
be acknowledged, that they bestowed great paias on the improve- 
ment of their respective shares ; but no benefits of tliia nature^ 
conferred on particular parts of the country, could compensate for 
the unfeeling depredations committed upon the whole. 

14. The following has been given as a fair representation of the 
parts allotted to the several powers, by the delegates appointed to 
adjust the respective claims. Other accounts, indeed, are extant, 
which it would be difficult to attempt to reconcile with the one 
we are about to give ; a very exact statement, however, may pot 



MODERN HISTORY. 407 

be necessary. The Russian allotment consisted of Polish Livonia, 
parts of the palatinates of Witepsk, Folotek, and INIinsk, and the 
whole palatinate of Micislaw, containing- a population of 1,500,000 
souls. I'he king of Prussia obtained the district called Royal, or 
Western Prussia, excepting the towns of Dantzic and Thorn, with 
a population of 860,000 souls. Austria gained a large territory in 
the south of Poland, comprising Red Russia, Gallicia^ and parts 
of the palatinates of Cracovv', Sandomir, Lublin, Bezk, Volhyuia, 
and Podolia, containing a population of 2,500,000 souls, and the 
valuable salt-works of Vielitzka, which produced an annffkl reve- 
nue of £90,000. This district was annexed to the Austrian terri- 
tories, under the ancient appellation of the kingdoms of Gallicla 
and Lodomeria. Such were the results of what is now distinguish- 
ed by the name of the first partition of Poland. 

15. The little assistance Poland received to ward off the di?- 
grace and misery of this first partition, the extraordinary apathy 
with which it seemed to be beheld by the other powers of Europe, 
left little hopes of her regeneration, or escape from the toils into 
which she had fallen ; nor indeed has she ever escaped from them, 
or recovered the smallest degree of independence. After the first 
partition, the object she had most to dread was some accidental 
disunion of the partitioning powers, who would be sure to wreak 
their vengeance upon her ; and an event of this very nature seems 
to have been the cause of what has been called the skcond parti- 
tion, in 1793. Russia and Austria, in the years l7o7 and 1708, by 
too close an alliance, having given umbrage to the king of Prussia, 
he insisted that the constitution formed for Poland, in 1773, was 
void, and offered to assist the Poles in framing a new one, v/hicli 
was completed under his auspices, May 3, 1791. Had this consti- 
tution been able to keep its ground, Poland, so much of it at least 
as remained to the natives, might have recovered some degree of 
credit and freedom ; it was in a great measure the work of real 
'patriots, enlightened and moderate reformers ; it abolished the 
liberum veto^ and the elective monarchy, except in the case of the 
extinction of some hereditary dynasty ; it rendered the person of 
the king inviolable, but gave him responsible ministers ; it provi- 
ded a representative senate, not much differing from the English 
house of commons. Unhappily, this good work found enemies 
amongst the ancient nobles, who did not like to give up their pre- 
tensions to royalty, and who had recourse to the old and ruinous 
expedient of inviting foreign help, always at hand to avail itself 
of the internal commotions of that devoted country. Russia was ' 
called in, by the confederates of Targovitz, and a renewal of losses 
and calamities ensued of course. The king of Prussia, so far from 
supporting the new constitution, the diet, or the king, as he seem- 
ed absolutely bound to do, by his own acts, eagerly seized upon the 
towns of Dantzic and Thorn, which had been specially excepted 
in the last partition, joined the czarina, in her efforts against the pat- 
riots, under the brave Kosciusko, and finally succeeded in prevail- 
ing over a country, which, from the enthusiasm and spirit display- 
ed on this occasion in her defence, deserved abetter fate. By the 
^tcond partition, in 1793, Russia is said to have acquired 4000 



403 MODERN HISTORY. 

German square miles of territory, in Volhynia, Lithuania, PodoHa, 
and the Ukraine ; and ^jrussia, besides the towns of Dantzic and 
Thorn, 1000 square miles in south Prussia, with all the Hanseatic 
towns. A third and last partition soon followed, in the year 1795, 
between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, which may be said to have 
put an end to the kingdom and republic of Poland ; Stanislaus, its 
unhappy monarch, being removed to Russia, where he soon after 
died, February 12, 1798. In this last partition, Cracow was given 
to Austria, and Warsaw to Prussia. From the resistance of the 
natives, who gained greater advantages in many engagements than 
could have been expected from the nature of their force, the slaugh- 
ter accom]>anyirg these latter revolutions was dreadful, and on the 
part of the Russians attended with circumstances of cruelty too 
much resembling what had taken place in 1772. 

16. It would be difficult to describe the state of Poland, from 
the period of the last partition^ in 1795, to the treaty of Vienna, in 
1815. The injuries the natives had experienced at the hands of 
the three partitioning powers very naturally disposed them to ac- 
cept any offers from the enemies of their oppressors ; and, as Buo- 
naparte had frequent opportunities of making such offers, it is not 
to be wond: red that he should have obtained their assistance, and 
subjected them, more or less, to his trovernment and control •, but 
as he was only at times in opposition to, and as often allie'd wath 
one or other of the three powers, Russia, Austria, or Prussia, he 
was never able to propose their entire emancipation, even if he had 
desired it. Thus continually deceived and mortified, they deri- 
ved no advantage from the aid they gave to France, if we except 
that tendency towards the recovery of a separate existence, (for it 
can scarcely be called more,) the creation of the grand duchy of 
Warsaw, iii 1807, which, by the treaty of Tilsit, and with the con- 
?ent of Buonaparte, was consigned to the king of Saxony ; the em- 
peror of Russia at the same time acquiring much of Poland from 
Prussia. In 1812, the kingdom was declared by the diet of War- 
saw to be re-established ; and by the treaty of Vienna, in 1815, be- 
ing formally delivered up by the king of Saj-ony, it became annex- 
ed to Russia, and was declared to be, " irrevocably attached to it 
by its constitution, to be possessed by his majesty the emperor of all 
the Russias, hi,s heirs and successors in perpetuity." The part as- 
signed to Prussia took the name of the grand duchy of Posen. The 
salt-mines of Vielitzka were confirmed to the emperor of Austria, 
and such districts as had been acquired by the treaty of Vienna, in 
•1809. Tile town of Cracow was declared to be for ever a free, in- 
dependent, and strictly neutral city, under the protection of Aus- 
tria, Russia, and Prussia. The navigation of the rivers and canals, 
in all parts of ancient Poland, (as it existed in the year 1772,) 
was by particular treaties, between Prussia, Austria, and Prussia, 
declared to be free, so as not to be interdicted to any inhabitant oi 
the Polish provinces, belonging to either of the three powers. 



MODERN HISTORY* 409 



SECTION XX. 

GREAT i^RITAIN, FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS, 180.^, 
TO THE DEATH OF GEORGE III, 1820. 

1. Before one year had passed from the conclusion of the peace 
of Amiens, circumstances took place which too plainly indicated a 
strong probability of the renewal of hostilities, and so early as the 
month of May, 1803, letters of marque and reprisal were again is- 
sued against the French, by the British gfovernment, apparently 
with the full consent of the people at large, notwithstanding the 
enthusiastic joy which had been expressed on the termination of 
the war in the year preceding. It was upon this occasion that the 
first consul had recourse to a measure, singular in its nature, and 
which exposed many persons and families to great inconvenience. 
He forcibly detained all the English who happened to be in France, 
not only for purposes of business, but of pleasure? or curiosity ; nor, 
with very few exceptions, were any of them able to return to their 
native country, for the long space of ten or eleven years. Prepa- 
rations also were made for the invasion of England, which only ex- 
cited a stronger disposition, on the part of the latter country, to pre- 
pare against such attempts, in a way well calculated to destroy at 
once all the enemy''s hopes and prospects of success ; in Ireland, 
indeed, a new conspiracy was set on foot, which was supposed to 
rest on some promised support from France ; but this was denied 
by the conspirators themselves, and the disturbance soon quelled, 
without spreading, in fact, beyond the capital. 

2. Though the king of Great Britain had declared, that, with 
regard to his electoral states, he should remain neuter, Buonaparte 
did not neglect such an opportunity of wounding his feelings, by 
the speedy occupation of Hanover, under circumstances peculiarly 
aggravating to the people. Early in the month of June, 1803, the 
Hanoverian troops were made to lay down their arms, and engage 
not to serve against the French without a previous exchange. 

3. Holland was still too much under subjection to France, to be 
permitted to remain at peace ; letters of marque were, therefore^ 
also issued against the Batavian republic, on Its refusal to agree to 
a perfect neutrality, 

4. In 1804, a change of ministry in England brdught Mr. Pitt 
again into power, at a moment when the affairs of the continent, 
and the increased power, of the first consul, who, in the course of 
the same month, assumed the imperial dignity, demanded all his 
attention. Before the conclusion of the year, the aid which Spain 
was compelled to render to the French, together with certain ap- 
pearances of hostik preparations in her ports, exposed her to an 
attack on the part of Great Britain, which soon drew from her a 
declaration of war, very fatal to her interests, though scarcely to 
be avoided, considering the circumstances in which she had been 
placed by the extraordinary proceedings and demands of the Britisia 
government, which was supposed to have violated the strict rules 
of justice, if not of international laiv, by arbitrarily and prema- 

35 



410 MODERN HISTORY. 

turely seizing her treasure-ships^ on their passage to her ports, in 
an action perfectly unforeseen and unexpected, and in which ma- 
ny lives were lost. 

5. But if the character of the British nation or government suf- 
fered in any respect from errors or mistakes in the commencement 
€)f the war, its naval power and credit were highly advanced be- 
fore a year had passed, by the splendid victory obtained over the 

'Spanish and French fleets combined, oif cape Trafalgrar, in Octo- 
ber, 1805 ; a victory not achi<;ved, however, without a correspond- 
ent loss, as has been before stated, in the death of the very cele- 
brated lord Nelson, commander of the British squadron, who fell 
early in the actien, and whose body, being afterwards brought to 
England, was buried with very unusual honours in the centre of 
J5t. Paul's cathedral. 

6. In 1306 ^ied Mr. Pitt ; a minister whose extraordinary talents 
and integrity of life attached to him many friends and adherents, 
by whom he was ably supported through a very arduous contest ; 
a contest which, though some thought it might have been avoided, 
others as confidently regarded as entirely just and necessary, and 
a timely security against the propagation of revolutionary princi- 
ples, more threatening and dangerous than any aggressions purely 
hostile. It is always easy to say, such and such events would not 
have happened, had a different course from the one actually adopt- 
ed been pursued ; but this is at best mere matter of surmise. It is 
impossible now to speak decisively of what might or might not have 
been the consequences of a longer forbearance from war ; it is ex- 
tremely certain that many uutofvard circumstances prevented the 
accomplishment of all that Mr. Pitt had in view, and that the 
power of the French emperor, instead of being checked, was ad- 
vancing with rapid strides to a pitch of uncontrollable and extend- 
ed dominion, when the former was seized with that illness which 
terminated his life, in the forty-seventh year of his age. On his 
death, a new administration was formed, including his great par- 
liamentary opponent, Mr. Fox, who survived him for the short 
space of only seven months. It is highly creditable to the charac- 
ter of the British nation to record, that these two eminent states- 
men, who had been for a long time so much opposed to each other, 
but whose abilities and sincerity in an opposite line of politics ap- 
pear to have been duly acknowledged and appreciated by all par- 
ties at the period of their deaths, were buried at the public expense, 
in Westminster Abbey, so near to each other, that oae stone might 
have covered the remains of both. 

7. During the short time that Mr. Fox was a member of adminis- 
tration, fresh attempts were made to terminate the war, by negotia- 
tion, but in vain. Though the French emperor would have agreed 
to many cessions of importance, both to Great Britain and her 
ally, the emperor of Russia, it was found impossible to detach from 
his influence and usurped authority some of the most important 
parts of Europe, particularly Holland, Switzerland, Italy, and 
^jrermany. 

8. 1 he system so generally adopted by the tyrant of France, of 
•QQvertiug to his own use the resources o/ all other countries^^ 



MODERN iriSTORY. 411 

•which could in any manner be rendered subservient to his purpose, 
led the administration which succeeded that in which Mr. Fox had 
a share, to set on foot an expedition which has been judged by 
many incapable of justification on any principles of political expe- 
diency, and which was unfortunately attended wath more fatal 
consequences than were at first perhaps contemplated. Upon what 
information the ministry proceeded did not fully appear at the time, 
but it was alleged that they had reason to know that the French ruler 
designed to occupy Holstein, and convert to the purposes of an in- 
vasion of the British dominions the Danish marine. 

9. It was determined, in order to prevent snch an accession to 
the naval power of France, to obtain possession of the fleet on 
v/hich the enemy had thus fixed his view, and thong-h it migh^ 
perhaps have been both hoped and expected by the British g-overn- 
ment, that the Danes would be brought peaceably to surrender 
into their hands for a time a fleet thus devoted to the ruin of a 
friendly power, yet the result turned out to be far otherwise. The 
Danes resisted the demand, and though quite unable cifectually to 
defend against the forces opposed to them either their fleet or iheli' 
capital, did not capitulate till about two thousand persons had 
lost their lives, and many hon?es been burnt in a manner that 
threatened the entue destruction of the city. The end, it is true, 
was accomplished, of getting into the power of the English all the 
Danish ships of war, (eighteen sliips of /he line and fifteen fri- 
gates,) and naval stores ; but it is to be feared that it v/ill be loug 
before the irritation caused by this «udden and unexpected attacli 
on a brave people, not at war with England, will fee allayed or 
forgotten. 

10. In vindication of the suspicions of the Bilti^rh ministry, it 
was asserted that the Danii-h marine and arsenals were found iji 
a state which left no donbt of the intrigues and agency of the 
French, according to the judgment of the ofiicers and seamen em- 
ployed in the expedition. The general designs of France seem, in- 
deed, to have been decisively manifested, in the measures they 
now openly pursued, about the same time, of appropriating to them- 
selves the fleet of Portugal, and for similar purposes, but v/hich, 
fortunately without so melancholy a catastrophe, was rescued from 
the grasp of the French ruler, by its timely removal, under tlie 
protection of a British armament, to the porta ol^ Brazil. The dif- 
ference betAveen the two cases seemed to be this ; that in getting- 
possession of the latter fleet we were actually assisting an ally ; in 
the former, we were compelling a neutral to adopt a measure 
judged to be unnecessary on her part, and on suspicions, the 
grounds of which she disavowed ; but the state oi Europe, at that 
period, appears to have been such, especially with regard to the 
minor sta.tep, as to justify precautions against French power and 
French intrigue, seldom, if ever, resorted to in other instances : it 
may also be added, that Portugal unreservedly communicated to 
England the avowed designs of France ; Denmark, to say the least, 
acted with a reserve far from friendly, and resisted all nego- 
tiation ; the consequences to the latter, however, were certainly 
deplorable. 



( 



412 MODERN mSTORY, 

11. It was in the year 1807, that the royal family of Francp, 
•whose sitBalion on the continent became every clay more alarming 
and insecure, took refuge in England ; they fixed their residence 
at Plartwell, in Buckinghamshire, his majesty styling himself the 
count de Lisle, and modestly declining all honours and attentioixs, 
beyond such as might be due to a private nobleman. 

Iw. The vindictive measures adopted by the FrencJi government 
>o ruin the trade and commerce of Great Britain, naturally drew 
from the latter retaliatory expedients, which were more or less 
approved, as affecting neutral and friendly powers, but which 
could scarcely have been avoided, without surrendering our mari- 
time rights, and basely submitting to a pretence of blockade on the 
part of a power, whose ships had been fairly driven from the sea 
fcy the British fleets. Orders i?! council were issued in the months 
cf January and November, 1807, not only prohibiting all trade be- 
tween the ports of France and its allies, but ultimately compelling 
all neiitrals, trading to France, to stop at a British port, and pay a 
duty in proportion to the value of the cargo. These embarrass- 
ments to trade in general could not fail to excite great uneasiness 
in all parts of the world ; but the commencement of them is justly 
to be imputed to the extraordinary decree, isstied by the French 
ruler at Beilin, (4he basis of the '^ continental system,") Novem- 
ber, 180G, om account of which is given in Sect. XVT : unfortu- 
nately the impossibility of satisfactorily exempting other states frowi 
the effect of these prohibitory and regulating decrees, on the part 
of the two rival countries, involved England in a very unpleasant 
dispute with the United States of America. 

13. Of the part England took in the affairs of Spain and Portu- 
gal, from 1808 to 1814, an account is to be found elsewhere. (See 
t-ect. XVII.) It may be sufficient to say, that, during the whole 
contest, the emancipation of tho^e two ancient kingdoms from the 
power of the French seemed to be contemplated by the whole aiass 
of British subjects as their own cause. The people of Great 
Britain and Ireland, on the first application for assistance from 
Spain, appeared ready to rise in a body. They hailed the dawn of 
liberty on the continent with the most enthusiastic feelings. The 
deputies from the supreme juuta of Seville, did not arrive in Eng- 
rand, on their mission to the British government, till the 24th of 
July, 1808; but long before that, other deputies from the princi- 
pality of Asturiashad been received in London, with the most cor- 
dial tokens of esteem and friendship. They were splendidly en- 
tertained by the City of Eondon, the Bank, and other public bo- 
thies, as well as by individuals of the highest distinction. Subscrip- 
tions were opened in London, Liverpool, Bristol, Glasgow, Edin- 
burgh, Dublin, Cork, Waterford, and many other places, for sup- 
porting the cause of Spain ; and several military corps, militia and 
volunteers, offered their services. Government supplied them im- 
mediately with three hundred thousand pounds in dollars, five 
thousand muskets, thirty thousand pikes, and an immense quantity 
of powder and balls, with promises of more effectual aid, which 
■were ultimately am.ply fulfilled. The spirit thus displayed by the 
British public, on the first certain intelli°;eiice received of the auti= 



MODERN mSTORY. 415 

^allican insurrection in Spain, maybe said to have continued una- 
bated till, through the matchless skill and A^alour of the confede- 
rate armies undtr the duke of VVelling-ton, the French were finally 
driven from the peninsula in 1814, as related in our account of 
Spain. 

14. nis majesty George III, liavin^, in the month of October, 
1809, entered upon the 50th year of his reign, the event was cele- 
brated throughout the nation in a very striking manner, by services 
of thanksgiving in all the churches and chapel?, with suitable dis- 
courses, illuminations, feasts, and oiher testimonies of joy, but par- 
ticularly by liberal benefactions to the poor. In the m'onth of No- 
vember in the following year, his majesty, much troubled and af- 
flicted by the long illness and death of his daughter the prl;icess 
Amelia, had an alarming return of his former complaint, which 
terminated in a second suspension of his regal functions, and from 
which he never so sufficiently recovered as to be able to transact 
any business of state. On the 20th of December, his royal high- 
ness the prince of Wales was appointed regent, subject for a period 
to restrictions similar to those which had been proposed in 1788-9» 
This plan was violently opposed, as uncoastitutional and impoli- 
tic, but finally carried in February 1811. The bill was completed 
and presented to his royal highness, who did not hesitate to accept 
the trust, though not %vithout remon?trating against the limitation* 
and restrictions imposed on him. Early in 1812, however, these 
restrictions were to cease. Great changes in administration hai 
been contemplated, and many negotiations were carried on to this 
pfTect, but withoiit accomplishing that union and coalition of par- 
ties, which the regent himself seemed to desire. Not being; dis- 
posed to withhold his confidence therefore from those who had so 
Jong served his royal father, most of them, on the termination of 
the restrictions, v/ere continued in their places. A most melan- 
choly catastrophe, which occurred in the month of May, 1812, de- 
prived the nation of the services of Mr. Fercival, who was assas- 
sinated in the lobby of the house of commons, by a person of the 
name of Bellingham, in revenge, as he himself stated, of a private 
i'ljury ; a denial of justice, as he called it, on the part of govern- 
ment. It seemed to be accidental that the premier happened to 
be ti\e individual first presented to his notice on that fatal day. 

15. During the years 1812 and 1813, the differences between 
the English and American governments bore a very serious aspect, 
sind inrolved the two countries in a contest, which, for the time it 
lasted, was carried on with peculiar animosit)'-. The conduct of 
America betrayed not only a bias towards France, in regard to the 
restrictions imposed on com.merce by the belligerents, but a cap- 
tious disposition to vex aud provoke England, in detaching from 
)ier service, and giving protection to her seamen and soldiers, by 
acts of naturalization and certificates of citizenship, contrary to 
every principle of honour and good faith. Unfortunately, upon the 
.commencement of hcstilitzes, it was found, that the ships the Ame- 
ricans fitted out, though nominally of the class of frigates, had 
been adayjted to carry a complement of men and guns which ren- 
fdered Ihem, generally speaking, an over-match for the frig^ates ia 
35* 



-414 MODERN HlStORT. 

the British navy. To compensate however for some disappoint- 
ments that took place in consequence of this, early in the war, a 
very singular action, ofi' tlie port of Boston, in May, 1813, had the 
c/Fect of establishing the credit of the British navy, in the very 
face of the enemy, and in a manner which, while it displayed to 
the utmost the bravery of both nations, left the British Hag flying 
triumphantly over that of the Americans. The engagement was the 
result of a regular challenge : captain Broke, of the Shannon, 
cruising off the port of Boston, in which lay the Chesapeake, Ame- 
rican frigate, a fine ship of forty-nine guns, eighteen and thirty- 
two pounders, with a complement of 440 men, stood so close into 
shore, as manifestly to invite the Americans to commence an at- 
tack upon him : the challenge being accepted, the Chesapeake 
came out with her colours flying, full of confidence, and after a 
few broadsides, the two ships became locked together ; the action 
now became desperate ; the English, headed by captain Broke, 
boarded the American ship, and a dreadful conflict for a short time 
ensued, but the issue was entirely in favour of the English ; in 
about tifteen minutes from the commencement of the action, the 
American colours were hauled down, and captain Broke obtained 
complete possession of the Chesapeake, in the sight of numerous 
spectators on the shore, who had the mortification to see the ship in 
which they had so much prided themselves, and of whose success 
they had but a few minutes before felt certain, actually carried 
Jiway captive before their faces. The annals of the British navy 
scarcely supply an instance of a victory more decisively triumphant 
and trlorious. The ."Shannon had but 330 men, of whom 23 were 
killed and 56 woundec^. The enemy had 70 killed and 100 wound- 
ed. The ships escaped without damage. 'The conduct of captaia 
Broke, howev(?r, being complained of by the Americans, as con- 
tj-ary to the strict rules of war, he underwent a censure from gov- 
ernment. 

16. It would be very uninteresting to enter into any accounts of the 
course of the war on the continent of America during this period of 
the contest. An attempt on the part of tlie Americans to get pos- 
session of Canada, was l>ustrated by the bravery of the regular 
army, aided by the people of the country. Jn the following year, 
1 814, the war became more serious; rFa-yA/nif/on, the American 
capital, fell into the hands of the English, under general Ross and 
sir George Cockburn, and all the public buildings were destroj'ed. 
Happily, before the year was concluded, a peace was negotiated 
at Ghent, and amity restored ; but without settling some of the 
most important points in dispute between the two countries.* 

17. The year 1814, will ever be memorable in the English his- 
f*">ry, for the very extraordinary influx of foreigners of the highest 
distinction, from the opposite shore, on the downfal of Buonaparte, 
and the conclusion of a war, which had agitated the whole of Eu- 

[* For a more particular, and we tru<?t more impartial and true account 
cf the war belweeri Great Briiain find the United Statess, the reader is refer- 
red to the last chapters of this Work on the United 3taU3 ©f Arawica, writ* 

4ec L>v uioihtT hand] 



WODERN HISTOrV. 415 

rope.- The- list of visitors invited to the grand civic feast given by 
the corporation of London, and all of whom were present, but a 
very few, whom illness kept away, may convey some idea of the 
splendid scenes that took place in different parts of the king:dom 
in honour of these illustrious guests. It was on the 18th of June, 
that the dinner was given to the following very exalted person- 
ages r 

The Prince Regent ; the Eiviperor of Russia ; his sister, the 
Grand Duchess of Oldcnburgh, (afterwards Queen of Wirtem- 
BURC) ; the King of Prussia; the Royal Dukes of England : the 
Prince Royal of Prussia ; Prince William of Piussia, son of the 
king ; Prince Frederick^ nephew of the king ; Prince Heriry^ brother 
of the king ; Prince William^ brother of the king ; Prince Angus- 
his. the king's cousin; the Prince of Orange -, the Prince 
Royai. of Wirtemburg ; the Prince Royal of Bavaria ; the Prince 
of Oldenburg; the Prince of Cobourg; Prince Charles of Meck- 
tenburgh ; Duke of Saxe Weimar \ Prince Gagarina ; Prince 
Czeretorinke ; Prince Radzivil ; Marshal Prince Bluchtr ; Prince 
IJardenburg; Prince Metternich ; Priiice Lichtenstein ; Prince and 
Princess Volkouske; his highness the Duke of Orleans. 

These illustrious foreigners were entertained, at great cost and 
expense, during their stay, both by the court and public bodies : 
the prince regent accompanied them on a visit to the university of 
Oxford ; and to Portsmouth, where they had an opportunity of wit- 
nessing a naval review. 

18. hi May, 1816, the heiress to the British crown, princess Char^ 
lotte, only child of the regent, was married to his serene highness 
Leopold George Frederic, prince of Cobourg. This marriage was 
coutemplated by the nation as an object of the highest hopes ; and 
for several months the amiable and exemplary conduct of her royal 
liighness cheered the people with the brightest pf'ospects of future 
good ; but a very sudden and unexpected disappointment took 
place in the month of November, 1817 ; the princess was delivered 
of a still-born male infant, and survived her delivery only a few 
hours. Nothing could exceed the concern manifested by the pub- 
lic en this melancholy and distressing occasion. 

In the month of November, in the following year, her majesty 
queen Charlotte died at Kew, after a long and painful illness ; and 
on the 29th of January, 1820, was followed by her royai consort 
king George IIL Ills majesty died at the castle of Windsor, at a 
very advanced age, and in the sixtieth year of his reign ; greatly 
beloved by his subjects, and universally respected for his many 
araiable and royal viitues. 



41 S^ MODERN HISTORY, 



SECTION XXL 

FRANCE. FROM THE ENTRANCE OF THE ALLIES INTO 
PARIS, MARCH, 1814, TO THE FINAL EVACUATION OF 
IT BY THE FOREIGN TROOPS, 1818. 

1. Soon after Buonaparte departed for Elba, Louis XVIII. was 
freely recalkd to the throne of bis ancestors ; he had been resident 
in many places since liis first emigration, and been driven from 
almost all, by the approach of republican troops, the dread of re- 
publican vengeance in those Avho afforded hira a refuge, and net 
unseldom the fear of poison or assassination. England, at length, 
afforded him the asylum he sought in vain elsewhere : there he 
lived secure against French armies, French influence, and, as far 
as Englishmen could protect him, the poisonous drug, or the sword 
of the assassin. When the way was opened for him to return to 
his native country, and receive the crown and the throne, v.hicli 
his people now offered him, but which had been so insulted and 
abused, it was characteristic of Englishmen to rejoice at his resto- 
ration, and at the great change prepared for him, from a state of 
banishment, outlawry, and dependence, to the recovery of one 
of the most brilliant thrones of Europe, and from which his unhap- 
py brother had fallen in a way to excite the sympathy of every 
feeling and generous mind : his departure from England to France 
was accompanied with the acclamations and sincere gratulations of 
all ranks of people : the prince regent personally escorted him not 
only to London, but from London to Dover ; and took leave of him, 
in sight of the French coast, in a manner the most affecting and 
impressive. White flags were exhibited on almost all the churches, 
near which he had to pass, and nothing could exceed the joy ex- 
pressed upon the overthrow of Buonaparte, and the restoration of 
the Bourbons, both in England and France. 

2. In the latter country, however, it may be naturally supposed, 
the joy could not be general, nor much of what was expressed 
outwardly, sincere: Louis XVIII. returned to France, not as it 
was when he left it, but revolutionized ; it had undergone great 
changes, and a large proportion of the population was deeply inter- 
ested in those changes ; yet many, who returned with him, were 
quite as deeply interested, in absolutely reversing what had passed, 
restoring what had been abolished, reclaiming what had been ali- 
enated, if not even punishing and degrading those who had parti- 
cipated in or been benefited by such revolutions. 

3. In the mean Vi^hile the exiled emperor was not quiet ; he was 
too near to the French coast to be kept in ignorance of what was 
passing, and of the sentiments entertained towards him, by those 
who had participated in his many glorious and triumphant achieve- 
ments, and who could ill brook the degradation to which they 
might be doomed by the restoration ^the Bourbons ; the army, in 
particular, to whom indeed he had behaved not only ill, but cruelly, 
in bis retreat from Russia and Leipzig, had yet been raised by him 
io such a pitch of glory aud pre-eminence, as might reasonablj 



MODERN HISTORY. 4iT 

-account for its fcclinj^ both disgust and resentment, at having bawi 
compelled to submit to the intrusion of strangers into their country 
and metropolis ; strangers, whom they had previously been alile net 
only to defy and resist, but in some instances, to triumph over in 
tlu-ir own capitals. 

4. The situation of the king of France, therefore, on his return 
to his dominions, however acceptable to the greater part of Eu- 
rope, could scarcely be such as he might himself wish or desire : i^ 
was iaipossible for him to return to the ancient state of things ; and 
he must have foreseen how difficult it would be to render any new 
constitution agreeable or suitable td all parties. The senate, in- 
deed, had prepared a new constitution before his arrival ; one 
which bore a considerable analogy to that of England ; the legis- 
lative power being placed in the hands of the king, the senate, and 
the representatives of the nation at large ; and the amount, naturr;, 
and distribution of the public taxes, left exclusively to the decision 
of the latter : the deputies were to exercise their functions for the 
space of five years ; the dignity of senator to be hereditary, and 
to be conferred by the king, though v;ith a limitation as to num- 
bers, which were not to exceed 200 ; religious freedom, and the 
liberty cf the press, were duly provided for: this constitution was 
to be presented to him, to be accepted previously to his inaugura- 
tion ; but on his arrival at Paris, he did not choose to bind himself, 
further than to promise his people such a constitution as they 
would have no reason to disapprove : his first care was, to arrange 
matters with the foreign potentates who occupied his capital, so as 
to be able, as speedily as possible, to get rid of their numerous ar- 
mies ; whose presence could not tail to be a subject of uneasiness 
to his own armies, as well as to the people in general : to the credit 
of tb.e troops themselves, under such extraordinary circumstances, 
-it should be observed, that nothing could exceed the order and 
forbearance with which they conducted themselves, as victors, in 
a capital, which, in the v/ay of simple retribution, stood fairly ex- 
posed to plunder, exaction, and devastation. 

5. Though it WHS soon settled to refer to a convention at Vienna 
the final adjustment of matters, and arrangement of peace ; yet 
France was quickly made to understand, that her boundaries must 
be greatly contracted, and that the independei^ce of most of the 
nav^h/ annexed states and territories must be t'reely acknowledged ; 
to these terms both the king and his minister, piince Talleyrand, 
plainly saw the necessity of yielding, though the pride of the French 
was likely to be v/ounded by it. 

6. On the 4th of June, the king presented to the senate and legis- 
lative body his owu new ccnstitution,which differed in several points 
from that submitted to him on his arrival ; it reserved to himself the 
right of proposing laM^s, and the assembly could only request to be 
permitted to discuss particular points ; instead of an hereditary 
senate, peers, chosen by the ^king for life were to compose that 
body, without limitation of numbers ; the popular representatives 
were to consist of 262, not under 40 years of age : they were to be 
convoked every year, and were to have the power of impeaching 
the ministers for treasou or extortion ; the king was to appoint 



418 MODERN HISTORY. 

tke judges, and trial by jury was to be contiimeJ : the press was 
p^ced under a censorship, and an order was given for closing; the 
theatres and shops on the sabbath ; an order not only extremely 
unpopular at the time, but, as it wonld seem, ineffectual. In nom- 
inating the senate, some of Buonaparte"'s cotirtiers and marshals 
were included, particularly Talleyrand, who became minister for 
foreign affairs. 

7. The kinc, who from the first commencement of the revolu- 
tion bad-displayed a disposition to favour the rights of the people, 
more tlian others of bis family, or the chiefs of the emig-rants, "was 
little likely of himself to deviate from the principles of the consti- 
tution, or to disturb unnecessarily the existing state of things, in 
which so many interests were involved, but he was supposed to 
have around him persons still bi-'otted to the ancient system, and 
ar\xioas to recover all that they had forfeited by the coarse of the 
revolution. These thing?, together with the dissatisfied state of the 
army, paved the way for the return of Buonaparte. 

8. '.' he probability of such an event seems to have been strange- 
ly overlooked by those who were most interested in preventing it : 
the popularity of the deposed emperor had been miscalculated. 
On the 1st of March, 1815, he landed once more on the shores of 
Francf^, with only 1140 attendants ; an attempt which many judged 
to be altogether hopeless, yet, to the utter surprise of those who 
thought so, his progress tov/ards Paris, though not unmolested, af- 
forded him every hour, i'rom rlie dtjfection of the troops sent against 
him, stronger hopes of recovering his authority. On the 20th of 
T'liarch the king was persuaded to retire from Paris; and on the 
evcnh:ig of that very day Buonriparte entered it, being hailed by 
the populace, v.-hich had so lately saluted the return of the Bour- 
bons in llie same manner, with the loudest acclamations. 

9. lie was soon convinced, however, that he was not returned 
to his ancient power, and that he, quite as much as Louis XVTfl, 
v/ould now be expected to gratify the people with a free constitu- 
tion ; he speedily tljerefore, issued some popular decrees, establish- 
ing the freedom of the press •, abolishing the slave-trade ; and reg- 
ulating the taxes which weighed most heavily on the people ; he 
aJso condescended to olFer to them the plan of a constitution, very 
different from the system of despotism upon Avhich he had before 
acted, and containing many excellent regulations : he had, how- 
ever, but little time to spare for legislative measures. A manifesto 
of expulsion and extermination had been issued against him by 
the congress at Vienna, signed by the plenipotentiaries of Austria^ 
France, Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Spain, and Por- 
gal, and it was indispensably necessary for him to prepare for war. 
To this manifesto on the part of (he allied powers, Buonaparte Ava^; 
not slow in dictating and presenting to Europe a counter m^fnifcs- 
to^ asserting in the strongest terms the right of the French to ad- 
here to the dynasty they had chosen on the expulsion of the 
Bourbons ; and declaring that the confederate princes had been the 
first to violate the treaty of Fontainebleau ; but it is remarkable 
that, though Buonaparte so perem.ptorily asserted, in his manifes- 
to, the right of the French freely to cbcose what dynasty they 



MODERN IIlSTOrxY. 4li>^ 

pleased to rei^a OYtr thorn, he had inserted in his new constitution 
an article, totally and for tvev to exclude the Bourbon family from 
the succession to the throne. 

10. It was not till June that the several armies" were prepared 
to take the field, and between the 15th and 19th of that month, 
the fate of Europe seemed ouce more to become dependent on the 
decision o[ the sword. The battle of Waterloo, which took place 
on the loth of June, and in which the British and Prussian armies, 
under the duke of Wtlilngton and marshal Blucher, totally de- 
feated the French, effectually put an end to all the hopes and 
prospects of Buonaparte. On the .'20th, he arrived at Paris, the 
firs^ of his fugitive army ; and in a very few days after, was com- 
pelled a second ti :ne to resign his usurped dominions. On his re- 
tirement from Paris, his destination appeared to be a matter of 
extreme doubt, till on the 15th of July he put himself into the 
hands of the English by going on board the Jiellerophon man of 
war, and surrendering himself and suite unconditionally to captain 
IMaitlaad, the commander of that ship, who sailed immediately 
to Tofbay with his prisoiicrs, none of whom were permitted to 
laud. 

11. On the 3d of July, not however without a etrug-gle ob the 
part of the French army, Paris had formally surrendered to the 
duke of Wellington and prince Blucher, who took possession of it 
on the 7th, and on the 8th the king returned, greeted, as before, 
wiVa the cheering and acclamations of the fickle multitudes who 
tiironged the roads by which he had to pass. By the terms of ca- 
pitulation, the French troops under Davoust had feeen made tore- 
tire beyond the Loire, which they did with sullen indignation ; 
but on the arrival of the Austrians and Russians at Paris, came 
over to the king. It was very obvious, that, having the great dis- 
turber of Europe once more in their power, the allies could not fail 
to discern the glaring impropriety of suffering him to return again 
into any situation which might afford him the means of communi- " 
eating with his old adherents, and thereby resuming the station he 
Jaad occupied for so many years, to the annoyance of the whole con- 
tinent. The small, rocky, and totally detached island of St, He- 
lena, in the Atlantic ocean, seemed the ©nly secure place of abode 
to which he could be assigned. It was therefore agreed to send 
him thither, under the custody of the British government, but un- 
der the eye, also, of commissioners appointed to reside there, on 
thejiart of the Austrian, Russian, and French goveraments. On 
the 17th of October, 1815, he arrived at his destined residence. 

12. Amongst the measures adopted by the military commanders 
of the foreign troops at Paris, none seemed more to occupy the at- 
tention of Europe than the determination they formed to restore to 
the places which had been robbed of them the valuable v.^orks of 
art, which the victories of the French armies had put into their 
possession, not merely in the way of plunder, but upon a regular 
system of purloini)i;g every thing which could add to the splendour 
and greatness of their own capital, however grating to the feelings 
of those from whom they Avere taken, and however severely it must 
have added to tlie mortifications they h»d been dooiacd to si>ffer 



420 ^ MODERN HISTORY. 

from -vi'eaknesp or defeat. The justice of such a step could not be 
disputed, thoutjh nothing -w-as more likely to excite the resentment 
and indignation of the French, in whose hands, it must be ac- 
knowlfdged, had they been properly acquired, they were likely 
enough to be preserved and exhibited to the world, in a man- 
ner the most conducive to the glory and immortality of the 
illustrious artists to whom they owed their origin •, but, as an 
act of honourable restitution, in many instances, to persons and 
places whose claims would otherwise have been mocked and 
de ided, the interposition of the two victorious chiefs upon this 
occasion may be justly admired. Prince Blucher, indeed, had 
a direct interest in reclaiming the spoils of Berlin and Potzdam, 
but the duke of Wellington, v/hile he had nothing to recover for 
his own country, freely assisted those whose pretensions required 
the support of such paramount authority. 

13. By the second general pacification of Paris with the allies, 
November 20th, 1815, it was agreed that an army of occupation, 
amounting to 150,000 men, and to be maintained in a great mea- 
sure by France, should for the space of five years be put in posses- 
sion of her frontier fortresses, while her boundary should be farther 
reduced than on the former occasion ; terms sufficiently mortifying, 
but justified by the turbulent and unsettled principles of the French 
nation. Though the period of five years, however, had been spe- 
cifically agreed to, the state of things afterwards appearing suoh 
as to justify the allies in departing from the exact letter of the 
treaty, in the spring of the year 1817 they consented to reduce the 
army of occupation one fifth, and iu the autumn of 1810, it was 
wholly withdrawn from the French territories, and the fortresses 
on the frontier restored. 



SECTION XXII. 

NORTHERN STATES OF EUROPE, FROM THE CLOSE OF 
THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

1. Though much has heen said of the northern courts in the 
preceding sections, as bearing a part in the transactions on the con- 
tinent, during the last and present centuri^, yet as they have not 
been mentioned distinctly and particularly, some brief account of 
them may be necessary, to give a clearer view of the course of 
events during the period under consideration. 

2. Peter the great, of Russia, who died in 1725, (see Sect. 
LXVI. $ 2.) was succeeded by his widow, Catherine I, who sur- 
vived him only two years. It is remarkable, that though Peter 
had taken particular care to secure to the reigning monarch a 
power of naming his successor, he should himself neglect this pre- 
caution ; and for such an omission the law had made no provision. 
Catherine, however, had little or no difficulty to take his place 
She was a woman, if not of a superior, yet of rather an extraordi- 
nary character ; had attended Peter in his travels and campaigns ; 
beeti serviceable to him in his greatest extreiiiiLies ; often eheciied 



MODERN insiORv. 421 

he violence of his passion ; and manifeptcd a disposition, durln* 
ler short reigTi, to encourage a spirit of liberty amongst her sub- 
iects, and to promote, in every way phe could, the prog;ress of rm- 
rtrovcment and civilization. Her death was little expected, and 
^xcited some suspicions ag-ainst the prince MenzicofT, who had just 
legociated a treaty with Aiistria, and entered into a vstipulation to 
•aise the son of the nnfortunate prince Alexis to the throne, upon 
he condition of his raarryin:: his daughter. 

3. The empress died in V?.;7, and was succeeded by Peter II, 
-randsnn of Peter I. MenzicofT, however, seemed to take into his 
>wn hands the reins of government, till he was supplanted by one 
jf the Dolgoronki family, and banished to Siberia, with his wife 
md children. The new favourite designed to marry his sister to 
he emperor ; but on January 29, 1730, Peter died of the small- 
pox. In him the male issue of the line becoming- extinct, Anne 
luchess of ('ourland was called to the throne through the influence 
>f Dols:orouki, contrary to the order of succession established by 
['eter I, and in prejudice of her elder sister, the duchess of Meck- 
enbnrg. They were both of them the daughters of Iwan, the 
eldest brother of Peter. 

4. The rei»n of Anne was prosperoiis and s:lorious ; she showed 
';reat sagacity and firmness in resisting the intrigues, and balancing 
he credit of rival statesmen, counsellors, and generals, Russian 
md foreign ; maintaining her prerogatives against those who sought 
;o invade them, to further their own ambition, particularly Dolgo- 
'ouki, who, though he had placed her on the throne, was disgraced 
md banished to Siberia. Anne died in 1740, leaving the crown, 
?y her will, to her grand-nephew Iwan, son of her niece, Anne, 
Kincess of Mecklenburg-, married to the duke of Brunswick Be- 
irern ; but she appointed her favourite, count Biren, whom she had 
wrought with her from Courland, regent. 

5. This last arrangement threw things into the utmost confusion, 
Riren was deservedly no favourite with the Russians, more than 
?0,000 of whom he is said to have sent into banishment ; he had, 
sesides, a powerful rival in count Munich, the conqueror of Ocza- 
xow, a German, and a man of singular bravery and resolution ; the 
atter succeeded in dispossessing the regent of his authority in favour 
)f the mother of the emperor. Biren was sent to Siberia ; and the 
princess of Mecklenburg- (duchess of Brunswick) assumed the rein* 
)f government ; but not attending^ sufficiently to the duties of her 
ligh station, and appearing to give too great encouragement to fo- 
'eigners, a new revolution was set on foot, to place on the throne 
he youngest daug-hter of Peter the great, the princess Elizabeth. 
Phis party, supported by French g^old, and headed by Lestocq, a 
:)hysician, quickly becoming strong, seized upon the emperor Iwan 
md his parents, and proclaimed Elizabeth empress of all the Rua- 
lias. The life of the infant Iwan was preserv^ed by the clemency 
md express interposition of Elizabeth ; but only to undergo a 
jarder fate. (SeeJjelow, f 8.) Munich was banisked ; and other 
'oreign g-enerals, who had favoured the former government, either 
shared the same destiny, or costrived to escape from the Russian 
dominions. The people were well pleased to see the throne rcs= 

36 



422 MODERN HISTORY* 

Gued from the Kands of foreigners in favour of so direct a claimant 
as the dang-hler of Peter the great. This revolution took place in 
the month of November, 1741. 

6. Russia flourished under the sway of Elizabeth, whose rei^n 
exhibited an uninterrupted career of glory and success ; her alliance 
was courted by some of the greatest powers in Europe. Before her 
death, which happened in 1762, she took care to restore the natu- 
ral order of succession in her family, by declaring the duke of 
■Holstein Gottorp, her heir, son of her eldest sister, and who be- 
came emperor, on her demise, by the title of Peter III. 

7. This unfortunate prince was not suCered to reign long ; he 
had married a princess of Anhalt-Zerbst ; a woman of singular 
character, peculiarly fitted to avail herself of any opportunities 
that might offer in so unsettled a country, to gratify hei* ambition, 
und give scope to her abilities. The prince had not behaved well 
to her, and many things concurred to render him unpopular, if not 
hateful to his subjects ; particularly an enthusiastic attachment 
to the king of Prussia, then at war with the Russians, and projected 
innovations, well-meant but ill-timed, some particularly affecting 
the clergy. He proposed to circumscribe the power of the nobles, 
tind seemed to prefer the Holstein troops to his Russian guard. As 
these things rendered his removal probable, according to the ordi- 
nary course of proce( dings in that semi-barbarous country, the sa- 
gacious Catherine willingly gave herself up to a party who had 
conspired against her husband. It is generally conjectured that 
s^he connived, not only at the deposition, but at the death of Peter, 
irho survived his elevation to the imperial dignity not many months ; 
Vvhile Catherine, by her superior address and intrepidity, not only 
succeeded in establishing herself upon the vacant throne, but in 
emancipating herself from the domination of the party to whom 
she stood indebted for it (the Orloffs.) 

8. One competitor still seemed to stand in her way, — the un- 
fortunate Iwan, — who had been deposed by Elizabeth, and now 
languished in confinement, at the age of twenty-four. Soon after 
Catherine's accession he was slain in prison, on a pretence of his 
atttempting to escape, hut under circumstances so mysterious as 
to involve the empress in suspicion. She reigned under the title 
of Catherine II. for the long space of upwards of thirty-four years, 
continually occupied in advancing the glory of her people, in aug- 
menting her dominions, and rewarding merit. She obtained many 
signal advantages over the Turks, and succeeded (1784) in wrest- 
ing from them the whole district of the Crimea ; but her designs 
extended much farther, even to the expulsion of the Ottomans, 
and restoration of a Grecian empire, having for its capital Athens 
or Constantinople : she contemplated, in short, the complete tri- 
umph of the Cross over the Crescent. An expedition was even 
undertaken for the liberation of the Greeks, in the year 1770; but 
it proved ineffectual, though it might have been otherwise, had 
the Russian commanders consented to follow the advice of the 
Scotch admiral, Elphins-tonc, who commanded one of the divisions 
Of the fleet. 



MODERN' HISTOLIY, 423 

y. Catherine \<oTe a large share in tlie pavlltiou of Poland, and 
seems to have been restrained by no principles of justice, humani- 
ty, morality, or virtue, from furthering the purposes of her ambition 
and policy: herprodig-ality was great, her largesses enormous, and 
her love of magnificence little proportioned to the smallness of the 
imperial revenue : her abilities and her resolution were remarka- 
ble, and she may be considered as having contributed largely to 
the improvement and glory of the country over which she was per- 
mitted so long to bear unlimited rule. Her domestic regulations 
savoured little of the despotism displayed in her foreign enterprises : 
she mitigated the rigour of the penal laws, abolished torture and 
slavery, protected the arts and sciences, and endeavoured to elevate 
the middle class to a proper deg:ree of importance. 

10. Catherine II. was succeeded in 1796 by her son Paul I, a 
strange character, unsettled in his principles, dissolute in his man- 
ners, jealous, vindictive, and, in his last days, scarcely in posses- 
sion of his senses. On his first accession, however, he wisely en- 
deavoured to provide against the evils arising from an unsettled 
inheritance, by enacting a law to secure the crown to his lineal 
and direct descendants, not absolutely excluding females, but ad- 
mitting them only into the line of succession on a total failure of 
male heirs. 

11. The emperor appeared to be extremely eager to secure an 
entrance into the Mediterranean, and was highly gratified with 
being chosen patron of the order of Malta, w^hich he consented to 
take under his protection in the year 1708. He had been induced 
to take a part in the war against the French, and succeeded, in 
cor.junctloa with the Turks, in getting possession, for a short time, 
of the Ionian islands ; a Russian army was also sent to co-operate 
with the Austrians, under the command of the celebrated Souwa- 
row (or oouvaroff,) who, after having achieved great victories in 
Lombardy, seems to have been cruelly abandoned in Swisserlaud, 
and to have unjustly incurred the displeasure of his capricious 
master. A misunderstanding between the- English and Paul on 
the subject of Malta, entirely alienated the latter from the confede- 
racy. In the mean while, his violent conduct had induced the 
great officers of state and the nobility to conspire to dethrone him. 
He was slain in defending himself, during a conflict, in his owrj 
chamber, March 24, 1801 ; and greatly to the joy of his oppressed 
people, succeeded by his son Alexander, the present emperor, of 
whose accession, and share in the continental war, an account has 
already been given. 

12. Prussia, as a kingdom, is not older than the eighteenth cen- 
tury, and entirely belongs therefore to the period under discussion. 
Its history, as connected with the electorate of Brandenburgh, as- 
cends a? high, perhaps, as that of any sovereignty in Europe. Its 
present power may be said to have taken its rise from the wisdom, 
judgment, and good sense of the elector Frederic- William, com- 
monly called the great elector, who had Ducal Prussia confirmed. 
to him in 1G57, and by the conventions of Walau and Bromberg^ 
rendered independent of the crown of Poland, of which, till then^ 
U IjAd jbeen a £ef. In the time of the great elector, advantage was 



424 MODERN HiSTOay, * 

taken of thf unaeLtleH state of Europe, to increase the population, 
and thereby advance the wealth and improvement of the country 
in every respect. The revocation of the edict of Nantes in France, 
1G85, contributed largely to these ends, the Prussian states being 
freely set open to the refuo:ecs of all descriptions ; an act of mere 
policy, as the elector himself, thougfh tolerant, was extremely 
devout and careful of the privileges, and even exemptions of the 
clerg-y. 

13. The elector, Frederic- William, died in 1C88. and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Fredtric, who, through the influence of the 
protestant states, and the good-wili of the emperor Leopold, t© 
whom he had been of service in his contest with France, but who 
seems to have taken such a step with little judgment or considera- 
tion, became king in 1701, and died in 1713, at the very period 
■when, by the treaty of Utrecht, his regal title was confirmed and 
geficraily acknowledged by the other states Z)f Europe. Frederic 
I. wasgeueroup, but fickle, superstitious, and vain ; he founded the 
Vtiiversity of Hall, the Royal Society of Berlin, and the Academy 
of Nobles, hut without taking much interest in their concerns, and 
chiefly at the instigation of his more learned consort, the princess 
Charlotte of Hanover; he maaag:ed, however, t^y aug-ment, by 
many acquisitions, purchases, and exchauges, the extent of his 
•dominions. 

14. His succe?3or, Frederic- Willi am II, is jnd|red to have done 
much more to raise the credit and character of his new kingdom, 
by excessive prudence, and good management, and the utmost at- 
tention to his arttiy ; whereby he not only repaired the losses occa- 
sioned by his father's extravagances, but amassed great treasures, 
and laid the foundation for those stupendous military achieve- 
ments, which, in the next reign, advanced Prussia to that high 
state of glory and eminence which has given it such wcig-ht in 
the political scale of Europe. Frederic abolished, iu 1717, all the 
•fiefs in his kingdora ; he invited colonies from all parts to settle ia 
his dominions. iA\ie his gieat predecessor and namesake, he estab- 
lished military sclw^ola and hospitals, but he was no friend to lite- 
rature ; unpoli'shed in his manners, and implacable in his resent- 
ment. He added to the dominions of Prussia, Stettin and the 
greater part of Swedish Pomerania. 

15. On the death of Frederic-Willi3m II, in 1740, bis son, (who 
is sometimes called Frederic II, to distinguish him from the Fred- 
eric-Williams, and sometimes Frederic III,) came to the throne. 
Of this monarch so much is known, and so much has already been 
noticed and recorded in the other sections of ihis work, that we 
have little to say here, but that he managed to raise a scattered, 
ill-sorted, disjointed kingdom into the first rank of power and re- 
nown ; that he applied himself incessantly to promote the welfare 
and improvement of his dominions, to augment the wealth and ad- 
vance the civilization of his people, though, in many of his reg'ula- 
tions and measures to this end, he erred occasionally as his prede- 
cessors had done, for want of a due knowledge of some of the first 
principles of political economy, a science at that period little culti- 
vated. Frederic died August, 1786, in the sevtuty-fifth /ear oftki§ 



MODERN HISTORY. 



42. 



s.::e, and forty-seventh of his reign, more admired than esteemed ; 
more distiuj^uishedfor bravery in the field, wisdom in the cabinet, 
and literary attainments, than for any virtues or qualities of a no- 
bler nature. He has had the reputation of beinj the author of two 
very important measures, the partition of Poland, and the armed 
neutrality. The credit of the first may probably be very fairly 
divided between himself and Catherine of Russia-, the second, a3 
a matter of self-defence, and a jealous regard for the liberty of the 
seas, reflects no dishonour on his character. It is a point that 
should be better settled than it seems to be, by the strict rales of 
international and maritime law, 

16. Frederic was succeeded by his nephew Frederic-William. 
Of the part taken by this monarch in support of the house of Orange, 
ia 1787, of his opposition to the French, in 1792, and of the share he 
had in the two last partitions of Poland, in 1793 and 1795, by 
which he gained the territories, first of South Prussia, and,^ second- 
ly of South-eastern Prussia, an account has been given elsewhere, 
Frederic-William (I. died in 1797, aged fil\y-three, leaving the 
crown to his son, the present king, Frederic III, who, as he came 
to the throne at the moment that Buonaparte began his 'extraordi- 
nary career, in disturbance of the peace of the continent, was ne- 
cessarily involved in all the difficulties and confusion of those times, 
as has been already shown : he joined the armed neutrality in 
1800, caused iJamburgh to be shut against the English, and occu- 
pied the states of Hanover, 1801, which being annexed by France 
to Prussia, in 1805, in exchange for a part ofVne duchy of Cleves, 
Anspach, Barcuih, Neufchatel, and V'alengin, provoked the re- 
sentment of England and Sweden. In 1806, the king rashly en- 
gaged in wax with France, and was nearly deprived of his king- 
dom : the losses he sustained by the treaty of Tilsit, have been 
mentioned. (Sect. XVI.) In 1812, Frederic was compelled by 
France to furnish an auxiliary force against Russia, but was after- 
wards, on the retreat of the French from Moscow, able to break 
through this engagement, and conclude a treaty of neutrality with 
Russia. From 'this time to the abdication of Napoleon, Prussia 
acted in close confederacy with the allies, the king being con- 
stantly with his army till their entrance into Paris, March, 1814. 
On the return of Buonaparte, 1815, the Prussians were the first to 
take the field, under their celebrated general, prince Rlucher, and 
in the battle of Waterloo, reaped .the splendid glories of that day 
in conjunction with the British. Since that time, Prussia has en- 
joyed a state of peace, though not undisturbed as to her internal 
concerns. 

17. The crown of Swedex, on the demise of Charles XII, 1718, 
(see Sect. LXVT. i 9. Part II.) was conferred on his youngest sister, 
Ulrica Eleauora, by the free election of the states. On th« death 
of Charles, whose strange proceedings had greatly exhausted the 
kingdom, and occasioned the actual loss of many provinces, an op- 
portunity was taken, once more, to limit the kingly power, which 
had been rendered almost absolute in the reign of Charles XI, 
and to make the crown elective. The new queen, who v/a« 
saarricd to the hereditary prince of Hesse Casselj and who had beea 

3^* 



426 MODERN HlSTORYe 

offered the crown in prejudice of the son and refireseritative of heP 
elder sister, the duchess of Holstein G6ttorp, readily submitted 
to the conditioBs proposed by the states for limiting- the royal 
authority, but soon after her accession resigned the government 
to her royal consort, who was crowned by the title of Frederic ly 
1720. 

18. The new kin^ ruled the nation with little dignity and less 
spirit ; submitting- to every thin^ imposed on him by the states, till 
the government became more republican than monarchical. The 
Swedish territories were also much reduced during^ the early part 
of his reign, in the course of the years 1719, 1720, 1721, Sweden 
ceded to Hanover, Bremen and Verden ; to Prussia, the town of 
Stettin ; and to Russia, Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, Wiburg, a part 
of Carelia, and several islands. 

19. It was during this reign that the rival factions of the Hats 
and Caps had their origin, and which caused great trouble ; the 
former being generally under the influence of France, the latter of 
Russia. To deter the latter from assisting the queen of Hungary, 
in the war that took place on the death of Charles VI, France made 
use of its influence with the Hats^ to involve Sweden in hostilities 
with Russia, for which she was ill-prepared, and from which she ' 
suffered considcrablj'. Her losses were restored to her in some 
measure by the peace of Abo, 1743, but upon the positive condi- 
tion that Frederic should adopt as his heir and successor, at the 
instance of the czarina, Adolphus-Frederic, bishop of Lubec, uncle 
to the duke of Holstein Gottorp, presumptive heir to the throne of 
Russia, and nephew to the queen of Sweden, who would more 
•willingly have had the latter for her successor. 

20. Adolphus-Frederic came to the crown in 1751. The same 
/actions vvliich had disturbed the former reign continued to give him 
trouble, and though he made some endeavours to get the better of 

'foreign intluence, and recover his lost authority, all his efforts were 
vain. Nothing could exceed the anarchy and confusion that pre- 
^'ailed, encouraged and fomented both by Russia and France, to 
further their private ends. 1 he king is supposed to have fallen 
a sacriace to these disturbances, dying wholly dispirited in the 
year 1771. 

21. He was succeeded by his eldest son Gustavus III, twenty- 
rive years old at the time of his accession ; a Swede by birth, and 
an active and spirited prince, who was bent upon recovering what 
his predecessors had too tamely surrendt-red of their rights and pre- 
rogatives ; in which, being supported by France, he had the good 
fortune to succeed. Having found means to conciliate the army, 
and to reconcile the people to an attack upon the aristocrats, who 
were betraying the interests of the country, he established a new 
constitution, 1772, with such good mauagement and address, that 
the public tranquillity was scarcely for a moment disturbed. This 
new arrangement threw great power into the hands of the king, 
by leaving him the option of convening and dissolving the states, 
with the entire disposal of the army, navy, and all public appoint- 
snents, civil, military, and ecclesiastical ; some alterations were 
mAiia iu ni;9j but nothiii^ could i;€«OAal€ ike partj whemke i^a4 



MODERN HISTOHY. 4^7 

superseded ; at least it is probable that tiiis was the occasion of 
the catastrophe which terminated the life of the unfortunate mo- 
narch. Towards the commencement of the French revolwtirvn, in 
the year 1792, when he was preparing to assist Lewis XVI, (an 
iinpopular undertaking-,) he was assassinated at a masquerade by 
a person encouraged, if not directly employed, by the discontented 
party of 1772. 

2'2. Gustavus III. was brave, polite, well-informed, and of a rea- 
dy eloquence ; but profligate in his habits of life, and careless as 
to matters of religion. He promoted letters, agriculture, and 
commerce, as far as his means would enable him to do so. His 
measures appear to have been more arbitrary than his dispo- 
sition. 

23. His son Gustavus IV. being only fourteen years old at the 
time of his father's death, the duke of Sudermania, brother of the 
deceased king, became regent for a short time. No monarch in 
Europe manifested a greater zeal in the cause of the French royal 
family, or disgust at the arbitrary proceedings of Buonaparte, than 
Gustavus IV, but he was little able to give effect to his wishes ; 
Ills judgment being weak, and his forces inadequate to contend 
with the French, especially after the latter, by the treaty of Til- 
sit, (see Sect. XVl.) had found means to detach and conciliate the 
emperor Alexander. After this disastrous treaty, Gustavus became 
not only the object of French resentment, but of Russian rapaxity. 
He was peremptorily fwbidden to admit the English into his ports, 
and Finland was quickly wrested from him. The Danes also at- 
tacked him. In this dilemma, England would have assisted him if 
she coul.1 have trusted him, but, in truth, his rashness and incapa- 
city were become too apparent to justify any such confidence. A 
revolution was almost necessary, nor was it long before a conspira- 
cy was formed, which in the year 1009, succeeded so far as to in- 
duce him to abdicate. His uncle, the duke of Sudermania, bein^ 
appointed protector, and very soon afterwards king, by the title 
•of Charles XIII, the states carrying their resentment against Gus- 
tavus IV. so far, as to exclude his posterity also from the throne. 

24. Charles XIIL submitted to new restrictions on* the kingly 
authority, and having no issue., left it to the nation to nominate an 
heir to the crown. Their first choice fell upon the prince of Au- 
gustenburg, a Danish subject, but his death happening soon after- 
wards, not without suspicion of foul play, Bernadotte, one of Buo- 
naparte's generals, Avas, in a very extraordinary manner, nominated 
in his room by the king, and approved by the states. As crown 
prince of Sweden, tempted by the offer of Norway, he joined the 
confederacy ag-ainst Buouaparte in 1813, and was present at the 
battle of Leipzig. (See Sect. XX.) On the death of Charles XIII, 
1818, he s'dcceeded to the crown, and still reig-ns, having, by the 
treaty of Vienna, 1315^ obtained Norway, and the island of Gua- 
daloupe. 

25. The history of Denmark during the eighteenth century, 
and beginning of the nineteenth, is very uninteresting, in a politi- 
cal point of view. Incapable of taking any leading or conspicu- 
«^us ^art ia the Mali's qS Europe^ all that -yye kaow coijceiiun^ hQi 



428 I/IODERN HISTORY. 

relates rather to other countries, as Russia, Sr/eden, Prussia, 
France, and Eng;land ; In -whose friendships and hostilities she ha3 
been compelled, by circumstances, to taice a part, little advanta- 
geous, if not entirely detrimental, to her own interests. 

26. Five kin;2^s have occupied the throne since the close of the 
seventeenth century, but it will be necessary to- say very little 
of them. Frederic IV, who came to the crown iu 1699, died in 
1730, and was succeeded by Christian VI ; a monarch who paid 
great attention to the welfare of his subjects, in lightening the 
taxes, and encouraging trade and manufactures. He reigned six- 
teen years, and was succeeded by his son Frederic V, in the year 
1746. Frederic trod in the footsteps of his father, by promoting 
knowledge, encouraging the manufactures, and extending the com- 
merce of his country. He had nearly been embroiled with Prus- 
sia during the six months' reign ©f the unfortunate Peter III, who, 
the moment he became emperor, resolved to revenge on the court 
of Denmark the injuries which had been com.mitted on his ances- 
tors of the house of Holstein Gottorp. In these attejnpts he was 
to be assisted by the king of Prussia. The king of Denmark pre- 
pared to resist the attacks with which he was threatened, but the 
deposition and death of the emperor fortunately relieved him froiJi 
all apprehensions, and he was able to compromise matters with 
Catherine IT, by a treaty that Avas not to take effect till the grau(]l 
duke Paul came of age. By tliis convention, the empress cede.d, 
to Denmark, in the name of her son, the duchy of Sleswick, and 
so much of Holstein as appertained to the Gottorp branch of that 
family, in exchange for the provinces of Oldenburg and Dalraen- 
iiorst. 

27. Frederic V. died in 1766, and was succeeded by his son 
Christian VII, who in 1768, married the princess Caroline Matilda 
of England, sister to his majesty king George III. The principal 
event in this reign w^s one which invohed the unhappy queen in 
inextricable difficulties, and probably hastened her death ; but 
which seems still to be enveloped in considerable n"!5'-stery. A 
German physician of the court, (Struensee.) who had risen from 
rather a lotv station in life to be first minister, having rendered 
himself extremely obnoxious by a most extensive refoi'm in all the 
public offices of state, civii and miliiary, and which, had they 
succeeded, might have done him great credit as a statesman, was 
accused of intriguing with the young queen, and by the violence 
of his enemies, headed and encouraged by Juliana Maria, the 
queen-dowager, and her son prince Frederic, brought most igno- 
miniously to the scaffold. The unfortunate queen Caroline, whose 
life was probably saved only by the spirited interposition of the 
British minister, quitted Denmark after the execution of Struen- 
see and his coadjutor Brandt, and having retired to Zell in Ger- 
jnany, painfully separated from her children, there ended her days, 
May 10, 1775, in the twenty-fourth year of her age. 

28. During the latter part of his life, Christian Vll, whose un- 
<lerstanding had always been weak, fell into a state of mental de- 
rangement, and the government was carried on by the queen- 
^Qwag^ei" arid prijace Fied^ricj as co-re^ents., witb the aid of Bai'a- 



MODERN HiSTOilY. 429 

scoii, an aVIe and patriotic minister. In 1773, the cession of Du- 
cal Holsteiii to Denmark by Russia took place, according to the 
treaty above spoken of: this was a very important acquisition, as 
g^ivinglier the command of the whole Cimbrian peninsula, and en- 
abiing- her, by forming a canal from Kiel, to connect the Baltic 
with the German ocean. In the continental wars of 1788, 1793, 
Denmark remained neuter, but by joining the armed neutrality in 
loOO, she excited the suspicions and resentment of Great Britain, 
iind, being supposed to favor not only Russia but France, became 
involved in a contest, which was attended with losses and vex.a- 
lions the most melancholy and deplorable. (See Sect. XX. i 9.) 

29. Christian VII. died in 1738, and was succeeded by hia sou 
Frederic VI, the present monarch, who had, a few years before, ou 
entering the seventeenth year of his age, been admitted to his pro- 
per sliare in the government, having with singular moderation and 
prudence succeeded in taking the administration of affairs out of 
the hands of the queen-dowager and her party. Denmark appears 
io have suffered greatly from the peculiarity of her situation du- 
ring the struggles arising out of the French revolution, being con- 
tinually forced into alliances contrary to her own interests, and 
jnade at la?t to conti-ibute more largely than almost any state, t© 
the establishment of peace. The cession of Norway to Sweden, 
which had been held out by the allies as a boon to the latter pow- 
er, to induce her to join the last confederacy against France, be- 
ing a severe loss to Deniuark, and very ill requited by the transfer 
of Fomerania and the Isle of Ilugcn, which were all that she re- 
reived in exchange. 



SECTION XXIII. 

SOUl'IIERN STATES OF EUROPE, FROM THE CLOSE OF 
THE SEVEX^^TEEiNTH CENTURY. 

1, The southern states of Europe underwent such extraordinary 
revolutions during the preponderance of the French under Buona- 
parte, that what happened to them during the eighteenth century, 
previously to these surprising events, seems comparatively of very 
little consequence ; of the changes and disturbances to which they 
were subject through the interference of the French, an account ia 
to be found in the sections relating to France. 

2. Switzerland at the beginning of the eighteenth century 
was involved In disputes between the protfestants and catholics, 
which were attended with very unpleasant circumstances. These 
differences, however, were brought to an end by a convention ia 
1717, which established an equality of religious rights. Things 
remained very quiet in most of the cantons from this time to the 
French revolution, with the exception of the towns of Geneva 
and Berne, and a few other places, where a disposition was mani- 
fested to limit and restrain the aristocratical governments, but 
which only led at that time to such judicious reforms, as were suf- 
ficient to appease- the ardor of the people. These disputes, how- 



430 MODLKN KISTORY. 

ever, may be held to have contributed to the evils which befelthe 
country afterwards. Though the states endeavoured to preserve 
their neutrality during the progress of the French revolution, it 
was not possible, while revolutionary principles were~afloat, to 
keep the country so free from internal disputes and commotions, 
or so united, as to deter the French from interfering. Geneva had 
already been cajoled out of her independence, but the first deci- 
sive occasion afforded to the French of taking an active part in 
the affairs of Swisserland, arose out of the disputes, in 1798, rela- 
tive to the Pays de Vaud ; the gentry and citizens of which, not 
thinking themselves sufficiently favoured by the rulers of Berne 
and Fribourg', began to be clamorous for a change. The peasantry 
of Easle also, instigated by an emissary of the French directory, 
demanded a new constitution. These disputes opened the way 
for the introduction of French troops, first under the orders of the 
directory, and afterwards under Buonaparte, as has been shown in 
our account of France ; and from that period to the conclusion of 
the war in 1815, Switzjcrland can scarcely be said to have known 
a year of repose. 

3. Of the conditi'jn of Venice during the eighteenth century, 
much may be collected from the foregoing- sections. She lost the 
Morea in 1718, but acquired in exchange some towns in Albania, 
and Dalmatia. Some ecclesiastical reforms took place in the mid- 
dle of the last century, at v/hich period many convents were sup- 
pressed, and tlie Jesuits expelled. Venice endeavoured to reniaia 
neuter during the first movements of the French revolution, but 
was soon drawn into the vortex when Buonaparte assumed the 
command of the French army. By the trealy of Canpo Formio, 
1797, (see Sect. XV.) her doom was sealed, and this ctjlebraled 
republic entirely overthrown. 

4. In R.03IE, since the close of tlie eighteenth centurj'-, there 
has been a succession of many popes, though the last two have 
filled the papal chair longer than might be expected, in a sove- 
reignty where the election is generally made from persons advan- 
ced in years. Little more than the '■'' magni noviinis umbra'''' re- 
mained to the popes at the beginning of the eighteenth century, of 
that temporal power which at one time or oiher had shaken every 
throne in Europe. The clergy of France in particular had eifec- 
tually asserted that kings and princes, in temporal concerns, were 
independent of the ecclesiastical authority. Clement Xf, who was 
of the family of the Alba»ii, and a-:sumed the tiara in the year 
1700, opposed the erection of Prussia into a kingdom ; an extraor- 
dinary measure of interposition, and which had so little weight a . 
almost to expose his court to ridicule. He espoused the Frcncl' 
interests in the contest concerning the Spanish succession, thougii 
in 1708 he was compelled, by the vigorous proceedings of the em- 
peror, to acknowledge CbarlesIIi, king of Spain. From this pope 
the famous bull unigcnitus was extorted by the Jesuits, to the 
great disturbance of France, and the whole Romish church ; and 
the consequences of which, indeed, may be traced even in the 
present state and circumstances of Europe. 



MODERN HISTORY. 431 

5. Pope Clement XI. died in 1721, and wjvs succeeded by the 
cardinal Michael Anccelo Conti, who took the name of Innocent 
XIII, but being far advanced in years, lived a very short time, dy- 
ing on the 3d of March, 1724, and on the 29th of May following"^ 
cardinal Ursini, Benedict XIII, was chosen his successor. During 
his papacy, Commachio, which had been lost to the Roman see in 
the time of Clemeiit XI, was recovered ; Benedict was zealous for 
the honour of the bull unigenitus, and in conjunction with cardi- 
nal 1 leury, succeeded ia procuring the cardinal de Noailles, one 
of the most respectable and zealous opposers of it in France, to 
subscribe it. He had a disposition to unite the Roman, Greek, 
Lutheran, and reformed churchts, but could not succeed. He- 
died 1730, more admired for his virtues and talents, than praised 
for his wisdom in the management of affairs. 

6. Benediect XIII. was succeeded by Clement XII, Laurence 
Corsiui, a Florentine, whose public acts w^cre of little impor- 
tance. He had disputes v/itli the king of Sardinia, the republic 
of Venice, w-ith the empire and Spain ; but much of his pontifi- 
cate was passed in tranquillity. He died on the 6th of February, 
1740. He made considerable and valuable additions to the A'ati- 
can library. On his death, a struggle arose between the Albani 
and Corsini families, and the conclave was much agitated. 1 he 
former prevailed, and succeeded in elevating cardinal Prosper 
Lambertini to the papal chair, who took the title of Benedict XIV. 
His government of the church was extremely mild, and he was 
regarded as no favourer of the Jesuits, who, during his pontificate, 
fell into disrepute in Portugal, the first symptom of their decline 
and fall. This pope was a man of most amiable manners, a great 
writer, and possessed of considerable learning. He corrected sev- 
eral abuses, particularly such as had arisen out of the privileges 
of asylum. He carefully endeavoured to keep clear of disputes 
and contests, thinking the times unfavourable to the papal author- 
ity. He died in the year 1758. 

7. -The cardinal Rezzonico succeeded Benedict XIV, and took 
the title of Clement XIII. His pontificate is memorable for being 
the sera of the expulsion of the order of Jesuits, (in some instances 
under circumstances of very unjustifiable precipitation,) from Por- 
tugal, France, Spain, Naples, Sicily, Parma, Venice, and Corsi- 
ca, notwithstanding the utmost eilbrts of the pope to uphold them ; 
many of them were actually landed from Spain, Portugal, Naples, 
and. Sicily, on the pope's territories, as though it belonged to him 
to maintain them when abandoned by the catholic sovereigns. The 
pope remonstrated, but with little effect. The French seized upon 
Avignon, and the Neapolitans upon Benevento, to induce him to 
abandon the order, but he would not. Clement XIII. died sud- 
denly, on February 2, 17G9, and w^as siicceedcd by the celebrated 
Ganganelli, who, in compliment to his predecessor and patron, 
took the title of Clement XIV. This enlightened pontiff was sen- 
sible of the decline of the papal authority, and of the prudence of 
conciliatmg, if not of humouring, the sovereigns of Europe, against 
whom, he was accustomed to observe, the Alps and the Pyrenees 
were not sufficient protection. It was ia consecjuence of this lean- 



432 MOIERN HISTORY. 

Uig townrcls the frmporal prince?, that he ?eci'red their covirr'TT- 
•fence to his being; made l^ope, his freedom of thoiig;ht and man- 
ners being otherwise obnoxious to the court of Rome. The con- 
isJave, by which he was elected, was tumultuous ; hut at length 
the cardinal de Bernis succeeded in procuring' him to be chosen 
pope May 1769. It is well known that this accomplished pontiff, 
in the year 1773, after much deliberation, ?uppre93ed the order of 
Jesuits ; and, dying- in the next year, suspicions were raised that 
he had been poisoned, but, on opening his body, in the presence of 
the J^rench and Spanish ministers, enemies to the Jesuits, it was pro- 
rsour.ced otherwise. '^Ihere is little doubt but that he regretted, as 
head of the church, the step he had been compelled to take ; it 
procured for him, inffeed, the restitution of Avignon and Beneven- 
to, which had been taken from his predecessor ; but in consenting' 
to the dissolution of an order so essential to the papal dominion, 
hft must, in all probability, have yielded to the power of irresisti- 
ble circumstances. He was of an amiable disposition, much g-iven 
to literature, iudtfatigfable in business, and highly respected by 
foreign nations, plain and simple in his manners, and very disin- 
terested. 

8. Early in the year 1775, Anglolo Braschi, a descendant of the 
noble family of Cesena, was chosen to fill the chair vacated by 
the death of Ganganelli. The new pope took the title of Pius 
VI. He is said to ha\'e been elected contrary to the wishes and 
intentions of most of the members of the conclave, a circumstance 
not unlikely to happen amidst such a contrariety of interests, and 
the complicated forms of proceeding. As he had thus risen to su- 
preme power, he acted afterwards more independently of the car- 
dinals, than any of his predecessors. 

9. He had taken the name of Pius \T, in acknowledged defi- 
ance cf a prevailing superstition, expressed in the following ver- 
ses, and applied to Alexander \T. particularly, if not to others. 

" Sexlus Tarquinms. Sextns Nero, sextus et iite. 
Semper sub sexlis, peidita Roma fuit." 

He is known to have, in his troubles, reflected on this rather 
singular circumstance, with sorrow and dismay. Certainly n« 
pope had greater indignities to sustain, nor could any have greater 
cause to apply to theraselves (he ominous prestiges conveyed in 
the lines just cited ; for in the year 1708 his government was over- 
thrown, and Rome lost. The French took possession of it and 
proclaimed the restoration of the Roman republic. 

10. The pope's troubles began in 1796, when he was compellrdi 
(o cede to Buonaparte the cities of Bologna, L'rbino, Ferrara, and 
Ancona, to pay twenty-one millions of francs, and deliver to the 
French commissioners, sent for the purposes, pictures, busts, stat- 
ues, and vases^ to a large amount. He afterwards endeavoured 
to raise an army to recover what he had lost ; but he had formed 
a very wrong estimate of the power of his opponent. He was soon 
Compelled, February 12, 1797, to sue for peace, and submit to fur- 
ther sacrifices at the will of Buonaparte, whom he had certainly 



M0DERN HISTORY* 43S 

rery iKcautlously provoked. By the peace of Tolcntino, he re- 
nounced all right to Avignon and the VanaJssin, Bologna, Ferrara, 
and the Ilomagna. On the entrance "of the French in 1798, the 
Vatican and Quirinal palaces, and private mansions of the obnox- 
ious amongst the nobility, were stripped of all their ornaments and 
riches. The people who had invited the French, fancied them- 
selves free, but had very little cause to thank their deliverers. 
The pope was forcibly removed from Rome, at the age of ciL'hty, 
and, by order of the French directory, transferred from place to 
place, as the course of events dictated, from Rome to Florence, 
from Florence to Briancon, and from Briancon to Valence. Ano- 
ther removal to Uijon is said to have been in contemplation, had 
uot the decline of his health become too visible to render it neces- 
sary. He died at the latter place on the 29th of August, 1799, in 
the eighty-second year of his age, and twenty-fourth of his ponti- 
ficate. ' • 

11. Pius VI. was correct in his manners, and a patron of srenlus," 
particularly of the fine arts. He spent much money on building's, 
notwithstanding the distressed state of the finances, and devoted 
larg^e sums to the draining of the Pontine marshes, in v/hich almost 
impracticable undertaking, he partly succeeded. He endeavour- 
ed to correct the abuses of sanctuary, which had been carried so 
far as to give impunity to hired assassins, much to the diss^race of 
those who protected them. It deserves to be recorded of him, tha.t 
he displayed great magnimity, as well as pious resignation, when 
dragged from his dominions; and though he felt severely the 
wrongs that had been committed ag-ainst him by the French and 
the infatuated Romans, he died tranquilly and serenely. 

12. It is remarkable that he had scarcely been dead a month, 
when Rome was delivered from the hands of its oppressors, and 
given up to the British, whose fleet, under commodore I'rovvbridg-e, 
had blocked up the port of Civita Vccchia. Those who had fa- 
voured the republican cause were permitted to retire, and the 
French garrison marched out with the honours of war. 

13. In the month of March, 1800, a conclave of cardinals, un- 
der the protection of the emperor and other catholic powers, met 
at Venice to elect a successor to Pius VI, and was not long in fix- 
ing upon the cardinal Chiaremonte, bishop of Tivoli, the present 
pope Pius VII. In a few weeks after his election, he set out for 
iiis new dominions, and arrived at Rome on the 9th of July. In 
the month of September, 1801, he had the satisfaction of conclu- 
ding a concordaiuni with the French republic, by which, under the 
auspices of Buonaparte, then first consul, the Roman catholic re- 
ligion was re-established there. Not only heresy, but infidelity 
and atheism, had been so openly encouraged and avowed by the 
French revolutionists, that Pius appears to have thought no con- 
cessions too great to accomplish this end ; for the terms of the 
agreement undoubtedly subjected the Gallican church entirely to 
the civil gov-ernment, canonical institution being almost the only 
privilege reserved to the pope, and every possible encouragement 
being, at the same time, given to the protestant churches, Luthcr- 
e.<i and Ca^vinistic. 

87 



434 MODERN HISTORY, 

13. It was very soon discovered, that the new head of the Ro- 
man church, was to be made to bow as low to the authority of 
Buonaparte as his predecessor. In 1804 Pius VII. was summoned 
to Paris to officiate at the coronation of the French emperor ; and 
though in the year following he declined attendiijg a similar cere- 
mony at Milan, as has bten already shewn, it seems only to have 
exposed him to greater sacrifices. In 1808 he was deprived of Ur- 
bino, Ancona, Macerata, and Camerino, and soon after his temporal 
sovereignty was formally dissolved, and the papal territories annex- 
ed to France. Rome was declared to be a free and imperial city ; 
the court of inquisition, the temporal jurisdiction of the clergy, the 
right of asylum., and other privileges were abolished, and the title 
of king of Piome appropriated to the heir of the French empire. 
Pius was conveyed first to Grenoble, afterwards to Savona, and 
finally, in 1812, to Fontainebleau, where, for reasons unknown, he 
vas once more acknowledged as a sovereign, till the advance of 
the allies upon Paris, at last, procured him his liberty ; and in 
1814 he was reinstated ; he made his solemn entrance into Rome 
on the 24th of May ; and in 1815, by the arrangements of the 
congress of Vienna, his forfeited estates were re-annexed to the 
papal dominions. I] is restoration of the order of Jesuits and of 
the court of inquisition, on his return, occasioned some concern 
to the greater part of Europe ; but his holiness has generally had 
(he credit of being; a n an of sense, prudence, and moderation. 



SECTION XXIV. 

OF INDIA, OR HINDOOSTAN, 

1. India or Hindoostan having largely engaged the attention of 
Europe since the close of the seventeenth century, may deserve 
some distinct notice, though little is to be added to what has al- 
ready been related in former sections, o: the political events and 
transactions vv'hich have occurred in that remote region of the 
globe, during the period alluded to. 

2. Ihe celebrated Aurungzebe, who occupied the throne of Del- 
hi, at the commence ment of the eighteenth century, lived to the 
year 1707. In him the spirit of the great Timur, from whom he 
was the eleventh in descent, seemed to revive. Ke was brave, 
but cruel. He attained to a great age, being nearly an hundred 
years old when he died, having succeeded in rendering almost the 
whole of the peninsula subject to his sway, from the tenth to the 
thirty-fifth degree of latitude, and nearly as much in longitude. 

3. But if Aurungzebe thus raised in his own person the credit 
of the mogul \hrone, its glory also perished with him. A sad 
scene of confusion ensued upon his death. He had himself, in- 
deed, waded to the throne through the blood of his own kindred. 
After deposing his father, two of his brothers were slain in con- 
tending for the crown. But such was the nature, generally, of the 
political revolutions of those countries, that had not this been the 
case, the life of Aurungzebe himself might probably have been 



35£ODERJJ HISTORY. 435 

sacrificed to similar views and purposes. He is said to have bitterl/ 
sepented of his misdoings before he died. 

4. No sooner, however, was he dead, than the most violent con- 
tests arose between his own sons, two of whom, Azem and Kaum 
Buksh, perished in their opposition to their elder brother, who be- 
came emperor, under the title of Bahader Shah. The throne, in- 
deed, was such an object of contention, that, in the small space ©f 
eleven years, five princes, who attained to the throne, and six, who 
were candidates for it, successively fell victims to the lasts and pas- 
sions of their semi-barbarous competitors. It was in the reign of 
Feroksere, who was deposed in 1717, that the English East India 
Company obtained the famous firman or grnnt, by which their 
g-oods of export and import were exempted from duties, and which 
.has been regarded as their commercial charter in India; no other 
European companies being- similarly indulged. 

5. In the time of Mahmud or Muliammed Shah, who came to the 
throne in the year 1718, and who was engaged in disputes with some 
of his most powerfvil neia:hbours and dependents, the celebrated 
usurper of the Persian throne. Nadir Shah, encoura<i-ed, or eve'i in- 
vited, as it has been said, by s--)me of the discontendd princes, par- 
ticularly {he subahdar of the l)ec]-::in, invaded the dominions of the 
Mogul, and with such success, as in the year 1739, to seir.e upon 
Delhi, the capital, v.'iih all its treasnres, and compel the unhappy 
puitan, to surrendi;r, wit'i the utni'-ist ignominy, his crown and scep- 
tre. He was, indeed, aOerv/ards rc-stored, but with the loss of all 
Ins dominions west of tiie Indus, tog^ether with jewels and treasures 
to an incalculable amount; some indiscreet insult, offered to the 
Pereians, having been the allrged provocation for delivering the 
city up to plunder, and the inhabitants to the sAvord, v.dth erery 
cruelty and indignity attendant upon such misfortunes. This mise- 
rable capital afterwards underwent a second visitation of the same 
description, from one of the followers of Kadir Shah, Abda.llah, 
who had, indeed, been forced into his service, but found means to 
lake advantage of his master's victories, by seizing upon the territo- 
ries west of the Indus, ceded to Nadir by the unfortunate mogul, and 
erecting a sovereignty for himself at Candahar. Nadir Shah was 
assassinated in his tent, in 1747. 

6. By the invasion of the Persians, the power ?nd glory of the 
moguls may be said to have been brought to an end. From that 
period the subordinate states, princes, and vi'ceroys, began to aspire 
to a degree of independ-ruce, and to acquire a consequence before 
unknown ; the mogul himself becoming a mere nominal soverei'>-n.. 
Those wlio were most raised at this time by the depression of the 
sultanic authority, appear to have been — 

Ihe Nizam or Subahdar, of the Deckan ; the Nabot of Arcot, or 
the C'arnatic ; the Subahdar of Bengal ; the Nabob of Oude ; the 
Rajahpoote Princes of Agimere ; the Mahrattas ; the Seiks ; the 
Piohi}Ia.s, and the Jats. 

The disputes and differences that took place between these seve- 
ral powers, after they had shaken off the yoke of the mogul, opened 
the door for the interference of the European settlers, towards the 
^aiddle of the eighteenth century. (See Sect. VI. i 2.) The Frenck 



436 HODERN HISTORY. 

first, and afterwards the English, contrived to take advantagie 6^ 
the rival claims set up by the different native powers, and by reU' 
del irv thtin assistance against each other, and it is ^o be feared 
grea.iiy romeniing their quarrels, soon became acquainted with the 
manifest superiority of their own tactics, and the innuence this 
must give them in such contests. The French vrent farther, and 
trrthit upon the expedient of training the natives in the European 
tLannor, and incorporating them with their own armies ; these were 
■v-i.Itd Sepoy?. 

7. It Mas not loag before the French and English, who had at 
,>>t only taken the field as auxiliaries, became opposed to each 
ciher as principals ; in v/hich conflicts the English sTicceeded be- 
vonvi all expectation, and instead of being driven out of the peniii- 
?t!]a them^elres, which was evidently in the viev/ of the French 
under'Dnpleix, in the year 1751 and 1752, found means to estab- 
lish themselves there, through the victories of Clive, to the exclu- 
sion of all otlicr European nations, except for purposes purely com- 
mercial. 

o. Clivo has jnstly been regarded as the founder of the British 
e;r;vire in India ; he was the first to procure for the company grants 
;.;' ttirilory and asslp^nmcnts of revenue, v/hich totally changed the 
vharacfer of our c^uoccfions with that country, and rendered the 
native princes, even the mogul himself, subservient to our purpo- 
ses. The English had received great provocation from the subabdar 
of Bengal, in an attack upon Calcutta, and Ciivc was selected by 
admiral VVat-^^on to recover from Sourajud Dowlah the town and 
fo;t, which hai been siarrendered to him. At the battle of Plassey, 
3757, he not only succeeded in the recovery of Calcutta, but in 
the deposit ion of the subabdar,. and having appointed his general 
In bi.s room, obtained a grant of all the efiects and factories of the 
J're.Kh in Bengal, P-ahar. and Orissa, and money contributions to 
Ihr . .i£e amount of i^2,750,000 sterling, exclusive of private 

9. It would have been v>-ell if these advantages could have beea 
^.cqvrlred with Jess loss of credit to the nation than v/as actually 
the^ case -, cut there was too much in these first steps towards a tcr-^ 
rJtcrial establishment, to fet d the ambition and cupidity of those 
entrusted with *.he maragement of affair?, to render it probable 
that they would keep clear of abuses. '] he opportunities that oc- 
curred of intermedaling with the native powors, were eagerly set* 
zed upon as occasions for enriching the servants of the company, 
(drawn from heme in expectation of making rapid fortunes,) at 
the expense of the company itself, whose affairs were in danger, 
jiot oaly of becoming more embarrassed by the exiraordinary ex- 
penses of such interference, but by the alienation cf the minds of 
tht natives, under circumstances little short of the most deter- 
mined plunder and persecution. In the management of the new- 
acquired territories and inland trade, it is no longer to be doubted 
that the natives suffered in every possible manner, from the most 
unreasonable monopolies, exorbitant duties imposed on articles of 
general consumption, abuses in regard to leases, and fiscal oppres- 
sions ;. so that the lustre of the British name became tarnished,^ 



MODERr^ HISTORY. 45 f 

and it \va.s found to he alisolutely expedient that gome change shoultl 
take place in the adiuinistration of affairs so remote from the seat 
of all rule and direction, and which, fro:U sirapl)^ comrnercia], 
were now clearly become pulitical and militfa'y. 

10. The charter of the company heh.% subject to periodical re- 
newals, afforded opportunities for the interference of the legielature, 
nor was the company itself back^vard, under any pressure of pecu- 
niary embarrassments, to apply to gfovernmcnt for assistance. On 
one'oftht.ye occasions, the great change thai had taken place in 
the state of things in India, induced the government at home to 
claim for the cro^vn all reven'ilfe arising from. any new acquisitions; 
made by military force, and in order to repress the inordinate pro- 
ceedings of the company^'s servants, of which the natives, the pub- 
lic at b.om.e, and the company itself, had but too much rcasron to 
■complain, government also insisted upon taking into its own hands 
the political jurisdiction of India. 

11. These claims and regulations were first proposed in parlia- 
ment November, 1772, and may be said to have laid the foundation 
for that enlarired systoni of administration and control v^'hich has 
prevailed since, though under different modifications, from lord 
North's bill in 1773 to Xir. Pittas in 1784. By this latter bill, a board 
of control, composed of cer'ain commissioners of the rank -of privy 
counsellors, Vv-'as established, the members of which were to be ap- 
pointed I'y the king, and removable at lys pleasure. 1 his board 
was auth.irizFd to check, superintend, and control the civil and 
military gpycrnment and revenue of the company ; an high tribu- 
nal also, fpr the trial of Indian delinquents, was proposed at the 
same time* The management of their commercial concerns wag 
left in the bands of the company ; the political and civil authority 
only transferred to the crown. In 1786, some alterations were 
made in tlus bill ; the offices of commander-in-chief and governor- 
g-eneral wen; for the future to be united in the same person, and 
a power given to ttie governor-general to decide in opposition to 
the majority of the council. The presidencies of Madras and Bom- 
bay had been previously, by lord North's bill, placed under the 
superintendency of the governor and c>":uncil of Bengal, but by this 
till that point also was confirmed. 

12. When this bill was passed, it appeared from the preamble, 
to be decidedly the opinion of parliament, of government, as well 
as of the court of directors, v/hose orders had for some time breath- 
ed the same spirit, that " to pursue schemes of conquest and ex- 
tension of dominion in India, were measures repugnant to the wish, 
the honour, and the policy of the nation." It had previously beeu 
resolved by the house, " that the maintenance of an inviolable 
character for moderation, good faith, and scrupulous regard to 
treaty, ought to have been the simple grounds on which the British 
government should have endeavoured to establish an influence su- 
perior to other Europeans, over the minds of the native powers in 
India ; and that the danger and discredit arising from the forfeiturg 
of this pre-eminence, could not be compensated .by tlae t^mpoxar/ 
.guccess of any plan of violence and iniusticex"' 

37* 



43S 



MODERJT HISTORY. 



13. ?nch was the tenor of the resolutions of the house of conl^* 
inons in 1782, recognized as the principle of the bill of 1784, and 
farther confirmed by An act passed in 1793. la all we perceive an 
evi.lent allusion to those mal-practicGS of the company's servants,, 
which vvill for ever, it is to be feared, remain on record, to tarnish 
the liis're of our iirst victories and territorial acquisitions in India, 
and to detract from the reputation of persons, whose names mig^ht 
otherwise have justly stood high on the list of those, from whosA 
pfe-eminoTit talents and abilities, the nation has derived both glory 
ap-d advantage. ^ 

14. The Eng;lish system of jurisprudence had been extended to 
India by lord North's bill of 1773, but imder disadvantages ex- 
tremely embarrassing. The difference of manners, habits, cus- 
toms ; the di(ficulty, if not impossibility, of mine;ling two codes, so 
very dissimilar as those o{ Britain and Hindoostan ; the forms and 
technicalities of the English laAv, totally unknown to the native 
corit? ; the apparent injustice of subjecting a people to laws to 
which they were no parlies, and to which, of course, they had 
given no sanction : these, and other difficalties have been ac- 
knowledged by those who have had to administer the laws under 
the new system, in India, as having prevented those happy effects 
taking place, which might otherwise have been expected from the 
introduction of the English jurisprudence. Since the passing of 
^1r. Pitt's bill, however, much benefit has certainly been derived 
from the residence and superintendence of noblemen of the highest 
rank and abilities, as governors-general, and of judges the most 
enlightened, to preside in the Indian courts. The first reforms that 
tvere attempted under the new system, though not so successful a* 
might be v.ished, proceeded from those two most amiable and high- 
ly lespected personages, the marquis Cornwallis, and sir William 
Jones. 

15. From the conduct of loM Cornwallis, and his successors 
lord Teignmovith, and lord Mornington, now marquess Wellesley^ 
it is extrejnely evident that the system of neutrality and forbear- 
ance prescribed by the resolutions of parliament, and preamble of 
the act of 1784, would have been scrupulously adhered to had it 
been possible, consistent!}'' with the security of our settlements;; 
but towards the close of the eighteenth century, the English were 
compelled to defend themselves from the most formidable designs- 
of the celebrated llyder Ally and his son Tippoo Saib, who un- 
questionably had it in view to exterminate the British, and proba- 
bly all other Europeans, from the peninsula of India. 

iO. The result of these conflicts, which took place in Mysore, 
and the Carnatic, was the total overthrow of a Mahomedan dynasty 
of only two sovereigns, commencing with a mere adventurer of 
most singular character, who having waded through crimes to hi:i, 
object, succeeded in placing himself and his son on one of the most 
brilliant thrones of the east, and in a condition to give very con- 
siderable trouble to the English government there. 

17. Hyder Ally, the father of Tippoo, was born in 1722, and 
died in 1782. Tippoo was born in 1753^ and lost his liie in the 
celebrated assault of the capital of his nev/ dominions, Seringap^- 



MODERN HISTOR?. 439^ 

tarn, in 1799. They were very different men, having been differ-^ 
ently educated. The fornaer had strong natviral powers, which 
compensated for his want of acquired knowledge ; the latter was 
vain of his scanty proficiency in Persian literature, and a few other 
attainments, to a degree of absurdity ; fancying himself the great- 
est philosopher of the age, the wisest, bravest, and handsomest of 
men. Hyder was tolerant in religious concerns to a degree of in- 
difl'erence ; Tippoo, a bigoted mussulman, to, the utmost pitch of 
intolerance and pei^tcution. The former meddled little with reli- 
gion. The latter contemplated changes in Islamism, as in every 
thing- else,Jhaving, as a preliminary, substituted a new era in his 
coins, dating from the birth instead of the flight of Mahomet. Both 
father and son were devoid of principle, but the former was much 
the §;reatest man. 

lo. It was owing to the vigilance and prompt measures of lord 
Weilesley, that Tippoo was so opportunely overthrown ; though his 
proceedings were weak, they were carried on with much duplicity 
and deceit, and upon principles of alliance which in other circum- 
stances might have become very alarmiir::;'. Under the most posi- 
tive and repeated assurances of peace, and amity, he had intrigued 
with France, Turkey, the king of Candahar, (a descendant of the 
celebrated Affghan chief Abdallah.) the Ivizam of the Deckan, and 
the Mahrattas, for the express object of forming a strong confede- 
racy to extirpate the English ; in his negotiations with the courts 
of Candahar and C«>nslantinople, indeed, he had declared ven- 
geance against the in^dels generally, whence ithas.been reasonably 
concluded that his schemes of destruction embraced all the Euro- 
pean powers, the French not excepted, had his projects but been 
successful. Fortunately, lord Weilesley detected all his plots, and 
when it became impossible to treat farther with him on any fair 
grounds, by the most decisive measures, and rapid movements, ef- 
fectually averted the blow that had been decidedly aimed at the 
British empire in India. 

19. On the fall of Seringapatam, the Mysorean dominions were^ 
by allotments to the allies, iheBritisb, the Nizam, and the Mahrat- 
tas, nearly reduced to the limits by which they were bounded be- 
fore the usurpation of Hyder, and, a surviving representative of 
the I.iindoo dynasty, a child only five y. ars old, placed on the 
throne, with an acknowledg-ed dependency on the Biitish govern- 
ment. The descendants of Tippoo beiMg, hov/ever, liberally pro- 
vided for, and settled in the Cavnatic, distorbances in the northera 
and north-western parts of the peninsula, among the Mahratta 
chieftains, occupied the attention of the English army, in the early 
part of Ihe present century, when afresh opportunity was afforded 
of triumphing over the intrigues of the French, who headed the ad- 
verse forces, and endeavoured to procure for that government a 
cession of the districts entrusted to their care ; but the issue of the 
contest was entirely in favour of the British. From this time the 
ascendancy of the British in the peninsula has continued so deci- 
dedly established, as to render it needless to say any thing of ih& 
other European settlements. 



440 MODERN HISTORY, 

20. The acquieition of tPiTitory iu India, tosrethcr with the nev/ 
system of government and control, by rendering: it necessary for 
persons of learning- aiM talent to reside there, Imve had the effect 
of improving:; our knowledge of tho^e remote countries, and opened 
to vrs a field of inquiry and research, peculiarly interesting and 
curious. AiTiong- those Avho may be considered as hai'ing- most 
particularly contributed to these ends, we may reckon Mr. ^Vil- 
kius and sir Vvilliaci Jones ; the former by having first, with any 
real success, pursned the study of the Sanscrit language, the root of 
all the vernacular dialects of the peninsula, and thereby opened to 
the contemplation of the historian, the antiquarian, the philoso- 
pher, and the poet, whattrver is interesting in the literature of all 
the nations east of the Indus ; arid the latter, by iustituring the 
first philosophical society in those parts, and invitiwg the learned, 
in all quarters of the globe, to propose queries in every br-anch of 
Asiatic history, natural and civil, on the philosophy, mathematics, 
antiquities, and polite literature of Asia, and on eastern arts, both 
liberal and mechanic, as guides to the investigations of the per- 
sons resident in the peniivnla, qualified to pursue such inquiries on 
the spot, and communicate to the world in general the results of 
their discoverifrs. 

21. To this learned society, first established in Bengal, urder 
the presidency of sir Vv'illiam Jones, v;c are indebted for all those 
curioi;? papers ppeserved in the several volumes of the Asiatic 
Researches ai)d the Indian Annual Register, and which have so 
largely contributed to enlarge the boundaries of oriental literature. 
Tothe names already mentioned, as having laken the lead in this 
curious branch of science, we may add those of our countrymen, 
Halhed, Vansittart, Shore, (lord Teignmorth, the second presi- 
dent, on the death of sir William, 1794,) Davie, Colehrook, V. il- 
ford, Rennell, Hunter, Bentley, Marsden, Orme, Carey, Buchanan, 
Barlow, Harrington, Kdmonstone, Kirkpatrick, kc. 

22. At the commencement of the present century, it became 
obvious to the m.arquess of Wellesley, then governor-general, that 
the state of the British empire in India absolutely required, that 
the persons sent out to discharge the important functions oi magis- 
trates, judges, ambassadors, and governors of provinces, should 
have some better means of qualifying themselves for such high 
stations and complicated duties, than were then in existence. His 
lordship's view of these matters, as recorded in the minute of coun- 
cil, dated August 18, loOO, is highly deserving of consideration, 
and his plan for forming and endowing a college for these purposes 
at Calcutta, reflect the highest credit on his wisdom and discern- 
ment, though the latter has not been carried into execution In the 
way his lordship proposed, for want of funds- The East India 
College, since established in Hertfordshire, may be considered as 
entirely owing to the adoption by the company of the enlightened 
principles contained in the minute alluded to. A system of oriental 
education is now effectually established, which, though on a much 
more contracted scale, and in a great measure confined to England, 
bids fair, it is to be hoped, to accomplish most of the ends contem- 
Jilated hj l;iis lordship iu his oiiginal design of foundipg a college 



MODERN HISTORY. 441 

Jit Fort William, in Bengal, namely, ^^'to perpetuate the immense 
ftdvantages derived to the company from their possessions in India, 
and to establish the British empire in India on the solid founda- 
'ions of ability, integrity, virtue, and religion." 

23. Of the studies to be pursued, according; to lord Wellesley^'s 
plan, a competent notion may be formed from the following list of 
professorships and lectures : — Arabic, Persian, S^anscrit, Hindos- 
tanee, Bengal, Telinga, Mahratta, Tamula, and'Canara, langua- 
ge? ; Mahomedan law ; Hindoo law ; Ethics, civil jurisprudence, 
and the law of nations ; English law ; political economy, commer- 
cial institutions and ir^ierests of the East India Company, g^eogra- 
phy and mathematics ; modern languages of Europe ; Greek, Latin, 
and English classics ; general history, ancient and modern ; the 
history and antiquities of Hindoostan and the Deckan ; natural 
history ; botany, chemistry and astronomy. 

24. Though the company saw reason to withhold its counte- 
nance from the original institvition, the studies above chalked out- 
have been, in a great measure, adopted in the Hertfordshire col- 
lege, and its general success hitherto has been pronounced answer- 
able to the expectations of those who were most solicitous in ef: 
fecting its establishment. The education of the j'oung men, des- 
tined to fill the civil offices in India, is now therefore partly Euro- 
pean and partly Asiatic ; for so much of the collegiate establish- 
ment in India may be said to remain, that there the students, who, 
have been taught in England the elements of Asiatic languages, 
are enabled to advance to perfection, and to become masters of the 
several dialects prevailing through the peninsula. Though the 
©riginal plan of the noble founder of the college of Fort William 
has not yet been adopted by the East India company, yet to apply 
the words of one o{ the most distinguished of our orientalists^ 
^' Good has been done, which cannot be undone ; sources of useful 
knowledge, moral instruction, and political utility, have been 
•pened to the natives of India, Avhich can never be closed."" In 
1814, an ecclesiastical establishment, under the immediate auspi- 
ces of government, was formed for India, the right reverend l)r. 
Thomas Fanshaw Middleton being consecrated at the archiepisco- 
pal palace, at Lambeth, the first bishop of Calcutta. 

It must surprise the English reader to be told, that the popula- 
tion of the British empire in India has been l?itely estimated at 
90,000,000 ! 



STATE OF ARTS, SCIENCES, RELIGION, LAWS, GOVERN^ 
MENT, &c. 

L The historical events of the eighteenth century have, vre 
must confess, been found to be of such magnitude and importance, 
as to occupy rather too large a space in a work professing to be 
merely elementary ; but we should be compelled in a still greater 
degree to exceed the limits assigned to us, if we were to attempt to, 
enter into the details "of the very extraordinary progress that has 
taken place during the same period, in arts, sciences, and liters*- 



442 MODERN KISTORV. 

ture ; some changes, indeed, have occurred, and more been con- 
templated, in rfcligion, laws, and tovernraent, but in regard to the 
former, almost all things have become new : we have new arts 
and new sciences ; and in literature, such an overflowing of books 
upon every subject that could possibly occupy or interest the mind 
of man, that the most diligent compiler of catalogues would fail in 
endeavouring br<.rely to enumerate them. 

2. It is somewhat extraordinary, indeed, that this great and rapid 
advancement of knowledge has after all been confined to only a 
small portion of the globe. The great continent of Africa, though 
"better known than in past times, has made no advances in civiliza- 
tion. Asia, though many parts have been diligently explored du- 
ring the last century, and a lar^e yjortion of it actually oscupied 
by Europeans, remains, as to the natives, in its original state. The 
"vast empire of China has nrade no progress at all. Japan has eiTecta- 
ully ?luit the door against all improvement. South America, in- 
deed, tliongh labonring under difficulties unfriendly to the progress 
of knowledge, is yet reported to be making no inconsiderable ad- 
vances, particularly in JMexico, where both the arts and sciences 
jtre cultivated with credit and efiect. In North America, also, the 
arts and sciences and iiteratui-e may certainly be said to be in a 
progressive state, but under circumstances of rather slow and par- 
tial improvement.* 

3. Civilized Europe is the ornj part of the world that can claim 
the credit of almost all that has been done towards the advance- 
ment of knowledge since the comm^encement of the eighteenth 
century, and only a few parts after all of civilized Europe itself. 
Turkey has stood still, a,s well as ht.r Grecian dependencies, till 
rery lateh'. Spain, rortugal. and even the greater part of Italy, 
have laboured under difficulties and restrictions exceedingly inimi- 
cal to their advancement, and which have greatly arrested tlieir 
progress in the career of letters and philosophy. The north and 
north-eastern parts of Europe have produced many learned men, 
have been diligently explored, and materials at least collected for 
great improvements ; other parts are also upon the advance : but 
England^ Fravct^ and Germany^ are undoubtedly the principal 
countries to which we must look for the most striking' progress in 
every branch of human knowledge. In these three countries, in 
particular, discoveries have now certainly been made, and princi- 
ples established, which can never be lost again, and which must, 
£s far as they may extend, be constantly operating to the lasting 
improvement of the Avorld at large. 

4. It would be quite unnecessary to go back to the origin, or fir- 
mer state, either o! the arts or sciences, now known and cultivated 
in Europe. It is pretty generally understood, that,comparatively with 
the age of the world, they have been only very recently submitted 

[*The writer must be under a mistake. Is 11 not acknov.Iedged lirouga. 
cut Enrope, that the United States of iNorfli America are not only farther 
advanced, bat taster advancing, in the discoveries of science, and that their 
progress iu literature is more rapid, than anj "Other nation of the rew 
world ^ 



-r-iODEPvN HISTORY. 443 

to such processes as bid fair to bring them to the highest state of 
perfection. One rirt has helped another, and new sciences been 
brought to light, that have greatly promoted the advancement of 
those before understood and cultivated. Galvanism has assisted 
electricity ; and galvanism and electricity together been exceed- 
ingly serviceable to chemisti'y ; chejni-try to nuneralogy, and so 
forth : new systems and arrangements, and new nomenclatures, 
have contributed greatly to render every step that has been taken 
jnore accurate and certain, and to place every object of attention 
or inquiry more exactly in the rank and order it should occupy in 
the general circle of arts and sciences ; but the thing of most im- 
portance of all, in regard to the improvements that have taken place 
since the beginring or mitUlIe of the eighteenth century, i«, that 
every tbii.g has bten conducted exactly upon those principles, 
which the great lord Eacon sd strongly recommended, and has, 
therefore, be en found conducive to all those great ends, the neg- 
lect of which, in his own and preceding ages, he so much deplored : 
every thing has had a tendency to augment the poM'ers, diminish 
the pains, or increase the happiness of mankind. 

5. Amongst the sciences so cultivated and advanced, since the 
seventeenth ctutury, as justly to be regarded as new, we may rank 
chemistry^ bulani/^ cU ctricih/^ gnlrainsrii^ raineralogy^ geology^ and 
in many respects, geograpJ\y : evtry one of these sciences has been 
placed on so very diiferent a t'ootir--, hy the recent manner of treat- 
ing- them, and by new discoveries, that it is better, perhaps, at 
once to considtr fhem as new sciences, than to advert to former 
systems, fomded on totally erroneous principles, and which have 
been, on that accou.nt, very reasonably exploded. 

6. Xhen^.istry, however, even in the course of the period before 
ti", has uudtigo.;e very essential changes ; it is no^v not only a very 
dirlerent science fiom ihe chemistry that prevailed antecedent to 
the eighteenth century; but the eighteenth century itself has wit= 
nessed a r( ;.jarkable revolution in its leading principles : some, in- 
deed, of the most important changes approach nearer to the nine- 
teenth than the seventeenth century, ii' they do not actually belong 
to the former; at ail events, it was not till towards the close of 
the eighteenth century that chemical experiments had been push- 
ed so far as to displace two of the elements «f the old philosophy, 
and lotally supersede the prevailing theory of heat, light and com- 
bustion ; a theory which was itself not much more than half a cen- 
tury old. Stahl, the celebrated disciple of Bechtr, born in IG60, 
but who lived to 1734, has the credit of being the author of the 
phlogistic system, which began to be attacked late in the last cen- 
tury, and seems now to be totally exploded. Whether the rival 
theory will ultimately maintain its ground in all poiats, may, per- 
haps, appear still doubtful to some : the French claim to be the 
authors of the new theory ; but though the experiments they very 
ably conducted were highly conducive to the establishment of it, 
the way seems to have been more opened to them by others than 
i>fey are willing to acknowledge, particularly by English observers. 
'i'he phlogistic system was a plausible theory in certain respects, but 
ifi others totally indefensible; and, perhaps, a better proof oi" the 



444 MODERN HISTORY. 

utility of repeated experiments could not be produced, than that 
which ascertained that, instead of the extrication of a par(icular 
sabstance by combustion, something was undoubtedly added to, or 
imbibed by, the combustible body, in order to the separation of its 
parts ; that, in fact, in the actual process of combustion, affinity pro- 
duces a. double decomposition, and that a certain portion of the at- 
mosphere entering into uuioa with the combustible body produces 
Sill those appearances,- which, under the former system had been 
attributed to the extrication of an unknown principle of inflamma- 
bility, denominated phlogiston. • 

7. The very curious experiments, made to confirm and establish 
the latter system, have been of the greatest impoi-tancc in regard to 
other matters, particularly to that branch of the new chemistry 
which has been denominated the ■p?veHniat/c system. The discover- 
ies in this line of experiment, which has the air for its subject, ex^ 
reed, perhaps, ail others in importance and interest : the analysis of 
the common atmosp-here has opened to our view a series of physical 
operations constantly going on, the most wonderful and delicate 
that can possibly be conceived : the respiraticKi of animals is of 
this description. The atmosphere is now known to be a mostcuri~ 
■r us compoundTof two sorts of air, or gases, (as they have been named 
of late,) the one capable of supporting life and flame, the other 
destntctive of both : in combustion, calciiiation of metals, and res- 
piration, the process is the same, — a decomposition of the atmos- 
phere : the jiure part is imbibed, and the impure part left subject 
to further contamination, by what is given oat by the combustible, 
calcining, or respiring bodies during the opera.tion ; for, as it was 
before said, the decomposition in all instances is a double one ; the 
proportion of the two parts of the atmosphere has been ascertained 
to be in a hundred, twcaty-two of pure or vital^ and seventy-eight 
of impure or asotic gas. 

8. 'J'he discovery of the vital air is acknowledged by M. Lavoi- 
sier to have been common to himself Avith two other eminent cheni- 
ists,Dr. Priestley and the celebrated Scheele. Dr. Priestley discover- 
ed it in 1774, Scheele in 1777, M. Lavoisier in 1775 : the former 
seems undoubtedly to have the best claim to the discovery. M. La- 
voisier, at first, called it " highly respirable air ;" afterwards, as eu« 
lirely essential to the support of life, '• vital air :" Dr. Priestley, who 
lived and died an advocate for the phlogistic system, " dephlogisti- 
ticated air:"' and Scheele call<-d it ''empyreal air." It at last 
obtained another name,, from its being supposed to be the cause of 
scidity, viz. '" oxygen gas." 

9. V/ho is justly to be accounted the father of the pneumatic 
chemistry, it would, perhaps, 4ie hazardous to say: Dr. Black of 
TMinburgh has had the credit of beinc: so, from his experiments on the 
carbonic acid. It bas been claimed for Dr. Priestley, Scheele, and 
M. Lavoisier: the discoveries in this line certainly constitute s. 
grand ara in chemistry. The many various kinds of gases that have 
been now discovered ; the very curious experiments made to ascer- 
tain their properties ; the instruments invented to render such ex<- 
periments certain ; the new compounds that have been detected by 

ir operation and effects in almost everv branch 



MeDERN HISTORY. S44|j" 

«>f pliysics, it would far exceed our limits to describe ; but it is im- 
possible not to notice the extraordinary discovery of the decompo- 
sition of wnter^ which belongs entirely to pneumatic chemistry. 

10. Till within less than half a century ago, ivater was esteemed 
to be eo certainly an elementary principle, that but few ever dream- 
ed of its being otherwise ; and it was almost by accident that it was 
at last found to be a compound. In the coarse of certain pneumatic 
experiments., it was ascertained by Mr. Cavendish, that icater was 
produced by a combination of two particular gases : both analysis 
and synthesis were resorted to, to render this curious discovery 
more certain, and it was at length ascertained, not only that those 
two gases were constantly produced in certain proportions from the 
decomposition of Vv'ater, but that water was as constantly the rg- 
tultofa judicious mixture of those two gases : the ^^rt.ye* thus con- 
stituting the proper principles of water, were the vital RndwJIam- 
viable airs of the first chemical noinenclature of modern days, better 
known now by the names of oxys^tn gas and hydrogen gas ; the lat- 
ter evidently so called from its impoitance, as a constituent base or 
radical of T\'ater ; we owe the discovery of it to our countryman, Mr. 
Cavendish. The proportion between the two gases in these curious 
experiments has been found to be eighty-five of oxygen to fifteen of 
hydrogen ; both oxygen and hydrogen betqg combustible, their 
combination for experimental purposes is brought about by inllam- 
mation, through the means of the electric spark. 

11. Having given this short account of the leading discoveries in 
pneumatic chemistry ; discoveries which have openid to us totally 
new views, of certain physical operations of the first importance, 
and greatly extended our knowkdg^e of chemical substances and 
their properties, simple and compouri^d, visible and invisible, con- 
jfineajile and unconfineable : we shall be compelled to be much more 
brief in what further relates to modern chemistry. 

12. Oflate years almost all the substances in nature have been 
examined ; and probably almost all the combinations of them ex- 
hausted : new metals to a large amount, jaew earths, and new 
acids have been discovered ; the fixed alkalis decomposed, and 
their nature ascertained ; the whole range of chemical affinities 
and attractions nicely arranged and determined, as far as experi- , 
ment can reach ; and many elastic aeriform fluids brought to light, 
distinguished from each other by their different bases, which were 
totally unknown before to natural philosophers, under the forms in 
which they are now obtained ; and which have been thought de- 
servings of being formed into a fourth class or kingdom^ amongst 
the productions of nature : the proper distinction of these elastic 
fluids, or gases, as they have been denominated, (after a term 
adopted by Vanhelmont, signifying a spirit or incoercible vapour,) 

^eing that of some base, saturated with the cause of heat or expan- 
sion, called in the new nomenclature caloric ; by means of some of 
these gases, so combined with caloric, a power has been obtained 
of fusing the mo?t refractory substances in nature. 

13. To render the nice and delicate experiments necessary in 
this new branch of chemical science more accurate, numerous in- 
struments hav8 been invented, of very curious construction ; such 
as the mdionut&r^ to measure the purity of any ^iven portion of 



446 MODERN HISTORY. 

air ; the gasometer^ to measure the quaBtities, &«. of gases ; the 
calorimeter^ for measures of heat ; to which we may add various 
descriptions of thermometers and pyrometers^ particularly the 
differential thermometer^ invented by Mr. Leslie, of Edinburgh, 
and its accompaniments ; the pyrcscope^ or measure of radiant 
heat ; the photometer^ to ascertain the intensity of light ; very cu- 
rious and delicate balances, some that are said to be capable of as- 
certaining a weight down to the seven millionth part, deserve to 
be mentioned, as extraordinary instances of skilful workmanship ; 
many different sorts of hygrometers also have been constructed, 
particularly one by the same ingenious experimentalist already 
mentioned, Mr. Leslie, calculated to render more correct the ex- 
amination of all processes dependant upon evaporation ; .but it 
\ronld be endless to attempt to describe the many instruments 
and contrivances rendered necessary by the extreme delicacy and 
minuteness of modern chemical and pneumato cliemical experi- 
ments ; it is sufficient to state, in a history of the rrogress cf arts 
and sciences, that, in all instances, invention appears to have kept 
pace with experiment ; and that the world has been almost as 
much enriched by the new-invented means of discovery, as by the 
discoveries to which they have conduced ; while the skill and 
judgment requisite to construct the expensive and complicated in- 
struments indispensably necessary for ascertaining the analysis 
and synthesis of bodies, with such exquisite precision, as to quan- 
tity and proportion, have conspired greatly to advance the several 
arts connected with such machinery, as well as to quicken the in- 
telligence and ine;enuity of the artists themselves ; in this line, per- 
haps, nobody has acquired greater celebrity than the late Mr. 
Ramsden, the maker of thebalance of the Royal Society, whose 
extraordinary powers have been alluded to above. 

14. Among those who have principally distingiushed themselves 
in the improvement and advancement of chemical science, since 
the commencement of the eighteenth century, we may justly men- 
tion the names of Stahl, f^ourcroy, JNJacquer, Lavoisier, Guyjton- 
inorveau, Berthollet, Klaproth, Vauquelin, Chaptal, Gay-Lussac, 
Kirwan, Tennant, Wollaston, Priestley, Cavendish, Black, Irwine, 
Crawford, Leslie, Hall, Thompson, Brande, and Davy. To the 
last of whom, our illustrious countryman, we stand indebted for 
some of the most remarkable discoveries, and most laborious analy- 
ses of compound substances, which have taken place under the 
new system ; nor has he been deficient in applying his scientific 
attainments to practical purposes, in his elements of chemical 
agriculture, and above all, the safety-lamp, whereby he may pos- 
sibly, in combating the fatal effects of the fire damp in coal mines, 
have contributed to preserve the lives of thousands and thousands 
of his fellow creatures ; this discovery was the fruit of many most 
laborious, difficult, and even dangerous experiments. 

15. When we consider the many uses of chemistry, and the im- 
mense advantages to be derived from every improvement of it in 
a variety of manufactures, in medicine, in metallurgy, in the arts 
©f dying, paintiiig, brewing, distilling, tanning, making glass, en- 
amels, porcelain, and many others, we may easily conceive that 



MODERN HISTORY* 447 

the progress and advancement of this one branch of science alone, 
daring the last and present century, must have contributed largely 
to the improvement of many things, on which all the comforts and 
conveniences, the happiness, the security, the well-being;, the- 
prosperity, and even the lives of men, depend. 



BOTANY. 

1. Botany is another of the sciences, vifhich, from the chaages it 
has undergone, and the great progress it has made since the com- 
mencement of the eighteenth century, may justly be regarded as 
new. 

2. Already were the names of Ray, Bivinus, and Tournefort, 
well known to the lovers of this interesting study, forming as it 
were a new aera in the history of botany, and imparting a lustre to 
the close of the seventeenth century, for which it will ever be 
memorable. Their attempts at arrangemeat may be justly con- 
sidered as the commencement of a career which was destined to ac- 
quire its full degree of developement daring the eighteenth centu- 
ry, under the happy auspices of the most celebrated botanist the 
world ever saw ; the great and illustrious Linnaaus. 

3. This extraordinary man was born at Rashult, in the province 
of Smaland, in Sweden, on the 24th of May, 1707, and before he 
was twenty -one years of age, had made himself so thoroughly 
acquainted with the study of plants, as well as with the merits 
and defocts of his predecessors m that line, as to conceive the 
idea of remodelling the Vv'hole fabric of systematic botany, and 
of placing it on a new foundation, namely, the sexuality of vegeta- 
bles. This bold and enterprising undertaking he not only project- 
ed, but accomplished with a rapidity and success that excited the 
wondeFand astonishment both of his friends and enemies. 

4. His first work was published in 1730, being a brief exposition 
of the new principle on which his system was to be founded ; and 
the metliod may be said to have been completed in 1737, when 
he published his Genera Plantarum^ which contained a descrip- 
tion and arrangement of nearly one thousand genera, comprising 
upwards of eight thousand species, and constituting what has been 
since known by the name of the sexual system. 

5. At first it was either opposed as a fanciful innovation, or re- 
ceived with doubt and distrust ; but its fame soon began to spread, 
and to bear down before it all opposition, till it ultimately met 
with the almost universal reception of botanists in every country 
in Europe. 

6. In 1742, Linnaeus was chosen professor of botany at Upsal, 
and in 1753 he published his Species Platiiarum. His authority 
was now supreme, and the im.pulse he communicated to the study 
of vegetables unprecedented in the annals of botany ; hence the 
various voyages that were undertaken by his immediate disciples, 
Kahn, Ltepling, Hasselquisl, and others, or which have been since 
undertaken by their successors, aided by the muniiicence of prin- 
ces, or the zeal oi private individuals, as well as the various soci*^ 



443 MODERN HISTORY. 

©ties that were sooner or later instituted, with a view to the ad- 
vancemenl of botanical knowledo;e ; amongst which the Linnaean 
society of London, founded in 1788, stands pre-eminent, under the 
presidency of sir James Edward Smith, one of the most disting'uish- 
ed of the followers of Linnseus, and the possessor of his herbarium, 
library, and manuscripts. 

7. The acquisitions thus made to the mass of botanical know- 
ledge, are altogether astonisliing-. Botanists are now said to be 
acquainted v/ith upwards of forty thousand species of plants ; and 
pLill there are regions of the earth unexplored, and flowers without 
H name (" t! sunt sine 7ioniineJiorcs.'^'^) 

0. We cannot, however, refuse to acknowledge that botany has 
also derived the most important advantages from such cultivators 
4)f the science as cannot be ranked amongst the disciples of Lin- 
naeus, though tkey have equally contributed to the advancement of 
the knowledge of plants, at least in the department of the study of 
their nntiirai affinities ; the grand and ultimate end of botany, 
which Linnaeus himself knew well how to appreciate, and even to 
improve, as may be seen in his prelections published by Giseke, 
•.ind in his Fi'JZ'ncnIs of c jYaiwal J^hthod. But it was left for the 
iilust.'ious Ju-vieu, the most accomplished botanist o{ the present 
a*e, to give to that method the comparative perfection which it 
has actually obtained, and to erect the noble superstructure of his 
Ocncra Plantarum ; a work exhibiting the most philosophical 
arrangement of plants, as well as the most complete view of 
their natural aiTinities, that was ever presented to the conteiapla- 
tion of man. 

9. This work was published at Paris in 1789, and the neitural 
method of Jussieu^ Avhich may be regarded as having at all times 
stood in op])osiliou to the artificial method of Linnasus, seems now 
to be advancing to a more direct rivalship than ever. Even in the 
works of such botanists as profess to be the disciples of Linnreus, 
there seems to be a leaning to the method of Jussieu ; but whether 
the natural method of the latter will be suffered ultimately t» 
prevail, or the artificial method of the former, time only can 
shew. 

10. Groat, however, as the progress of systematic botany has 
undoubtedly been, during the course of the last and beginning of 
the present century, the progress of physiological botany has per- 
haps been still greater. In proof of this, it will be sufficient to men- 
tion the names of Hales, Bonnet, Du Ilamel, Iledwig, Spallanza- 
ni, Gaertner, Knight, iCcith, and Miibel ; each of whom has dis- 
linguislied himself in the field of phylological investigation, and 
eminently contributed to the advancemenrof the science. Above 
all, we must not fail to mention the name of Priestley, as being^ 
the first who introduced into the study of phytology the aid of 
pneumatic chemistry, which, under the happy auspices of Ingen- 
houz, Senebier, Saussure, Ellis, and Davy, and lastly of Gay-Lus- 
sac and Kenard, has done more to elucidate the phenomena of 
vegeiation, than all other means of investigation, and has furnished 
as the foundation oi the physiology of plants a body of the most 
curious and undoubted facts. 



MODERN HISTORY. 449 

11. Before we dismiss this part of our subject, it is not unfit that 
we should notice the extraordinary pro£;res3 that has been made 
at the samrj time in distinct branches of the science, as well as in 
the application of the arts ef drawinc;, engraving, and ^colouring-, 
for the purposes of illustration, and for exhibiting to the eye, at 
all times, in all places, and at all seasons, the beautiful and in- 
teresting- productions of the vegetable kingdom, in such perfection, 
as, as nearly as possible, to supersede the necessity of living speci- 
mens ; sometimes so rare and inaccessible as to be out of the reach 
of the most scientific. There is no branch of knowledge which has 
furnished more splendid and elaborate works of this nature, than 
that of botany, or in which the arts have been carried to a greater 
degree of perfection and delicacy ; and as a study so elegant mod 
agreeable cannot well be rendered too general, it is pleasing t/ob- 
serve, that through the improvements that have thus taken place, 
and the facilities a/Torded to such publications, not a month passes 
in this kingdom without large additions being made to the general 
stock of botanical knowledge, in works of slagular beauty and 
correctness ; though far from costly, considering the pains bestowed 
upon them. 

12. The lovers of botany stand greatly indebted also, to those 
learned persons who have made it their particular business to col- 
lect, examine, and describe the plants of countries and districts, 
and to supply them with distinct Florce^ both foreign and domestic, 
as the Flora Britannica of Smith, the Flora Anglica of Hudson, the 
Flora Sco>tica of Lightfoot, the Flora Cantabrigiensis of Relhan, 
the Flora Oxoniensis of Sibthorpe, the Flora Londinen&is of Curtis, 
the Flora Grneca, the Flora Peruviana, the Flora Danica, the Flore 
Francoise, and others much too numerous to mention ; in the same 
class may be reckoned those works which arc still further confined 
to the description or illustration of particular genera of pljyits, as 
incur own country, the Cariccs, by Goodenough ; the Grasses, by 
Stillingfleet ; the Menthse Britannica?, by Sole ; the Pines, by Laoi- 
bert ; the Fuci, by Turner ; and various ethers. 



ELECTRICITY. 

I. Though the property of excitation existing' in anther^ (elek' 
tron) appears to have been known to Thales six hundred, and to 
Theophrastus three hundred years before Christ, yet electricity 
(which takes its name from this circumstance) and gah-auism, as 
it is still called, may decidedly be regarded as sciences which have 
sprung up during the period tp v.'hich our present inqairies belong. 
It was not, indeed, till towards the middle of the eii^hteenth cen- 
tury that experiments in electricity were pursued with any degree 
of ardour, success, or advantage. Mr. Hawksbee wrote learnedly 
upon the subject in 1709, but it was not till twenty years after- 
wards that Mr. Grey and M. da Faye at Paris, engaged in some 
experiments which contributed to throw light upon the subject. 
Mr. Grey, who resumed his experiments in 1734, saw enough to 
lead hLai to conclude Ibat the electric fluid and lightning were the 

3a* 



450 MODERN HISTORf^ 

same, ^vhich was not, however effectually proved till fiie year 
1752, when the celeVatcd Dr. Franklin, of America, with great 
ingenuity, and no small de.s:rce of courage, ascertained the fact by 
decisive experiments ; a discovery which he soon applied to prac- 
tical purposes, by the invention of metallic conductors for the se- 
curity of buildings, ships, &:c., during storms. 

2. As experiments could not be profitably undertaken till a suit- 
able apparatus was provided, it is equally evident, that the im- 
provemf nt of such apparatus must greatly have depended on the 
progress of the science. The Leyden phial for the accumulation 
of the electrical power in glass, was invented about 1745, and the 
general apparatus gradually improved by Van Marum, Cunaeus, 
Dr. Nooth, Mr. Nairne, Dr. Priestley, xMessrs. Read, Lane, and 
Adams. To professor V^olta, of Como, we stand indebted for two 
very useful and important electrical instruments, the electro- 
phorus, and condenser of electricity. Many sorts of electrometers 
for measuring the quantity and quality of electricity in an electri- 
fied body, have also been invented. 

3. In 1747 electricity be^an to be used for medical purposes, and 
was supposed to be of efficacy incases of rheumatism, deafness, 
palsy, scrophula, cancers, abscesses, gfout, &c. ; but the progress 
of nn-dical electricity has not been great, while the want of au 
npj)arHtus, and the knowledge and skill reiuisite to apply it pro- 
perly, must always prevent its becoming any very common 
remedy. 

4. Galvanism, which may be said to have been enjj^afted on 
electricity in 1701, was the discovery of the celebrated Galvani of 
Bologna ; it has been called animal electricity ; liis first experi- 
ments having been made on animals, and tending manifestly to 
prove the identity of the nervous and electric fluids, though this 
was f.r some time doubted. M. Gah-aui discovered that, without 
any artificial electricity, and by merely presenting' some conduct- 
ing substance to difierent parts of the nerves or muscles of a dis- 
sected frog, \v lent motions were } roduced, exactly similar to those 
which were excited by a dincharee of the t-lectrical machine. 

5. The discovery of M. Galvani has since led to very important 
ends, through the great care and attention of M. Volta, who, im- 
proving uj)on his discovery of the power of conductors, has been en- 
abled to supply the philosophical world with an instrument of very 
'extraordinary powers, especially for purposes of chemical decompo- 
sition. At rrst M. V<^lta was led to suppose that it required only a 
set of di^eroit conductors, two metals and a fluid, to collect and 
distribute the electrical matter ; he considered that, upon these 
principles, he had prciluced an artificial imitation of the electrical 
powers exhibited by the torpe.lo, the gymnotus, silurus, and tetro- 
don electricus ; but further discoveries demonstrated that there was 
a chemical agency 2;oing forward all the time, and that much de- 
pended on the action of the fluids on the metals, which are all natu- 
rally excellent conductors, but become non-conductors when oxy- 
dated, some being more easily oxydated than others. The voltaic 
pile is a simple galvanic combination ; a serifs of ihem forms a bat- 
tery. Tlio uiost perl^sct j^alvaaic eomtinalioii 13 held to «onsiat m 



MODERxN* HISTORY. 451 

such an nrrangement of metals, exposed to the action of anoxyda- 
tin^ fluid, as are liable to very uiflerent chano:es ; the g^reatest and 
the least. In every simple galvanic combination, water is decom- 
posed, the oxygen euteiiug into union with the metal, and the hy- 
drogen being: evolved. , 

6. Since this discovery, many have eng"ap;ed in electro-chemical 
researches, of the utmost importance, particularly our own coun- 
tryman, sir Humphrey Davy. His experiments on the alkalis and 
earths, and discovery of tbeir metallic nature, being: in themselves 
sufficient to show how wide a range of inquiry is opened to the ex- 
perimentalist, by this powerful agent ; it being reasonable to sup- 
pose, that there is scarcely any substance in nature, either above 
or below the surface of the earth,that is not subject, more or less, 
to the chemical agencies of electricity. Heretofore the observa- 
tions of the philosopher were chiclly, if not entirely confined to those 
sudden and violent changes which take place through any power- 
ful concentration of the electric tiuid. Ihese new discoveries seem 
to afibrd him a fair chance and opportunity of tracing some at least 
of those manilold changes which maj'- be brought about in a more 
quiet, tranquil, and insensible maniicr ; and which, in all proba- 
bility, are incessantly operating etfe els, hitherto little known and 
little suspected. It is obvious that medicine, chemistry, physiology, 
mineralogy, and geology, may all bo greatly assisted by a more per- 
fect knowledge of such curious and hitherto hidden processes of 
nature. Before the galvanic method of exciting electricity had 
been discovered, many very curious experiments had been made, to 
prove the influence of electricity on the atmoi^phere, magnetism, 
vegetation, muscular motion ; iu earthquakes, volcanoes, and other 
natural appearances and operations ; all of which arc likely to be- 
come better known, and further illustrated, by the application of 
the electro-chemical apparatus, which, since its first invention, has 
been already greatly improved. It may not be amiss to observe, 
that meteorology, as a particular branch of knowledge, has beer» 
greatly aided by all the improvements spoken of above in chemis- 
try and electricity, and in the invention of many instruments, very 
simple, but chiefly to be referred to the eighteenth century ; as the 
barometer, the thermometer, the hydrometer, the pluviameter, or 
rain-gaage, the anemometer, and electrometer already mentioned. 
Amongsftthe most eminent of those who have applied themselves 
to this study, we may reckon Messrs. Bouguer, i^aussure, De Luc, 
Gay-Lussac, Van-Marum, Ferguson, Cavallo, &c. ; Drs. Franklin, 
Blagden, and Priestley ; Messrs. Canton and Beccaria. 



MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 

1. Mineralogy (^\xd geology are reasonably to be regarded as new 
sciences since the close of the seventeenth century, having been 
cultivated from that time in a manner totally new, and greatly ad- 
vanced by the progress made in other sciences, and the improvement 
of many arts. They arc both, however, still eo much in their in- 



452 MODERN HISTORY. 

fancy, that a very brief account of what has taken place during the 
last and present century is the utmost that we can attempt. 

2. It was not till towards the middle of the last centrry, that 
the modern scientific arrangements ofmiiierals began to occupy the 
attention of naturalists. That indefatigable observer, Linnaeus, did 
not overlook tlu's branch of natuial hi'-ti>ry, bul. introduced intn the 
twelfth edition of hi? '" Systema Naturse," published in 1708, a 
systematic view of " The Regnum Larideura," v.hich he divided 
into three classes, pcf;ff, minercp^ and fosnilio'^ maiiy orders, and 
fifty-four geneia. In 17P3, Gmelin republished the "• Systema Na- 
turae'' of liinnseus, >*ith alterations and improvements. 

3. Linnaeus did not take the lead in such arrangements: in his 
o'wn work he notices ihe preceding systems of Bromelius, who pub- 
lished in 1730 ; Wallerius, in 1747 ; VVoltersdorf, in 1748 ; Cur- 
theuspr, in 1775 ; Justi, in 1757 ; Cronstedt, in 1758 ; and Vogel, 
in 1762. Linnaeus, however, has the credit of having first reduced 
the science of njincralogy into classes and orders, and \^'alleriu3 
and himself undorlook the arduous and hazardous task of fixing the 
specific characters of minerals. Wallerius's pecond system appear- 
ed in 177^. In 17C1, VeltheiiT; published his system at Brunswick, 
and in 1782, Bergaman's made its first appearance at Leipsic. 

4. Before this time the celebrs.tcd Werner, professor of mineralo- 
gy at Freyburg, in Saxony, had published a treatise on the classin- 
cation of minerals, according to iheir external characters, which 
was more fully illustrated in his notes to a translation of Cronstedt, 
which appeared in 1780. Werner has obtained a name amongst 
mineralogists and geologists, which stands deservedly hitch ; though 
he seems only to have prepared the v;ay for the observations and ex- 
periments of others, by an accumulation and description of facts and 
appearances, extremely curious and valuable. The fundamental 
principle in Werner's mineralogical arrangement, is the natural 
affinity of fossils, of which he enumerates three kinds : the chemi- 
cal, the oryctognostical, and the geognostic. JMr. Kirwan first intro- 
duced the Weruerian system into Britain, in his treatise on mineral- 
ogy, 1784.' 

5. In 1773, the study of the regular or crystalline forms of mine- 
rals seemed to give a new turn to mineralogy, 'i'he first work of 
eminence in this line was the Crystallographie of the celebrated 
Rome de 1' Isle, which was made the basis of the system of Kauy, 
published in 1801. All mineral bodies are supposed by this sys- 
tem to be reduceable by mechanical division to an integrant 'mole- 
cule. From the form and component parts, it has been proposed to 
deduce the specific charact rs. The forms of the iyitegrant mole- 
cule are found to be three ; the tetrahedron, the triangular prism, 
and the parallelapiped. Much attention has been paid to this sys- 
tem, and it must be acknowledged that if the tests proposed were 
easily to be applied, and chemistry had proceeded so far as ihor- 
oughlv to enable us us to distinguish between the accidental and 
essential ingredients of minerals, as has been done in some remark- 
able instances Avith much effect, more direct means of distinguish- 
ing minerals could scarcely be devised : but as things stand at 
preseat, there seems to be too much geometry and cheniistry necea- 



M0DERN HISTORY. 453 

<*ary to render such a system generally useful. In 1800, however, 
i\I. Chevenix, in the Annales de Chymie, gave great support to the 
system of Idauy, to the disparagement of that of Werner, to whom, 
nevertheless, he is careful to give due praise. Crystallization will 
loao; remain, probably, a subject of most curious research and in- 
quiry among geologists as well as mineralogists; the appearances 
of it in primitive rocks, leading immediately to the grand question 
concerning the operations of nre and water, which have divided 
the cultivators of this branch of study into the two parties of Pla- 
toyiists^ who contend for the igneous origin of those rocks, and the 
Js'tptunisfs^ w^ho refer them to an aqueous origin ; of the latter of 
which, was the celebrated Werner. 

6. Many other systems, more or less connected with Werner's, 
have been made public, as Brochart's, Schraeisser's, 1795 ; Babing- 
ton''s, 1796 ; Brosrniarfs, (a very useful and valuable one,) Kidd's, 
1809 ; Clarke's 1811 ; one by Mr. Arthur Aikin ; and, lastly, that 
of Berselius, a Swedish chemist, who has lately attempted to es- 
tablish a pure scientific system of mineralogy, by the application 
©f the electro-chemical theory and the chemical proportions: as 
this system is closely connected with the latest discoveries and im- 
provements that have been made in chemistry and electricity, we 
shall here close our remarks on mineralogy, as a science by no 
means perfected, but open to further experiments and observations^ 
though very m-atevially advanced since the close of the seventeenth 
centu.-y. 

7. Geology has arisen out of mineralogy ; and though no new 
science as to name, is entirely so according to the principles upon 
which it is nov/ conducted. Werner was for giving a neiv name 
at once to the new science, which was a judicious step to take, 
though it has not been generally adopted ; he called it Geognosie : 
it is fit, indeed, that it should be distinguished from the geology of 
old, which only ewgendered a parcel of fanciful theories of the 
earth, unfounded on facts. How the globe was formed, is a very 
different inquiry from that of " what has happened to it since it 
v.'as formed ?"*' modern geology is chielly conversant with the lat- 
ter ; to examine the interior of the earth, as far as it can be exam- 
ined, in order to understand the course of the revolutions and 
changes that have taken place, and of which we perceive the most 
manifest proofs : already very extraordinary circumstances have 
been discovered, indicative of successive changes, both before and 
after any organic beings existed, and therefore both before as well 
as after the globe became strictly habitable ; among the most curi- 
ous etfects plainly to be traced, may be reckoned the extensive 
operations of fire and water, the extinction of many species of ve- 
getables and animals, and the very extraordinary preservation of 
some of the latter, bespeaking a state of congelation, at the mo- 
ment of the catastrophe by which they appear to have been over- 
whelmed ; remains of animals in places where they no longer ex- 
ist, and the extraordinary absence of human teliquiae. The sci- 
ence of comparative anatomy has been of great use in these re- 
searches, in which nobody has distinguished himself more than M. 
Cuyier, secretary of the French Institute. 



I 



454 MODERN HISTORY. 

8. Many sreoloo-ical societies are forniingf, or have been already 
formed, in different parts of Europe and in America, and professor- 
ships founded in our universities ; but it will be long, perhaps, be- 
fore the several observations and discoveries makin"- in all parts of 
the world, can be so compared, classed, and methodized, as to bring 
out such results as may be admitted for certain and indisputable 
truths, in regard to the history of the earth and of man. In the 
mean while, we should consid^^r that geologists have always a field 
to work in, abounding in materials so applicalile to every useful 
art as to promise continual accessions of knowledge, not merely 
scientific, but of real practical utility. 

We ought not, perhaj)s to dismiss this part of our subject, with- 
but noticing the very curious geological map of England, publish- 
ed by our countryman, Mr. Smith, in 1815, a work of great merit 
and orio;inality. 



GEOGRAPHY. 

1. We have mentioned geography^ also, as among those sciences 
^•hich may be regarded as alni'^st n-^w, not only because it is since 
the middle of the last century that we have acquired a more cor- 
rect knowledge of the figure of the earth, but from the extraor- 
dinary manner in v/hich the whole terraqueous globe has been ex- 
plored of late, and the addidons consequently made to our former 
knowledge of its parts: the discoveries that have taken place since 
the close of the seventeenth century, have, according to the French 
g'eographers, presented to us two new quarters of the Avorld, and 
-tvhich have been denominated Australasia and Polynesia. The 
following account may serve to explain these additions to modern 
geography : 

2. The former is held to contain, 1. New Holland, and all the 
islands between twenty degrees west, and between twenty and 
thirty degrees east of it. 2. New Guinea and the islands adja- 
cent. 3. New Britain, New Ireland, and the Solomon Isles. 4. New 
Caledonia and the New Hebrides. 5. New Zealand. 6. Van 
Dieman^s Land, which is separated from New Holland by Basse's 
strait or channel, and is about thirty leagues wide. 

3. The division called Polynesia.^ consists of, 1. The Pelew 
Islands. 2. The Ladrone or iMarlan Islands. 3. The Carolines. 
4. The Sandwich Islands. 5. The Marquesas, which are very nu- 
merous. 6. The Society Islands, about sixty or seventy in num- 
ber. 7. The Friendly Islands. 8. The Navigators'' Islands. The 
largest island in this division is Owhyhee, one of the Sandwich 
Islands, and the place where the celebrated circumnavigator. Cook, 
lost his life. 

4. The voyages and travels conducive to these discoveries are 
too generally known to be much dwelt upon in such a work as the 
present. It will be sufRcient merely to mention the names of those 
who, since the years 1735 and 1736, (when the Spanish and French 
mathematicians undertook their celebrated missions to measure a 
degree of the meridian under the pole aud at the equator,) have 



MODERN HISTORY. 4^:5 

been employed by the diderent powers of Europe on voyages of 
discovery. 

5. Of the English \vc m^y enumerate : 

Byron, 1764 — 1766. Mr. Harrison^'s time-piece applied to the 
discovery of the longitude. 

Wall is and Carteret, 17G6. Sailed together, but soon separated ; 
Otaheite and other islands discovered. 

Cook, three voyages : — 

First voyai;e, 1768 — 1771. The transit of Venus observed at 
Matavai, in Otaheite, June, 1769. Nev/ Holland, and New Zealand 
explored. 

Second voyage, 1772 — 1775, in search of a southern continent. 

Third voyage, 1776 — 1780, to discover a northern passage ; fatal 
to captain Cook, who was killed at Owhyhee. 

Portloch and Dixon, 1785—1788; principally to establish the 
fur trade, at Nootka Sound. 

Vancouver, 1790 — 1795, to explore the northern passage. Uu- 
successfril. 

Phipps, (lord Mulgrave,) north pole, 1773. 

Lord ."vlacartney, China, 1792. 

Lord Amherst, ditto. 1816, 1817. 

Of the French we may reckon, 

BouA-ainville, 1766—1768. 

La Pey rouse, 17G5 — 1788, supposed to have perislie^^. 

D'Entricasteux, in search of La Peyrouse. 

Marchapd, 1790—1792. 

The Spaniards appear to have employed Malasplna, an Italian, 
1790, to explore distant seas and countries ; but his voyage was 
not published. These were all of them voyages, not merely de- 
voted to geographical discoveries, but in which competent persons, 
in almost every branch of science, were concerned, to take account 
of whatever should oHer itself to their notice, or be likely to con- 
tribute, in any mavnier whatsoever, to the general advancement of 
human knowledge ; astronomy, botany, zoology, meteorology, physi- 
ology, inincralogy, and geology. Trade and commerce, navigation 
and the arts, were constantly in the way of receiving illustration 
or improvement, duri-ig these bold attempts to advance the geogra- 
phy of the world, and solve the difliculties which still seemed to 
hang about thai interesting and injportant science. The names of 
Banks, Solander, Green, Sparrman, Forster and Anderson, will 
descend to the remotest posterity, with that of Cook. 

6. War often, indeed, interrupted these pursuits, but the eigh- 
teenth century has the credit of affording the following strong 
marks of the progress of civilization and liberal ideas. It Avas 
during a continental war, that a combination of learned and 
scientific persons, F.nglish, French, Russians, Danes and Swedes, 
in the year 176 1, laying aside their animosities, undertook 
the arduous task of observing, for astronomical and geographical 
purposes, a transit of Venus over the sun. It was in the midst of 
war, that France, in a very public and formrd manner, suspended 
^all hostilities that could in any manner affect the progress or safe 
return of our English navigator, Cook ; and both the French and 



45G MODERN HISTOilV. 

Englisin, in the course of their voyages of discovery, are known to 
)iave evinced a spirit of philanthropy and humanity very opposite 
to what had passed oh such occasions in former ages. The improve- 
ment of every barbarous and savage people they might visit, -was 
among the first thoughts of those who were engaged in these new 
advent'ires. Some remarkable directions to this effect, given by 
Louis Xv^J. himself to La Peyrouse, will forever do honour to the 
memory of that benign bat ill- fated monarch. The English circum- 
navigators were not less attentive to these things, but continually 
sought the amelioration of the savage condition of the people they 
visited ; too often, hoAvever, quite in vain, or without any lasting 
effect. 

7. It would be utterly out of our power to enter into any details 
of the numerous researches that have been made in all parts of the 
globu, since; the spirit of discovery was first excited, which has so 
remarlra,bly distinguished the period of which we are treating. In 
the north and south, east and west, of both hemispheres, almost 
every region has been explored, and every information obtained 
i'lat can throw light on the history either of the earth or of man. 
'ilie two peninsulas of India, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, and Abyssinia, 
the northern and the southern, and, in some instances, the interior 
parts of Africa ; Syria, Greece, and Turkey; Norway, Lapland, 
Siberia, and even the wilds of Tartary and Kamschatka ; New 
Spain ; the back settlements of North America, and North America 
itself; Iceland, Greenland, &:c., have all been visited by persons 
of science and learning, and are almost as well known now, as 
the most frequented and civilized parts of Europe ; all that can be 
ascertained of their history ; all that the ren^ains of antiquity could 
unfold to the eye of curiosity ; all the animals, plants, minerals, 
they produce ; have been so amply examined, described, classed, 
and nrethodized, that it may reasonably be sup}>osed, that in very 
many instances, ail that can be knov/n is knov/n. Among the tra- 
vels enumerated, the scholar, in particular, has been in no ordinary 
degree gratified by the visits that have been recently paid to mo- 
dern Greece, and by the able, classical, and scientific descriptions 
which have been given of that very interesting portion of the con- 
tinent, by lord Byron, Mr. Hobhousc, major l^e^ke, Dr. Holland^ 
sir William Drummond, Dr. Clark, lord Aberdeen, sir William 
Gell, and others of our own countrymen ; and by M. Pouqueville, 
who having accompanied Buonaparte to Egypt, at the close of the 
last century, was gimong the first to explore those celebratecV re- 
gions. 

8. The new means of inquiry an 1 investigation, have so kept 
pace with the wide field lately opened to the world, that even in- 
dividuals have been found compet^nt to bring home with them from 
the most remote countries, ample information upon all the great 
points that can possibly interest the curiosity of man ; a greater 
instance of this, could not perhaps, be produced, than in the case 
of a living traveller and author, the celebrated M. Huniboidt* 
of Prussia, whose multifarious researches, at a very early age, m 
almost all parts of the globe, have added more to the generalstoick 
of kaov/ledge in the compass of a very few year?, than could have 



MODERN IIlSTORYo 45 i 

T>een attained by ages of inquiry in times at all distant. In speak- 
ing of this very celebrated traveller, whose accounts of Spanish 
America in particular have lately excited so much attention, it is 
ilt also to notice the removal of many restraints and impediments 
in the way of such researches, fhrongli the more liberal policy of 
the mother country ; so far from expressing, as would have been 
the case in former timce, any jealousy of such a visit to her colo- 
nies, M. Humboldt obtained the express approbation and concur- 
rence of the Spanish court. The removal of the court of Portugal 
to the Brazils in the year 1807, has also proved favourable in no 
small degree to the prosecution of such inquiries ; the king hav- 
ing, Avith considerable liberality, patronized such undertakings. 

9. The sovereigns of Russia, from the time of Peter the great^, 
through a natural desire of acquiring a correct knowledge of their 
very extended dominions, buried, at the close of the seventeenth 
century, in profound ignorance and obscurity, were careful to em- 
ploy proper persons to make such discoveries, who so ably dischar- 
ged their commissions, that before the end of the eighteenth cen- 
tury, a very celebrated German professor declared that they had 
amassed such a quantity of materials, entirely new, for the hi?tory 
of the three kingdoms of nature, for the theory of the earth, for ru- 
ral economy, and for an infinity of other objects relative to the arts 
and sciences, as would employ many learned men for several years, 
in their proper arrangement and classification. The names of 
Beering and Spangberg, Pallas, Gmelin, Muller, Chappe D'Aute- 
roche, Georgi, Lepechin, are well known, as among those who have 
most distinguished themselves in these northern 3,nd north-eastern 
expeditions. Among the improvements connected with the sci- 
ence of geography, and its progress, we should be glad if we 
rould do justice to the very learned and eminent persons v/ho 
have, in a manner unknown before, devoted their time to the more 
correct delineation of the face of the globe, in the construction of 
maps and charts, which seem to be advancing rapidly to the high- 
est degree of perfection. M. d'Anville, whos.^ labours in this way 
are so well known, may be justly considered perhaps as having* 
given the first stimulus in this line of study, to the geographers of 
modern times. 

10. As the science of astronomy is in many instances connected 
with geography, -n^e may here notice tlie changes that have takea 
place in regard to the former, during the last and present centu- 
ries ; which, however, being only in the way of addition upon the 
established principles of the Copernican and Newtonian systems, 
are not such as can be said to have altered the character of the 
science itself; and, indeed, the additions that have been made are 
very easily enumerated,though they must have cosi much pains, and 
are the results of very curious observations and intricate calcula- 
tions, on the part of those to whom we stand indebted for them. 

11. We have added five planets to those formerly known as be- 
longing to our solar system. The Georgium Sidus, or Uranus, dis- 
covered by the celerated sir W. Herschel, 1781, and its satellites, 
1787; Ceres, by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, 1801 ; Pallas, by Dr. Gi- 
bers, at Bremen^ 1802; Juno, by M. Harding of Lilienllial, in 

39 



458 ^ MODERN HISTORY. 

1801; and Vesta, by "Dr. Gibers, 1C07. To the former of these 
celebrated observers we owe a most enlarg'ed knowledge of the 
celestial regions, particularly of the nebulous parts, from the ap- 
plication of hia new telescopes of most extraordinary powers, which 
have enabled us to ascertain that the milky-way, and other similar 
appearances in the heavens, are a congeries of fixed stars, in stra- 
ta, prodig-iously numerous, and exhibiting very curious phenomena. 
Of the immense amount of these stars, which may still have be- 
yond them an unfathomable and unexplorable abyss of the same 
kind, we may form some conjecture from the following statement 
of sir William himself, who found by his guages, ia the year 1792, 
that in the small space of forty-one minutes, no less than 238,000 
stars, in the via lactea^ had passed through the field of view -in his 
telescope. Sir William places our own system in the via lactea. He 
has discovered, besides many new stars, double and triple stars, 
and what he calls changing stars. 

12. We have learned to correct our ideas goncerning the sub- 
stance of the body of the sun, heretofore considered as entirely of 
an igneous nature. Though its rays contribute largely to the pro- 
duction of heat on the earth's surface, many \"ery obvious appear- 
ances ought sooner to have convinced us of what now seems clearly 
to be understood, that the sun is not a body of fire. 

13. The science of astronomy has been much promoted during 
the time of which v/e have been treating, by the improvement or 
mvention of many curious and necessary instruments, and the 
building and establishment of regular observatories ; and practical 
astronomy has been carried to a very high pitch, by the talents and 
ingenuity of many very eminent persons in France, Britain, Ger- 
many, Italy, Szc. • as M. Clairault, d'Alembert, De ia Caille, La 
Place, La Grange, Bailly, De la Lande, &c. ; Bradley, Maskelyn, 
Hersche], Hutton, Robison, Ferguson, Vince, &c. ; Euler, Mayer, 
Boda, Bianchinij'Boscovich, Frisi, Piozzi, 6zc. 

■'' 14. We have spoken elsewhere of the travels, expressly under- 
taken in 1753, to measure in the northern and southern parts of 
the world, a degree of the meridian, by which the figure of the 
earth was ascertained to be an oblate spheroid, according to the 
conjectures of sir Isaac Newton, and contrary to the assertions of 
the Cassinis and Bernouilli, v/ho had for some time insisted that 
the polar diameter was longer than the equatorial : all the experi- 
ments seemed to concur in proving the reverse. The steps that 
were taken, in the years 1761 and" 1769, to determine the paral- 
lax ol the sun, by observing the transit of Venus, afford another 
strong proof of the extraordinary zeal and resolution with which 
science was cultivated during the period of which we have been 
treating. On the recommendation of Dr. Halley, who had obser- 
ved a transit of Mercury at St. Helena, but who did not expect to- 
live to see a transit of Venus, and who in fact died in 1742, mathe- 
maticians and astronomers were sent out in the years before men- 
tioned, both from France and England. 

15. Among the modern inventions appertaining to astronomy, 
besides the instruments absolutely necessary to correct observa- 
tion, v/e may reckon those curious and elegant machines, exhibit- 



MODERN HISTORY. 45^ 

ing the motions and phenomena of ouv solar system and its several 
parts; our orreries, planetariums, tellurians, lunariums, &c., all of 
which may be considered as extremely interesting and in^eniou<? 
contrivances. 



1. It would be useless to attempt to give any circumstantial ac- 
count of the progress that has been made in other sciences, during; 
the period of which we have been treating, and vain t® seek, by a 
mere enumeration of names, to do justice to the many eminent and 
illustrious persons who have distinguished themselves in various 
parts of the world, in every branch of learning, useful and ornamen- 
tal, since the commencement of the eighteenth century. The nume- 
rous biographical works, chronological charts, critical and philoso- 
phical journals, which have from time to f ime been published during 
this period, may supply information much more full and copious than 
would be at all consistent with the limits of this work, already ex- 
tended beyond their original design. As, however, the surprising 
burst of intellect, investi2:ation and enterprise which has so marked 
and distinguished the last and present century, appears to have 
been in a great degree connected with the history of Europe during 
the same period, we shall take a brief view of the latter; begin- 
ning with England and France ; the two countries which seem in 
several respects to have had the most considerable share in the 
changes that have taken place. 

2. At the period of the deaths of queen Anne and Lewis XIV. 
(see Sect. LXIV.) England and France appear to have stood in 
situations diametrically opposite. England had just obtaint7d all 
that she' wanted from a revolution ; France had scarcely begun to 
feel that she stood in need of one. England had succeeded in pla- 
cing her civil and religious rights on a sure footing ; France was as 
yet but little sensible that hers had been greatly violated. Eng- 
land was recovering from a state of misrule and licentiousness ; 
France was declining more than ever into such a condition. In 
li^ngland, Newton hud established his new system of philosophy, 
and Locke illustrated the principles of a free government; in 
France, Descartes still held the minds of men in a state of fasclno- 
tion and enchantment, and the people knew not whit it was to bo 
free. 

3. The French government, by too great severity in political and 
religious matters, had compelled many of her subjects to take re- 
fuge in foreign countries, where they were at liberty to make their 
own reflections, to print and to publish their thoughts upon tlie 
comparative despotism of the country from which they had been 
driven, and the delusions to which the subjects of the latter were 
exposed. 

4. Among those who had been thus banished, or compelled to 
retire, no one could have more to unsettle the minds of his coun- 
trymen, in regard both to religion and politics, than the celebrated 
Bayle. His object appears, however, to have been merely to un^ 
selile them ; for his whole whole work is a tissue of doubts and dif 



460 MODERN BISTORY. 

ficuUIes, -vvhich he had no disposition to resolve, feut to leave to 
every man's ov/n judgment to determine, after having" very impar- 
tially stated all the arguments and all the facts he could possibly 
collect, on both sides of every question. 

5. The Freiich had been so long used to submission, that merely 
to teach them to doubt was a grand step towards a revolution in 
thtir opinions ; but Bayle did not live to see the seeds he had been 
Siowing- come to any perfection. It was not, according to the 
account of the French themselves, till Voltaire, partly in a 
stale of exile, ])ad visited England, that they began to ripen. 
in England, Voltaire became acquainted with the philosophy of 
iS'fewto;! and Locke, and saw^ some of the best political principles 
of the latter established and in action ; bat being the guest of Bo- 
Hngbroke, his deist ical principles, which w^ere very early made 
iinown by a passage in his tragedy of CEdipus, underwent no change, 
or were probably more deeply fixed and confirmed. 

6. Though Shaftesbury, Wolston, Collins, Toland, Tindal, and 
others, had attacked revelation, and cither openly or insidiously 
sought to imbue the minds of the English with their deistical prin- 
ciples ; the public in general were little, affected by their v/ritings. 
Men of superior talents, superior credit, and very superior learning, 
had lived, or were living,capable of giving a different tone to the feel- 
ings of the people. Newton, Locke, Addison, Steele, Clarke, Swift, 
&c., were amply sufficient to support the cause of religion ; an^ 
not only to defend the very outw^orks of Christianity, but to avert the 
shafts ol ridicule, and set at naught the sarcasms of infidelity. In 
those admirable periodical papers, the Spectator, the Guardian, the 
Tatler, «!scc., we may tiace a direct and most bcnovolent design of 
rescuing the rising generation from the contagion of bad cxamplcsj 
and the iniliience of false principles. 

7. In France it was otherwise : deism, though v/eak against the 
plain evidences of Christianity, was strong against the fanaticism 
af a bigoted, and the superstition of a corrupted church. The ban- 
ter of Voltaire soon began to take effect, when aimed at things 
and persons so vulnerable as the monastic orders, and the contro- 
verted points in dispute between the Jesuits and Jansenists. The 
defence of religion also, in consequence of these disgraceful and 
puerile conflicts, and the plausibility of the attacks that were made 
upon it, which struck hard at its abuses, fell into hands little capa- 
ble of wielding the weapons so cfTectually employed in England. 
The dread of derision too soon damped the spirit of pulpit eloquence, 
which had cast such a lustre on the names of Saurin, Massiilon, 
A:c. ; and converted even the christian preacher into a philosopher 
of the modern schfiol. Among those who first appeared in defence 
of revealed religion against the deists, the French themselves have 
particularly mentioned the younger Racine, the cardinal de Po- 
lignac, and M. Le Franc de Fompignan. The first wrote a heavy 
poem, which few read ; the second a long philosophical poem in 
Latin, which not many could read ; and the last published some 
.sflcrerf odes, of which Voltaire found room to say, with his usual 
wit, '''•' Sacres Us sont^ car personne n'y touched Though Voltaire 
might have imbibed his deism in part from BcliD°^hroke, it wa* 



MODERN inSTORV. 461 

plainly not a plant of English growth ; but it proved to be sadly 
congenial at that tirae to the soil of France. 

8. -The rtg-ency had wrought a jrreat change in the principles 
and manners of that lively people. 'Jlie profligate habits of the duke 
of Orleans opened a wide field to libertines and freethinkers, and 
naturally encouraged them to speak their minds more freely upon 
ail subjects than would otherwise have been consistent with the 
spirit of the government. Religion and morals, indeed, could not 
havo received a greater blow than from the extraordinary eleva- 
tion of the infamous Dubois to the rank of cardinal, and to the 
archbishopric of Cambray, so lately filled by the amiable and vir- 
tuous Fenelon. 

9. While the morals of the French were thus becoming daily 
more depraved, the manners of the English were evidently much 
improved. The grave and austere character of William HI, the cor- 
rect deportment of Mary, and her sister,queen Anne, had effectually 
checked the licentiousness of the two preceding reigns.and given en- 
couragement to a set of writers peculiarly capable of amending the 
age, of inculcating true piety and sound morality, and giving a better 
tone to the amusements of the public, instead of the gross indelica- 
cies which had disgraced the Avritings and degraded the talents^ of 
Vanburgh, Behn, Congrevc, and even Oryden, the taste and man- 
rer? of the nation derived geat improvement and advaittages from 
the more chaste and correct performances of Addison, Steele, 
Howe, Prior, Pope, Thomson, Akenside, Szc. The stage underwent a 
wholesome reformation, and in every department of literature thers 
ajipeared a manifest leaning towards whatever could conduce to 
purity of sentiment and delicacy of feeling. 

10. Had Voltaire carried back with him from our shores, as he 
might have done, a purer form of Christianity, and a better system 
of morals, as well as a more correct philosophy, and sounder prin- 
ciples of government, he might have conferred a lasting benetit on 
his country ; a benefit the more timely and critical, as it would 
possibly have prevented some of the worst evils which befel that 
unhappy nation in her subsequent struggles for liberty. Bayle had 
taught the French to doubt ; Voltaire, having taken a near, though 
imperfect view of England, taught them to think and to inquire ; 
while a greater man than himself was coutribr.tiug, though more 
slowly and quietly, to the same end. 

11. Almost at the very time that Voltaire was in England, Mon- 
tesquieu visited the same country ; but appears principally to have 
confined his views to the great object of his researches, the spirit 
other laws, and the leading principles of her admirable constitu- 
tion. There he learned to admire, in its purest form, a limited 
monarchy, and a system of jurisprudence, equally adverse to tyran- 
ny and licentiousness ; equally friendly to the wholesome authority 
of the magistrate, and the just rights of the people. Montesquieu, 
however, (though in his Persian Letters he had betrayed a leaning 
towards deism,) moved in a line distinct from that generally taken 
by the philosophers of the day. \Miile Voltaire very soon manifest- 
ed a desire of taking the lead of all the wits and freethinkers, how- 
ever diifereut their talents, their characters, or their priacipie^^ 

39* 



<^^ MODERN History. 

Montesquieu was not displeased to be left to himself, and io leave" 
his ^leat work to make its own impressions, however slowly, on 
sensible and ingenuous minds. Its first effects of any importance 
may, perhaps, be traced in the remonstrances of the parliaments, 
who began to take a higher tone after the publication of Uesprit 
des J^ois^ and to consider themselves more in the light of represent- 
atives of the people. 

12. A number of very extraordinary men were beginning at the 
x^me lime to draw upon themselves the attention of the world, and 
to employ tlierr talents in different lines, and often upon very dif- 
ferent principle?, to enlighten the world, and emancipate it from 
the thraldom of ancient prejudices and inveterate abuses. Amon? 
tlu'se, however, none were more extravagantly eccentric than J. 
J. Uosseau. This extraordinary man was decidedly for new model- 
lin^g the whole system of political society, and reducing it to prin- 
ciples which existed only m his own imagination. Not having evet 
seen a race of savages, he fancied they must be the more perfect 
the nearer they were to a state of nature ; and being tormented 
with the restraints of civilized society, he concluded civilization 
itself to be an evil. These sojihisms served to render him the idol 
of the equalising and destroying- demagogues of the revolution. It 
l^as impossible to resist the impressions made by the captivating 
pictures he drew ; but they. seldom had any better effect than that 
of rendering his votaries as dissatisucd with the world as he him- 
self was, and bewildering their imaginations with doubts and diffi- 
culties innumerable. He knew how to appreciate the sublime mo- 
rality of th-g:ospel, though he could not regulate his own actions 
by it ; and having Ibund in the bible, as in all ether cases, some- 
thing tliat dissatisfied his restless and irritable mind, and reviling 
whai he could not approve, or did not sufficiently understand, he 
certainly did as much mischief to the cause of revealed religion, 
calling himself a christian all the while, as the worst of his deistr- 
tal contempoiaries. His opinions and his actions, as exhiVited in 
his own Avritings, will for ever render him an object of admiration 
mingled with i)ity, if not in some instances with abhorrence ! 

lo. But it was, in no long course of time, dijcovered that the 
free opinions that were afloat, and which were as various as the 
persons who entertained them, and who had as yet no common 
bond of union, as \'oltaire, Uosseau, Buffon, Diderot, U'Alembert, 
Duclos, Ilelvetius, r>Iarmontel, Condiilac, Raynal, Volney, (to 
name but a few,) should by some means or other be embodied and 
consolidated, that the whole of their several thoughts and observa- 
tions on different subjects might be presented to the world in a 
mass. This was the origin of that great and voluminous under- 
taking, the Encyclopedie, spoken of before, planned by Diderot 
and D^\lembert ; and which, to say the least of it, seemed to be 
a treasure of universal science, far more comprehensive, at least, 
than any thing of the kind before attempted, being not confined 
to what might strictly be called the arts and sciences, but ex- 
iciuiing to every question of government,civil economy, and finance. 

14. The Dictionnaire F.ncyclopedique, am id-it many faults and 
tAt;-avag;ai:ces, cont^iintd iiudoulLcdly much important matter. 



MODERN HISTORY'. 463 

written m so agreeable a style, as to be admirably fitted to excite 
and promote a thirst after general knowledg^c, universal inquiry 
and investigation, a confidence in private judgment, and a preju- 
dice against every thing that appeared to have no other support 
than custom and authority. ^Vheat mig-ht be torn up Avith the 
tares, and tares often sown instead of corn : but it mr.st be ac- 
knowledged that we stand indebted to the projectors of this work 
for the detection and extirpation of many errors, and the powerful 
stimulus given by their uioveraents to the spirit of free inquiry and 
useful research. 

15. The persons engaged in it have been so generally called 
philosophers, and have been styled such in so many histories of the 
French revolution, that it is alaiost necessary to observe that the 
greater part of them bore little resemblance to those who had 
heretofore been dignified with that title. I he regent, uuke of Or- 
leans, though dissolute in his habits of liie, wajj^man of taste, 
talent, and information ; so that the savans of FflPbe, who had 
heretofore been a retired order of men, became about this period 
the life of society, and the ornaments of the highest circles in the 
metropolib. Some few, iridccd, still kept a distance from the court, 
but, generally speaking, such was the state of things during the 
regency ; and afterwards, when Lewis XV. fell into that disgrace- 
ful course of life, which clouded his latt(!r days, and subjected 
him and his mistresses to the censure of the clergy, even Voltaire, 
whom the king personally disliked, and the Plncyclopsedists, as 
enemies to the clergy, were taken into favour. 'J hey were often 
indeed dismissed again, but never entirely driven frnm court. 

16. This change of public opinion, even in the highest circles, 
introduced the learned into places where they never appeared be- 
fore, and gave them a new character. \\ hile the influence which 
the men of letters thus began to acquire in society, obliged the no- 
blesse to change their habits also, and to mingle with those wh(^ 
before fornied a distinct class ; it obliged them also to cultivate 
learning themselves, and even the females found it necessary to 
become more or less philosophical. 

17. In tlie mean while some of these modern philosophers had 
other European courts set open to them, particularly in the north- 
ern parts of Europe, where a greater degree of liberty in the article 
of opinion already j)rc vailed, very different from the bigoted and 
^'achiaveliau principles of Rome and Italy, which had hitherto 

A-ne sway. Catherine II. of Russia, and Frederic of Prussia, 
ihrough a laudable desire probably of im proving and enlightening 
their scmi-burbarous dominions, invited thither some of the most 
busy of the French literati; but with little judgment or discrimi- 
nation. Frederic, besides Voltaire, D'Alembert, and Maupertius, 
jave free admisssion, and even encouragement, to the atheist La 
Methrie, the marquis D'Argens, and the abbe de Frades ; and 
Catherine received, and greatly patronized in his latter years, the 
celebrated Diderot. Thus, with the knowledge and learning which 
the new philosophers really possessed, scepticism and infidelity 
were spread far and wide, and there was a s&d mixture; cf darkiie»3 
and illuuiii;i4ticn iii all Vhey taught. 



461 MODERN HISTORY. 

18. The French revolution has been attributed to the literati, 
OT philosophers of those days ; but we should greatly err, if we v/ere 
to suppose that they contemplated generally such a dissolution 
of things as afterwards took place ; many, indeed, were dead be- 
fore the revolution commenced. Neither Voltaire nor Montesquieu 
■were republicans ; the former had a supreme contempt for the 
populace; and, by his flattery of Catherine II. and the marchioness 
de Pompadour, would seem to have had little of the republican 
spirit in him. Indeed it has been asserted of him, that '' he loved 
kicg-3.'" Raynal is said to have shuddered when he saw his own 
violent imprecations on despotism and tyranny brought into action* 
Some, however, undoubtedly threw aside all restraints, openly de- 
clared themselves deists, atheists, (fee, and to their abominable 
blasphemy and infidelity we may reasonably impute many of the 
evils which marked those dreadful times : but, in truth, the his- 
tory of ojnnions ceases to be connected after a short time with the 
French re vo|j||on. It very soon became a struggle t>f passions and 
private intereWs, and at length terminated in a catastrophe as fatal 
to the literati as to the throne and the altar. That fatal instru- 
ment, the guillofine^ so much spoken of at that time, was stained 
with the blood of some of those very persons who had contributed 
most to the advancement of knowledge, and the propagation of 
liberal ideas. 

19. The impulse, however, was now given to two of the most 
curious, ingenious, and inquisitive nations of Europe, and nothing 
could possibly exceed the rapielity with which every branch of sci- 
ence has since been cultivated ; in Britain, constantly with more 
steadiness, gravity, and judgment, than in France, though not with 
more zeal and activity. Ihe Germans, in the mean while, in the 
northern parts more particularly, seem to have devoted their time 
to studies of rather a different description, being known chiefly for 
works of intense research and most profound learning. Experi- 
mental philosophy, natural history, and chemistrj', have indeed 
been also cultivated by them with considerable success; but in 
works of fancy, wit and humour, they have not acquired so much 
credit as their neighbours. A singular disposition to indulge in tales 
of wonder, chivalry, and knight-errantry, has been manifested in 
most of their works of imagiiiation ; and in metaphysics, they have 
produced systems, which, while tbey betray an extraordinary talent 
for the investigation of such abstruse subjects, are certainly more to 
be admired for their ingenuity than their utility. 

20. No country in Europe, perhaps, ran have undergone greater 
improvements, during the period of which we have been treating, 
than Russia ; but her improvement has not been so much progressive 
as sudden. The mighty genius of Feter the great determiiied him to 
introduce his own extensive empire nt once into the commonwealth 
of Europe ; and, instead of waiting to give his subjects a capacity for 
im.proving themselves, as other nations had <^one, he eagerly adopt- 
ed all that had been discovered elsewhere, and converted his rude 
people into a civilized nation, just as far as such methods could 
reach. He taught them to adopt and imitate what they were as 
yet ift no condition to invent, or «Yea improve, and kft it to his 



MODERN HISTORY. 465 

taccessors to fill up the g:aps that might remain unprovided for at 
the time of his death. His subjects, or rather slaves, obeyed his 
dictates, and have continued since to horrow from their neighbours, 
till tlicy have obtained such a sufficiency of good things, as to be 
no longer regarded as a rude or ignorant people, though all the 
other countries of Europe had the start of them till the very 
close of the seventeenth century. 

21. Peter the great had, in a small compass of time, some very 
xveak and some very wise successors. The former have not been 
iufl'ered to stand long in the way of the latter, and though their 
removal has savoured little of the civilization and improvement of 
■which we have been speaking, it cannot be denied that Russia has 
been prevented by many singular occurrences from relapsing into 
her former state of rudeness and barbarity. The extremes of magnifi- 
cence and rudeness, indeed, are too often found to meet ; and the 
middle class has by no means yet acquired that importance in so- 
ciety which is so essential to every well-regulated government. 
The state of thinus still exhibits too much of the old narrow line of 
distinction, of lords and vassals; nevertheles?, Russia has obtained 
much, and advanced considerably, \Mipre, little more than a cen- 
tury ago, wolves fed and sought their prey, an immense and mag;- 
nificent city and metropolis nov/ stands, thronged with inhabitants 
from all parts oi the globe ; but perhaps it would be w^eli if she 
Would consent to step back and give a solid and more natural base 
to lier acquirements. The system of adoption and imitation has 
brought her to a state rather of superficial than of real greatness. 
She has had her universiiies before her schools ; but it could not well 
be otherwise in so sudden an improvement: much remains to be 
done before the nation at large, in its several relations, social and 
political, can be said to be really and effectually civilized. 

22. Sweden, during the eighteenth century, produced many 
eminent men, and contributed largely to the advancement of sci- 
ence. It may be sufficient to mention, «> proof of this, the names 
of Linnaius, Wallerius, Cronstadt, Bergman, Scheele, Thunberg, 
and Sparrman. 

23. 'i'he Danes have not been idle, but have encouraged in many 
ways the promotion of literature and philosophy ; mathematics and 
astronomy, zoology, botany, and other sciences, have been cultiva- 
ted with good success ; and many splendid works are extant, that 
reflect great credit on the spirit and ardour of the government, as 
well as of individuals, and the learned societies instituted and es.* 
l-abiished there. 



DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 

I. Many new discoveries and inventions of lasting benefit to 
mankind, as well as many most essential improvements of old inven- 
tions and discoveries, have marked the eighteenth and nineteenth 
centuries ; some of the most remarkable of which it will be sufficient 
merely to name, as they are already become too commou and fa~ 



466 MODERN HISTORY. 

Jniliar to need explanation ; such as inoculation^ and much more 
recently, vaccination ; steam-cngi?ies and steam-boats ; printing of 
linen and cotton cloths ; paper for rooms ; figured silks and carpets ; 
spinning machines ; stereotype printing, and lithographic engraving ; 
musical tijpes ; porcelain and pottery ; particularly Welch and iron- 
stone china ; lightning conductors ; time-pieces ; pneumatic^ elec- 
trical^ and galvanic apparatus ; life-boats and li/e-preservers ; the 
speaking-trumpet^ safety-lamp^ telegraphs^ gas-lights^ panoramas^ 
balloons^ reflecting and achromatic telescopes^ concave mirrors^ with 
rarious other optical and astronomical instruments. 

i'. Laws and governments have been advancing; towards a greater 
degree of perfection, though in many countries very slowly, and 
jnanife^ly under difficulties and impediments which time only can 
remove. The French revolution opened people's eyes to ancient 
abuses ; but by inducing all the evils and horrors of anarchy, did 
ty no means accomplish so much for real liberty, as might harve 
been wished and expected ; like other tumultuary revolutions, it 
terminated in a military despotism, and its effects on the continent'of 
Kurope have been hitherto very partial, and of no very great impor- 
tance as to the actual amelioration of things. Still we may justly" 
enumerate among the changes conducive to the future benefit, 
comfort, and happiness of mankind, the steps taking in several 
states to restore or establish the representative system of govern- 
ment ; the dissolution of many monastic institutions, and feudal 
privileges ; the check that has been given to arbitrary iMiprisoij.m,.mt, 
torture, the horrors of the inquisition, and the African slave trade; 
the improvements that have taken place, principally through the 
interposition of our benevolent countrymaii, Mr. Howard, in the 
management of prisons, and the extraordinary steps lately taken, 
especially in Vne British dominions, for the better education of the 
poor and their instruction in religion. 

3. It would be \'ain indeed to attempt to enumerate the astonish- 
ing additions that have been made within these few years, to the 
public establishments for the promotion of knowledge, the advance- 
ment of professional skill, and the relief of the necessities of man- 
kind. Philosophical societies of all descriptions have been formed 
in various parts, under the most favourable circumstances of support 
and encouragement. The propagation of Christianity has been at- 
tended to, and promoted with extraordinary zeal, not only by indi- 
viduals, but by rniseionary and Bible societies, far too numerous to, , 
mention. Every description of medical, chirurgical, and other as-%t 
sistance, has been furnished to the poor, by a most extraordinary 
increase of hospitals and infirmaries, dispensaries, asylums, and 
charity-schools. The naval and military professions have had the 
benefit conferred on them of new and distinct academics, including 
a charitable provision for the children of those who have perished 
in either service. The improved state of chemistry and mechanical 
skill, has advanced many arts to a very high degree of perfection, 
and much assisted both the manufacturing and agricultural indus- 
trj' ; nor should we omit to mention, as among the improvements of 
latter years, by which our own country in particular has been ben- 
efitted in the highest degree, the amendment of the public roadsi 



MODERN HISTORY. 467 

the increased means and facilities of public conveyance and ccm- 
liiunication, and the advaucemcnt of inland navi^^ation. 



RELIGION, 

1. In reg;ard to religion, from the close of the seventeenth century 
to the year 1B20, "tre may remark that paganism continues to pre- 
vail over the greater part of j^sia, Africa, and the new discovered 
islands, as well as among the Indians of America, North and South, 
(in the settlements of the Spaniards and Portuguese, the Roman 
Catholic religion has been introduced of course). Mahometani*ni 
prevails in some parts of India, in Persia, Arabia, Egypt, the States 
of Barbary, Syria, and Turkc3% The Jews continue dispersed over 
ever3/ part of the world, but in a state and condition far better than 
was formerly the case ; in Europe they are no longer exposed to 
cruel and wanton acts of oppression and persecution, and in some 
countries they have obtained important privileges. In Abyssinia 
the majority of the people are said to be christians, and throughout 
the whole of the European settlements of North America, Christian- 
ity is the received religion, though under a variety of denomina- 
tions, — Congregationalisfs, Presbyterians, Dutch reformed church, 
Episcopalians, Baptists, Quakers, Methodists, Roman Catholics, 
German Lutherans, Gern^.an Calvinists, IMoravians, Tunkers, 
Mennonists, Universal ists, Swedenborgians, and Shakers. 

2. In regard to religion or cliristiauity, on th^ continent of Eu- 
rope, it has been already shown what rude attacks it had to sus- 
tain, during the course and progress of the French revolution. 
Deism and even atheisni were openly avowed in their national as- 
semblies ; the immortality of the soul and resurrection of the body 
scouted at, and death pronounced to be an etc-mal sleep. Pagan- 
ism was in some degree revived, the tree of liberty substituted for 
the cross, and the goddess of reason elevated above the God of 
Christians. During the directorial and consular govermneuts, 
however, Catholicism was restored, but under very altered circum- 
stances ; without its accompaniments of monasteries and nunneries, 
and very much detached from the sway aud authority of the papal 
see. 

3. The protestant churches, of all sects and denominations, have 
done much, as v^as before observed, by missions in every direction, 
to spread the knowledge of Christianity, but seldom with that cor- 
diality and unanimity that might have been wished, and which 
could not have failed to have given greater eflect to their exertions. 
Among those who have appeared most zealous, though not most 
discreet, xve may reckon the Moravians and Methodisfs : two sects 
or parties, v/hosc most avowed object it has been to stem the tor- 
rent'of vice and corruption, prevailing amongst professed christians. 
The methodists have g*-nerally pretended to be of the church of 
England, though in many material respects they appear to have 
deviated from it, both in doctrine and discipline, and have for some 
time been divided amongst themselves into two- great parties, one 
espousing the Calviiiistic. the other the Anninian, tenets. It is 



468 MODERN HISTORY. 

common to refer the origin of Methodism to the year 1729, when tvie 
two brothers, John and Charles Wesley, took the lead of those who 
adhered to the Anninian doctrines. Mr. Georc:e Whitefield, who 
joined them in 1735, became, in 1741, the head of the Calvinistic 
division. 

4. The modern Moravians take their date from the year 1722, 
when they first settled a,t Hernhrit, in Upper Lusatia, on the estates 
of Nicholas Lewis, count of Zinzendorf, who, m 1735, became 
their bishop. They profess to receive the Augsbur"^ confession ;' 
are meek and quiet in their habits and principles, but have at times 
adopted a strange phraseology, v/hich was thoug^ht to affect their 
m'^ral character, and procured them many enemies. As mission- 
aries they have been extremely active, particularly in the "West 
Indies and America: they profess to be the remains of the 
Hussites. 

5. The emperor Joseph II. relieved his protestant subjects of all 
denominations from many galling restrictions, and greatly abridg-ed 
the power of the pope. Many catholic princes, even the ecclesias- 
tical stales, followed his example in various particulars. In favor- 
ing-, however, an unlimited freedom of opinion at such a moment, 
he opened the door to the introduction of deistical principles, and 
facilitated the formation of a sect of illuminati, which, duringf the 
courte and progress of the French revolution, taught and dissem- 
inated doctrines adverse in the highest degree to the order of civil 
society, the rights of property, and the christian faith. 

6. The papal a^ilhority, durii;:^ the latter yearS' of the period 
under discussion, has been greatly abridg:ed in all countries hereto- 
fore siibjcct to it ; even in Spain, Portuj^al, Italy, and Sicily ; nor 
is it likely to be recovered, notwithstanding the attempts lately 
made to restore partially the order of Jesuits and the inquisition. 
Of the indignities offered to ihc last and present pope by the French 
we have spoken elsewhere. At one time they so entirely took the 
reins of government at Rome into their own hands, that the pope and 
cardinals were obliged to take flight, in which situation Pius VI. 
9ied. His successor, Pius VII., since the final overthrow of Buona- 
parte, has lived in peace and quietness, in his capital, exercising, 
notwithstanding his recal of the Jesuits, a very tolerant and inof- 
fensive sway. It i«, however, to be lamented, that, in the instance 
cf the pope, as well as of the king of Naples, and others, their re- 
sentment of the I'rench usurpations on their return to their domin- 
ions has been carried so far as to abrogate every ordi)iance of the 
French Emperor, however wise or salutary, and even to undo what 
had been begun, manifestly tending to the improvement of their re- 
spective countries. 



HISTORY, POLITE LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, &c. 

1. We feel ourselves rather at a loss to give any satisfactory ac- 
count of the progress that has been made in the bianches of knowl- 
edge pointed out by the title of this section : it would far exceed our 
Umiis to attempt to etiumerate the many historical woi-.ks that have 



MODERN HISTORY. 469 

seen published during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, or 
to go into any regular discussion'of the particularmerits of thesev- 
cral poets, painters, musicians, philosophers, philologists, SsLc. &c., 
who may be said to have distinguished themselves in the period of 
which we have been treating. To do this with any degree of 
justice, we should be obliged, perhaps, to divide them into many 
classes, and assign to the several individuals of the long list that 
might be produced, their respective ranks and stations, frora the 
highest degree of perfection to mediocrity, or lower ; we should 
have to draw a comparison between them and their predecessors, 
and consider, in various points of view, e\^ery a.dvance they had 
made in their different callings, studies, and pursuits : but such a 
discussion wo^ild be quite unsuitable to a work like the present. 
Many of those, indeed, who have contributed to enlarge the boun- 
daries of knowledge during tlie eighteenth and nineteenth centu- 
ries, have been already mentioned ; but there are still some names 
which almost demand our notice, before we entirely close this 
volume. It should, however, be observed, that many very emi- 
nent persons, who lived till long after the commencement of the 
eighteenth century, belong to a different period, having been the 
ornaments of what is called the age of Louis XI V^ It may be best, 
perhaps, to arrange the few we feel bound to select from the great 
mass of authors, artists, &c., according to their countries. 

2. In Germany the following may be said to have acquired a 
high reputation: Mascov, Mosheim, Pfeffel, Herder, Muller, in. 
History \ Schiller in History and Tragedy \ Klopstock, Gesner, 
"Wieland, Kotzebue, in Poetry and Dramatic writing ; in Painting^ 
Mengs ; Ingenhouz in Chemistry^ and Bode in Astronomy ; Plandel, 
Oluck, Haydn, and Mozart, in Music ; Lavater in the fanciful 
science of Physiognomy. Even the names of Mesmer, Mainaduc, 
Gall, and Spurzheim, may require to be mentioned, as having for 
some time, in an extraordinary manner, amazed the ignorant, and 
deceived the credulous, by their strange systems of Animal Mag" 
netism and Craniology. 

3. In France, Camlet, Montfaucon, the Count de Caylus, Rellin, 
Vertot, Rapin, Goguet, Millot, Raynal, Mably, and the Abbe Bar- 
Ihelemy, particularly distinguished themselves in the line of History 
and Antiquities ; to whom we may now add, perhaps with reasoa 
and justice, Mad. de Stael, and M. La Cretelle. M. Bailly, one 
of the victims of the Revolution, rendered himself conspicuous by 
liis very curious History of Astronomy, and other works. Many of 
}iis contemporaries, who applied themselves to other branches of 
science, have been already mentioned. Some of them also fell by 
the hands of the public executioner, during the dreadful period of 
the Revolution. Their ra©st celebarted painter^ however, David, 
escaped, but with mere reputation as an artist than as a man ; for 
his own proceedings, as a revolutionist, were base and sanguinarj', - 

4. In Great Britain, we have to boast, in the line of History, of 
the names of Robertson, Watson, Hume, Henry, Gibbon, Lyttel- 
ton. Goldsmith, Roscoe, Russell, Gillies, Ferguson, Stuart, Mitford, 
Belsham, Adolphus, Coxe, &c. &c. ; in Laio^ of Sir William Blacks- 
'Cton'^, whdse Commentaries, foreiegaiice and perspicuity of dictioiU 

49 



470 MODERN HISTORK. 

stand unrivalled. Bolin^broke and Swift are justly held to liavfe 
improved the English lang^uag-e, in the two main articles of euerg-y 
T\nd beauty. The style of Dr. Johnson is less chaste, though, per- 
haps, equally forcible. The name of Adam Smith will probably 
descend to the latest posterity, for his inasterly work on the wealth 
of nation?, a subject in which he seems almost to have taken the 
lead, as an original writer. In Painting^ the names of Hogarth, 
Reynolds, and West, stand high for originality, taste, conception, 
and expression ; in Metaphysics^ Hume, Hartley, Berkeley, Reid, 
Baxter, and Priestley, have distine^uished themselves. To the 
Potts already mentioned we must add Gay, Young, Shenstone, 
Collins, Gray, Mason, Cowper, Crabbe, Scott, Byron; ^asKovcUsis^ 
Richardson, Smollett, Fielding, Burney, Edge worth, kc. Garrick 
and Siddons have conferred immortal honour on the En»-lish Stage, 
5. Italy, though labouring under great disadvantages, has been 
by no means deficient in learned and scientific persons, since the 
close of the seventeenth century. In history and antiquities, in 
poetry, dramatic v/orks, natural history, drawing, engraving, and 
sculpture, the followinij names richly deserve to be delivered dowa 
to posterity: Baronius, Giannone, Muratori, Mallei, Metastasio, 
Goldoni, Alg.w-otti, Goi:zI, Tiraboschi, Beccaria, Spallanzani, Al- 
feeri, Bartolozzi, Cipriani, Canova. France and Italy seem to have 
a joint claim to a living authof of considerable fame, M. Simonde;j 
de Sismondi. 

TREATY OF VIENNA, 1815. 

As Europe, generally si)eaking, may be said to continue at this 
moment in the state in which it was left by the above treaty, we 
shall conclude with abrief sketch of the changes that to^k place at 
that memorable period. The duchy of Warsaw was given to the 
emperor of Russia, with permision to assume the titles of czar and 
king of Poland, some parts, however, being secured to Prussia, 
under the title of grand Duchy of Posen. 1 he town of Cracow, in 
Little Poland, on the banks of the Vistula, was declared to be for 
ever a free, independent, and strictly neutral city, under the pro- 
tection of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. The king of Saxony was 
confirmed in his regal titles, but at the price of many important 
cessions to Prussia, principally that of the duchy of Saxony. Prus- 
sia, besides, recovered Dantzic, Quedlinburg, and many 'other 
places ; yielding, however, to the kii}g of Great Britain, now be- 
come king of Hanover also, many lordships and principalities, in 
other parts of Germany. A new Germanic confederation was 
established, the members of which were declared to be equal iu 
their rights, and bound to render to each other mutual assistance. 
Their affairs to be confided, first to a federative diet, amounting to 
seventeen votes ; and, 2dly, to a general assembly, forming sixty- 
nine votes ; who are to decide upon all regulations touching the 
fundamental laws of the confederation. 1'he diet to assemble at 
Frankfort on the Maine, and Austria to preside. The three impor- 
'tant fortresses of landau, Mentz, and Luxembourg, being assigned 
over to tliQ confederation. 



•UNITED &TATE&. 471 

ii. The united provinces of the Netherlands, late the Belgic 
staters, were formed into a kingdom,, jointly with those of Holland, 
tn favour of the house of Orange Nassau, late stadtholders ; and to 
the same sovereign was granted the duchy of Luxembourg", with 
the title of grand duke. 

3. The integrity of the nineteen cantons of Switzerland was ac- 
knowledged, and guaranteed ; and Geneva, for the first time, con- 
stituted a canton of the Helvetic confederacy. The states of 
Genoa were annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia, in the place of 
many renunciations on the part of the latter power, principally in 
favour of Geneva. The gi and duchy of Tuscany was settled on 
the archduke Ferdinand of Austria ; and king Ferdinand tlie IVth 
was restored to the sovereignty of the two Sicilies. 



PART FOURTH. 



SECTION J. ^ 

DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 

^* IT w;is somswhat natural that the distinguished author o^, 
the Elements of History should almost exclusively confine himself 
to the great events of the old world. It will he observed that the 
discovery of America by Columbus embraces only a short space, 
(^see Section" XLI.) and that North America, the first settlement of 
the United States, the revolution and severance of those states from 
the crown of Great Britain, and the more recent dispute of the 
States with Great Britain, are dismissed by both authors in a few 
words. (See Section XLII, and Sec. Vill. and XX. of the Continu- 
ation.) This consideration will suggest the propriety of a more- 
particular narration of the events which relate to the United States, 
for whose particular use the present edition of this work is in- 
tended. 

2. The honour of accomplishing an exploit so sublime as that of 
the discovery of this western hemisphere, was gained by Christo- 
pher Columbus. This great man, a native of Genoa, descended 
&Qa?. a respectable family, was weii qualified by nature and edu<ia-' 



472 UNITED STATES. 

tion to become distinguished en the ocean. Ardently inclined to" 
wards ihat element, he went to sea at the age of fourteen. After 
& variety of adventures serving to enlarge his knowledge more than 
lo increase his fortune, he went to Lisbon. Here, having- married 
the daughter of Perestrello, a Portuguese navigator of much ce- 
lebrity, his favourite passion of making discoveries was rendered 
more irresistible by reading; the journals of his father-in-law, which 
had falicn into bis hands. 

3. 7'be attention of the Portuguese was at that time directed to 
the fniding a pa5sao:e by water to the East Indies ; and they intend- 
ed to acccmpijsh this purpose by passing to the south until they 
readied the southern extremity of Africa, and then taking an ea?t- 
erly course. The spherical figure of the earth was then known, and 
its njagnitude had been ascertained •■.vith some good degree of ac- 
curacy ; and the active mind of Columbus, after havin.-^- attentively 
compared the observations of modem navigators with the conjec- 
tures of the ancientr, at last came to the conclusion, thtt, by sail- 
ing directly to the west, new countries, which it was likely formed 
a part of the groat contin(rjt of Asia, must be discovered. His 
opinion was strengthened by the discovery, after a long course of 
westerly v.ind, of pieces of carved wood, trees and canes, and dead 
hodics, the natives of another clime, driven on the shores of the 
Madeira isles and the A;-ores. 

4. Fully satisfied with the truth of his system, Columbus was 
impatient to bnng it to the test of experiment. He first made ap- 
plication to the senate of Genoa for patrona^ge, desirous that his 
native country should repp the fruits of his labour and ingenuity ; 
hut here his proposals v/ere rejected as the dream of a chimerical 
projector. Not discouraged by this repulse, he laid his plans be- 
fore John king of Portugal,' who basely attempted a fraud on hinij 
by desp;\tching a vessel in pursuit of the discovery, after drawing 
from Columbus ail the information which treachery could devise. 
The pilot selected for this purpose, being no less defxient in cou- 
rage than were his employers in dignity and justice, returned to 
Lisbon without making any discovery. 

6. Disgusted with the tveachery, Columbus instantly went to 
Spain, and laid hi« plaii before Ferdinand and Isabella, at the same 
time that he sent bis brother Bartholomew to England, for the pur- 
pose of negotiating fortbe palronage of Henry VIT, reported to be 
one of the most sagacious and opuVnt princes of the age. Accident 
doprtvcd England of the renov/n of this discovery ; the brother of 
Columbas on his way being captured by pirates, and detained in 
captivity many years : although arriving in England in great indi- 
gence, HcU'-y received the overtures of Columbus more favourably 
•khan any other monarch, and invited him to tliat country. But it 
was too late. The great discoverer, after combating many and sore 
disappointments, succeeded at length in securing Ibe Spanish court, 
aided by two rich, generous and vigilant patrons, Quintanella and 
Santan^el. Ferdinand was still restrained by his characteri-:tic 
caution and reserve ; but Isabella, alive to the glory which must 
accrue from the accomplishm.ent of so grand an enterprise, declared 
her resolution lo employ Columbus ; and, in the low state of her 



UNITED STATES. ^ i -^ 

finance?, consequent on a long- and serious contest with the Moor?, 
who had then bat just beea expelled from Spain, offered to pledge 
her jewels in order to complete the preparations of the voyage : 
fc^antangel ho\\rever relieved the difliculty, by advancing from his 
private purse the necessai'V sum. 

6. April 17, 1492, more than seven years after the date of his 
first application, an agreement with Columbus was coacluded. The 
expedition was fitted out at Palos, a small town of the province oi 
Andalusia ; but it was badly suited to the service for which it Avas 
intended. It consisted of three vessels, the Santa Maria, the Pinta, 
and the Nigna— the first of inconsiderable burthen commanded by 
Columbus as admiral ; and the t ,vo last, not superior in size to 
large boats, by two brothers, Martin and \'incent Pinzon : the 
•whole provided with ninety men, and victualled for tw^elre 
months. 

7. August 3, Columbus set sail. lie touched at the Canary 
islands, where he refitted his crazy vessels, and departed from Go- 
mera, Sept. 6. Here he took his course due west, leaving the track 
of all former navigators, and stretched boldly into seas unknown. 
Very soon his sailors, alarmed at the distance they had proceeded 
without finding the expected land, began to mutiny, and placed 
Columbus in a situation in which a'ly other man would have yield- 
ed to their entreaties to return. Fertile in expedients, possessing 
a thorough knowledge of mankind, an insinuating address, and a 
happy talent at governing, he succc: ded day after day in beguil.Bg^ 
the discontented seamen far beyond their own determinations, un- 
til every succeeding hour presented stronger and stronger indica- 
tions that land could be at no great distance. For some days the 
soundingline had reached the bottom ; the flocks of birds increased, 
and some of them of a kind supposed to fly not far from shore ; the 
clouds around the sun assumed a new appearance ; the air was 
more mild, and, during the night, the wdnd became unequal and 
variable. On the evening of Oct. 11, he ordered the ships to lie 
to, in the fer^r of running ashore. That night Columbus observed 
a light, which seemed to be carried about from place to place ; and 
a little after midnight, was heard from the Pinta the joyful cry of 
Land I 

8. V/hen the morning dav/ned, an island was seen about twr 
leagues to the north : its verdant fields were well stored with wood, 
presenting the aspect of a delightful country. All the boats were 
immediately manned and armed. The Spaniards rowed towards 
the shore with their colours displayed. As they approached the 
beach, they saw it covered with a multitude of people, whose atti- 
tudes and gestures discovered wonder and amazement. Columbus 
was the first w^io set foot on this new world which he had discover- 
ed. His men followed ; and all kneeling, kissed the ground that 
they had ion^ desired, but never expected to behold: here he 
erected a crucifix, returned thanks to God, and with the usual fbr- 
iiialities took possession of the country. To this island, calledby^- 
the natives Guanahana, Columbus gave the name of St. Salvador: 
:t is one of the iaree cluster cuiled the Bahamas, cioro than three 

40* 



474 UNITED STATES, 

thousand miles west, but only four degrees south of Gomera, *?i« 
port of the Conaj-ies -which he last left. 

9. After discovering several other islands, amongst which were 
Cuba and Hayti ; and using every precaution to secure the benefit 
of a first discovery, by erecting a fort and leaving a party of men 
en the island of Hayti ; on the 4th January, 1493, Columbus set 
sail for Europe. The shattered condition of his vessels would have 
rendered the voyage at any time unsafe ; but a succession of storms 
had well nigh committed to the bosom of the deep, and with it 
the secret of his discovery, his little flotilla. The whole, however, 
arrived. 

10. At first it was generally ,'upposecl, from a similarity in the 
productions, that the discovered country was a part of those vast 
regions of Asia, comprehended under the general name of India, 
The name of India was given to it by Ferdinand and Isabella ; andy 
after the error which gave rise to the opinion was detected, the 
name of West Indies has remained,, and the aborigines are called 
Indians. 

11. In 1498, Columbus, on his third voyage, reached the conti- 
nent, and landed in several places in the provinces of Paria and 
Cumana. But he was deprived o{ the honour of associating his 
i}anie wifh this vast portion of the earth, being supplanted by 
Amerigo Vespucci, a native of Florenife, who, in 1499, went on a 
voyage to America, and who published an account of his adveu- 
tujcs so ingeniously framed as to make it appear that he had the 
glory of first discovering. the continent of the new world. 

12. On the 2()th November, 1497, Vasco de Gama, employed 
ty the king of Portugal, first doubled the cape of Good Hope, 
which opened a passage to the East Indies ; and twenty-three years 
after the first discovery of America by Columbus, iNIagellan, a na- 
tive of Portugal, in the service of Spain, penetrated into the Pacific 
©coan, by the strait which bears his name, situated at the southera 
extremity of the American continent. 



SECTrON 11. 

PISCOVERIES BY THE ENGLISH. SETTLEMENT OF VIR- 
GLNIA. 

1. The English were the second people that discovered the new 
"world, and the first that discovered the coi:tinent of America. 
On the 24th of .Tune, 1497, Giovanni Gaboto, (or Cabot,) and his 
son Sebastian, who were commissioned by Henry VIII. to sail in 
quest of new countries, discovered a large island, to which they 
gave the name of Prima Vesta, or first seen ; now called New- 
foundland.. From this, they steered to tlie north, in search of a 
passage to India ; but finding no appearance of a passage, they 
tacked about, and ran as far as Florida, the island of Cuba, as he- 
jelates, berug on his left. 

' 2. On the accession of Elizabeth to the crown of England, a pe- 
liodcoianicaced, highly auspicious to mercantile txteasioa* The 



UNITED STATES. 475 

coast of Labrador was explored by Martin Froblshtr, under her 
auspice?, in the years l516-'7-S ; and sir Francia Drake, about 
this time, accomplished his celebrated voyage around the globe. 

3. la tSS'l, sir V/alter Raleigh, a favourite at that time of the 
queen, despatched two small vessels, under the command of Philip 
Amidas and Aroiur Barlow, which reached the coast of North Caro^ 
lina on the 4th July, making their passage in sixty-seven days by 
way of the Canary islands and the West Indies. On their return 
4midas and Barlow gave a splendid description of the country ; of 
its beauty, fertility, mildness of climate, and serenity ®f atmos- 
phere ; and Elizabeth gave to the country the name of Virginia, a.3 
a memorial that this happy land was discovered under a maidea 
queen. 

4. In 1585, sir Walter Raleigh fitted out a squadron of seven 
small vessels, with one hundred and eighty adventurers, which 
sailed from Plymouth, under the commaad of sir Richard Green - 
ville. This colony was left ou the island of Roanoke, under the 
care of captain Lane ; but through bad management, turning all 
their attention to the search for gold and silver, they were soon- 
assailed by a two-fold calamity, the hostility of the natives and the 
prospect of famine. Sir Francis Drake, on his return from the 
West Indies, at the unanimous request o[ the colonists, carried them 
back to England, gnd thus ended the ill-conducted experimenty 
after a trial of nine months. 

5. Early in the followiwg year, three more vessels arrived at the 
same spot, with one hundred and fifty settlers. In about one 
month after, the daughter of captain VS hite, who commanded the 
expedHioii, and the wife of Ananius Dare, one of his assistants^ 
ga.vc birth to the first English female child, which was named Vir- 
ginia. Mi-fortune pursued this infant settlement. The threatened 
Spanish armada engrossing the attention of the parent country, the 
colony received no supplies, and the inhabitants perished misera- 
bly by famine, or by the hands of their surrounding enemies. 

G. Sir VN'alter Raleigh being engaged in other ambitious under- 
takings, BO vast and various as were beyond his power to accom- 
plish, and becoming cold to the unprofitable scheme of effecting 
settlements in Ameiica, assigned his interest in that country to sfr 
Thomas Smith and a company of merchants in London, in 1596. 
These Avere satisfied for the present to pursue a petty traffic with 
the natives, and made no attempt to take possession of the soiL 

7. But in the succeeding reign of James, who having concluded 
an amicable treaty with Spa,in, and terminated a tedious war, the 
period was more auspicious for settlements in America. The atten- 
tion of the monarch was called to this subject by the efforts of dis- 
tinguished geographers and men of science. James divided into 
districts of nearly equal extent, that portion of North America 
which stretches from the 34th to the 45th degree of norih latitude, 
excepting the territory of any other christian prince or people alrea- 
dy occupied ; one called the First, or South Colony, the other the 
Second, or North Colony of Virginia. In 1606, he authorized cer- 
tain gentlemien, mostly residents of London, to settle in a limited 
district of the former ; an equal extent of the latt*. he ailottcd to 



476 CXITEl) STATES. 

several gentl<nnen of Dristol, riymcnth, and other parts of the 
v/est of England. These grants laid the irrst foundation of states 
■which in a few centuries were destined to become rivals to the 
mother country ia wealth, in science, and in power. The supreni'i 
gfovernment of the colonies was vested in a comicil resident in 
England, to be noniiaated by the king ; the subordinate jurisdic- 
tion in a council v/hich was to reside in America, and also to be 
named _by the crown, and dct conformably to its instructions. 
"Whatever was required for their sustenance, or for the support of 
com:nerce, he perniitted to be shipped from Eu^^land free of duty, 
during the space of seven years ; and as an iuciteiipent to industry, 
granted them the liberty ©f truding- wiih other nations, appropria- 
ting the duties to be laid on foreign tralfic for twenty-one years, as 
a fund for their exclusive benefit. 

8. A vessel of one hundred tons, and two barks, under the com- 
mand of captain Newport, sailed with one hundred and five men, 
destined to remain in the country : among these was a Mr. Percy, 
brother of the earl of Northumberland, and several jfncers who had 
served with reputation in the preceding- reign. The fust land that 
was discovered was a promontory, t?ie southern boundary of the 
Chesapeake, April, 1607 : this was named cape Henry, in honour 
of the prince of ^^ ales. The spacious inlet was entered, and the 
expedition coasted the southern shore, and up a river sixty miles, 
called by the natiy^s PoMhatan, to which the Ecglish gave the 
name of James river, in honour of their sovereign. Here a site 
was fixed for the infant settlement, which was named James 
Town. 

9. Imprudent in their conduct towards the natives, this feeble 
society was early involved in war. Scarcity of provisions intro- 
duced diseases ; and >n a few months half their original number 
was swept away, and the remaindtr left sickly and dejected. 

10. 1 he government soon devolved on captain John Smith, who 
was originally one of the council appointed by the king, but who 
had unjusttly been deprived of his authority by the colonists. 
This gentleman, who was emphatically the father of Virginia, 
was a native of liincolnshire : he had distinguished himself in feats 
of courage and chivalry, particularly while engaged in the Hun- 
garian army against the Turks. His undaunted temper, deeply 
tinctured with the romantic spirit of the times, was happily adapt- 
ed to the present trying situation of the colony. Soon after lie had 
been called as their leader, while hun'ing in the w^oods, he was 
attacked by two hundred Indians, who poured in upon him a con- 
tinued flight of arrows. After performing wonderful feats, he sunk 
in the unequal contest, and was made a prisoner. Charmed by his 
arts and his valour, they released him from captivity. Afterwards 
he was beset by three hundred more of th se ferocious people, pur- 
sued into a marsh, and, after he had thrown away his arms, which 
he could no longer use by reason of the cold, he was taken and 
carried in triumph to Powhatan, the principal chieftain of Virginia. 
Here the doom of death was pronounced upon him, and he was 
about to receive the fatal blow, when an angel of pity, in the per- 
son of the fayoL Ate daughter of Powhatan, interposed iahis behaif. 



CNITED STATES. 4 i 7 

This amiable child (not then thirteen years of aga) not only pre- 
vented the execution of Smith by her entreaties and tears, but 
caused him to be set at liberty, and sent him, from time to tim^^ 
seasonable presents of provisions. 

11. The colony was now reduced to thirty-eight persons. Soon 
after, ho-n-ever, succours arrived from England, and an addition of 
one hundred new planters was added to their number. But the 
culture of the land, and other useful emp,loyments, were neglect- 
ed, in the futile idea that gold had been discovered issuing from a 
small stream which emptied into Jam ^3 river. The effects of the de- 
lusion were soon severely felt in the prospect of approaching famine* 
In the hope of obtaining relief, Smith, in a small open boat, and 
with a, feeble crew, went in search of aid from the Indians. In twa 
dllferent excursions, that occupied upwarrls of four months,he visited 
all the countries on the eastern and western shores of the Chesa.- 
peake bay, entering the principal cre-eks, and tracing the rivers as 
far as tlicir falls, and obtained a supply of food for the suffering- 
colony. In these tours, he sailed upwards of three thousand mile?, 
amidst almost incredible hardships, and brought back with him an 
account of that large tract of country, now comprehended in the 
two states of Virginia and Maryland, so full and correct, that his 
map is the original from which all subsequent delineations have 
been foraied. 

12. About this period, the old charter being found inconvenient 
and oppressive, anew charter was granted by James, by which ths 
boundaries of the colony were enlarged ; the council in Virginia was 
abolished, and the government vested entliiely in one residing in 
London, the members of which were to be chosen by the proprie- 
tors, and these to nominate a governor, who was to reside in V^ir- 
ginia and carry their orders into execution. Lord Delaware was 
at first appointed to this office ; but as this nobleman cov;ld nr^t im- 
mediately leave England, the power was vested in sir Thomas Gates 
and sir tJecrge Somers, who were despatched from England with 
five hundred planters. A violent hurricane separated the fleet on 
their way ; and the ships without the officers only arrived at James 
Town. Presently every thing was reduced to a state of anarchy ; 
captain Smith, at once the shield and the sword of the colony, be- 
ing disabled by an accidental explosion of gun-powder, ihe wretch- 
edness which followed is beyond descripti-n •, and the arrival of 
Gates and Somers, who had been cast away on one of the Ber- 
muda islands, althaugh it saved the wretched survivors at James 
Town from immediate death, was unaoie to preserve them uniii 
the autumn. Nothing remained but to seek immediate assistance j 
and v/ith only sixteen days' provision, the colony set sail, in hopes 
of reaching the banks of Newfoundland, and getting relief. But 
before they had arrived at the mouth of the river, they met lord 
Delaware, who brought a large supply of sustenance, new settlers, 
and every thing requisite either for cultivation or defence. Under 
the skilful administration of this nobleman, the colony began, once 
more, to assume a promising appearance. He was succeeded by 

■ " - - _ . of friendship with the 



478 UNITED STATES. 

Powhataus, one oi' the most powerful and warlike tribes of Vir- 
ginia. 

13. Pocahontas, the amis-ble female who had preserved the life 
of captam Smith, frequently visited the English settlements ; and 
during this intercourse, she v.-asbetrayed on board a vessel, and 
there imprisoned. Her father, who loved her with the most ardent 
affection, was obliged to discontinue hostilities on such conditions 
as were dictated by his treacherous enemy. She was afterwards 
solicited by Mr. Rolfo, a respectable planter, in marriage. Pow- 
hatan consc:nte^d, and the marriag^e was celebrated with extraor- 
dinary pomp. From this time, the most friendly intercourse sub- 
sisted between the colonists and the Indians. Rolfe and his wife 
went to England, where, by the introduction of captain Smith, 
Pocahontas was received by the court with the respect due to b.er 
birth ; she was instructed in the christian relig^ion, and publicly 
baptized. About returning to America, Pocahontas died at 
Gravesend •, leaving- one son, from whom are sprung some of the 
most respectable families of '\^ir£;inia. 

14. llitiicrto no individual right of property in lands was estab- 
lished : all v.as holdcu and dealt out in common. But the governor, 
in 1616, divided a considerable es.trnt of land into small lots, and 
granted one of these f'^r ever to each individual ; from which period 
the colony rapidly extended. I'he culture of tobacco, since be- 
come the great staple of Virginia, was introduced ; but tlie eager 
demand for the article in England caused ioc ^oms time a scarcity 
of f .od in the colony. 

15. About this time, a Dutch ship from the coast of Guinea, 
having sailed up James river, sold to the jianters a part of her ne- 
groes ; which race has been augmented in Virginia by successive 
impoi'tations and by natural increase, till it forms more than one 
*third part of the population. 

16. In 1619, sir George Yeardley, the governor, impelled by 
that popular spirit of freedom which has ever been the character- 
istic of Americans, called the first general assembly which v.-as 
held m Virginia. At this time eleven corporations sent representa- 
tives to the convention, which was permited to assume legislative 
power, the natural privilege of man. T))c supreme authority was 
lodged partly in the governor, partly in a council of state appointed 
by the company, and in a general assembly, composed of repre- 
sentatives of the people. A natural eiTect of the hai py change 
was -an increase of agriculture. The comi any extended the trade 
of the colony to fioliand and other countries. 7'h*s measure pro- 
duced the first difference of sentiment between the colony and the 
parent state. Jealous at seeing a commodity, (tobacco) for which 
the demand was daily increasing, conducted to foreign ports be- 
yond its control, thereby causing a diminution, of revenue, the lat- 
ter endeavoured to check this colonial enterprise, without consid- 
ering that the restraint was a breach of the sacred principles of 
justice. 

17. The suspicion cf the monarch James was soon roused, and the 
charter, by decision of the king'^s bench, was declared forfeit, and 
the company dissolved. Charles I. adopted all his father's znai- 



U?!|^TED 5T.VTES, ^7^ 

ims in rcspecL to Virs-iain, which during- a great part of his reig-n 
knew no other law than the royal will. But the colonists resist- 
ing-, Charles yielded to the popular voice : he recalled Harvey, the 
obnoxioMs j^overnor, and appointed sir William Berkeley, a man of 
great abilities, prudent, virtuous, and popular; whose induerjce 
was directed in tinally resloriug to the people much the sanie share 
ia the g-overnment as they had enjoyed previously 4.0 the revoca- 
tion of the charter. 

18. After thfc execution of the king, and the establishment of the 
commomvealLh under Cromwell, through the influence of the gover- 
nor, the' colonists continued to adhere to their loyalty to the kin^. 
In 16jI, the iinglish commonwealth took vitoroas measu'.'esto re- 
duce the Virginians to obedience. A numerous squadron, with 
land forces was depalched for this purpose. Berkeley resisted, but 
was unable to maintain an unequal contest, and was soon defeat- 
ed. The people were, hov/ever, allowed to retain the privileges 
of citizens ; but Bcrkeh-y retired as' a private citizen. Cromweii's 
parliament framed acts prohibiting all intercourse between the 
colonies and foreig'i states, and allowing; no trade but in English 
ships. On the death of Mathews, the last governor appointed by 
Cromwell, the \^irgiiiians burst out in new violence. 1 hoy called 
sir VNilliam Berkeley from his retirement, boldly erected the royal 
standard, and proclaimed Charles IT, eon of their late monarch, to 
be their lawful sovereign. Charles was, however, soon placed on 
the throne, and the V^irginians were thus saved from the chastise- 
ment to which Lhcy were exposed by their previous declaration in 
his favour. But the new king ^nd parliament rewarded their fidelity 
by increasing the restraints upon colonial commerce ! 

13. The number of inhabitants in Virginia in 108", exceeded 
sixty-thousand, and its popilation in the previous twenty-eight 
years was doutbled. In 1691, ciie college of William and .Vlary was 
founded. To aid in its erectiua aiid support, the sovereigns whose 
name it bears, gave nearly two thousand pounds out of thtir pri- 
vate purse, and granted twenty thousand acres of land, and a dut-y 
on tobacco, for its further encouragement. 

SECTION III. ^^ 

SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS, RHODE ISLAND, 
CONNECTICUT, NEW HAMPSHIRE, MAINE, MARY- 
LAND, NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA, NEW YORK, 
NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, DELAWARE, AND 
GEORGIA. 

1. The partition of the rreat territory of Virginia into North and 
South colonies has alrt a.iy been mentioned. Stiii more feeble were 
the operations of the I'lyuiouth company, to whoni was assigned the 
conduct of the northern division, alihough animated by the zeal of 
air .Tohn Popham, chief j^olice of England, sir Ferdiuando Gorges, 
and other public spirited gcutlemea of the west. 



4^00 UNITED STA-^S. 

^, In the year 1G07, the tame in vrhich James Town^vas foiind- 
rd, a small settlement v/as commenced on the river Sagadahoc, 
iiGvv called the Kennebec ; but this was soon abandoned. J?ome 
fishing vessels visited Cape Cod several tiaies ; among them, one 
cominanded by captain Smith, who returned with a high- v;ron^fet 
description of the coast and country : exhibiting a map of the bays, 
harbours, &:c., on which he inscribed " New England 0' the prince 
of Wales, delighted with the representations of Smith, immediately 
confirmed the name. 

3. To the operations of religion, rather than to the desire of pe- 
cuniary emolument, are the various settlements of Kew England 
indebted for their origin. The sacred rights of conscience aad of 
private judgment wore not then properly understood •, nor was the 
charity and mutual forbearance taught christians by their divine 
master practised in any country. Every church employed the hand 
of power in supporting its own doctrines, and opposing the tenets 
of another. In reforming the rituals and exterior symbols of the 
church of England, Elizabeth, lest by too wide a departure fiom 
the Romish church she might alann the populace, had allowed 
many of the ancient ceremonies to remain unaltered. With several 
of these a large number of her subjects being dissatisfieJ, they 
wished to address their Creator accordi-ig to their own opinions, 
but were subjected to very rigorous penaltie?. Those who dissented 
from the established church obtained the general name of Puri- 
fanx, a term applied to them because they wished for a pv-rer form 
of discipline and worship. Amoag the most popular and strenuous 
declaimers against the cstal)li£hed church were the Brownists, a 
sect formed about 15C1, by Robert Brown, who afterwards re- 
nounced his principles of separation, and took orders in the church 
against which he had so loudly declaimed. The Rev. John Robin- 
son, the father of the first settlement of New England, is said to 
have been a follower of Erown, but afterwards renounced the prin- 
ciples of the Brownists, and became the founder of a new sect, de- 
nominated Indtpnidenis.^ Mr. Robinson alHrmed that all christian 
congregations were so many indepenr'pnt religious societies, that 
liadaright to be governed by thcij own laws, independent of any 
foreign jurisdiction. Being persecuted ia England, he, with many 
others embracing his opinions, removed to Holland, where they 
formed churches upon their own principles. Remaining there some 
years, the society were desirous to remove to some other place : 
they turned their thoughts to America, and applied to James, wh* 

* By severfil respectable historians of (his conntt r, the IndepcndetUs have 
been connected \vith the Brownists. between the opinions and practi«c3 of 
whom waa a wide dirte ence. The Independents excelled the Brownists in 
the moderation ot" ilieir sentiments, and in the order of their discipline. 
They po«!se»s€d candour and charity, believing tiiat true rehgion and sohd 
piety migt'.t llourfsh in those coaimunitics urrder the jurisdiction of bishops, 
or the governments of synods or presbyterie«. They approved o^a regular 
tuinistrv. While the Brownists allowed prcini-=cuously all ranks and orders 
of men to teach In public, the Independent* reqiiir^d^ ^'roper examination 
-flit tbQ capacity and laleats of their teacherg. 



UNITED STATES. 481 

thoug-h he refused to give them any positive assurance of toleration, 
seems to have intimated some promise of passive indulgence. 

4. They readily procured a tract of land from tlie Plymouth com- 
pany. One hundred and twenty persons sailed from riym^uth in 
1620, their destination being: Hudson's river: by some treachery of 
the Dutch, who then contemplated and afterwards effected a set- 
tlement at that place, they were carried to the north, and landed 
on cape Cod, the eleventh of November of that year. They chose 
for their residence a place called by the Indians Patuxet, to which 
they gave the name of New Plymouth. Before spring, half their 
number v/ere cut off by famine or disease. In a few days after they 
landed, captain Standi ?h was engaged in skirmishing with the In- 
dians ; and the many disasters -which followed, together with the 
implacable hostility of the Indians, w^hich always has subsisted, 
are perhaps more owing to the iniprudence of the first settlers, than 
to the bad disposition of the natives. 

5. This colon)'', like that of Virginia, at first held their goods 
and property in common ; and their progress was retarded as well 
by this circumstance, as by the impulse of imaginary inspiration, 
which reg-nlated all their actions. At the end of ten years, these 
well meaning people, when they became incorporated with tl^ieir 
more powerful neighbours of Massachusetts bay, did not exceed 
three hundred. 

6. In the year 1629, Mr. White, a non-conformist minister at 
Dorchester, having fbrm;d an association, purchased from the Ply- 
mouth company a tract extending in length from three miles nortli 
of Merrimack river to three miles south of Charles river, and in 
breadth from the Atlantic to the Southern ocean ; and obtainr^d a 
charter from Charles, similar to that given to the two Virg-iniaii 
companies by James. Five ships were fitted out, onboard of which 
were embarked upwards of three hundred souls, amontrst whom 
were several eminent non-conforming' ministers. On their arrival 
ihey found the remnant of a small party that had left England the 
preceding year, under the conduct of Mr. Endicott, who had been 
appointed by his companions deputy governor. They were settled 
at a place called by the Indians Naumkeag-, to which he hadg-iven 
the scripture name of Salem. The new colonists immediately form- 
ed a church, elected a pastor, teacher, and elder, disregarding the 
intentions of the king. They disencumbered their public worship of 
every suparfluous ceremony, and reduced it to the lowest standard 
of calvinistic simplicity. 

But much as we respect that noble spirit which enabled them to 
part with their native soil, we must condemn the persecuting spirit 
\jf the colonists themselves. Some ©f the colonists, retaining a high 
Tcneration for the ritual of the church of England, refused" to join 
the colonial state establishment, and assembled separately to wor- 
ship : Endicott called before him two of the principal offenders,' 
expelled them from the colony, and sent them home in the first 
ships returning to England. 

7. I'he government of the colony was soon transferred to Ameri" 
ca, and vested in those members of the company who should reside 
there, John Winthrop was appointed governor, znd Thomas Dud- 

41 



4o2 VKITED STATES. 

tey depuly s:6rf rnor, ^vith eighteen assistant?. In the course of the 
next year, 1630, fifteen hundred persons arrived in Massachusetts 
from England, amone^st whom were several distinguished families, 
some of them in ea«y, and others in affluent circumstances; and 
Boston, Charlestown, Dorchester, Roxbury, and other towns, were 
setiled. 

8. The first (general court, held ?i Charlestown, vent'ired to de- 
vial e from their charter in a matter of o^reat moment: a law was 
passed, declaririg: that none should be freemen, or be entitled to 
any share in the government, except thn^e who had been received 
as members of the church. The fanatical spirit continued to in- 
crease. A minister of Salem, named Rotrer William?, having con- 
ceived an aversion to the cross of St. George, a symbol in the Eng- 
lisli standard, declaimed a^'ainst it with great vehemence, as a 
relic of superstition ; and Endicott, in a transport of zeal, cut out 
the cross from the cu«ign displayed before the governor"'s gate. This 
frivolous matter divided the colony ; but the matter was at length 
compromised by retaining the cross in the ensigns of forts and ves- 
sels, and erasing it from the colours of the militia. 

9. In 1G36, "VN illiams was banished fron> Salem ; and, accompa- 
33ied by many of his hearers, the exile went south, purchased a 
tract of land of the natives, to which he gave the name of Provi- 
dence ; and a Mr. Coddintrt.ni, with seventy-six others, exiled from 
Boston, bought a fertile island on Narragansot bay, that acquired 
the name of PhoiU-Island. Mr. C'oddington embraced the senti- 
ments of the Quakers, or »irnds • he received a. charter from the 
British parliament, in which it waF ordered, that " none were ever 
lobe molested for any difTcrcnce of opinion in religious matters:"* 
yet, the very fir?t assembly convnnrd under this authority, exclu- 
ded Roman catholics from votiug at elections, and from every office 
in the government ! 

10. To similar causes the state of Connecticut is indebted for it? 
origin. Mr. ffooker, a J'avourite minister of Massachusetts, with 
about one hundr^'d familiis, after a fatiguing march, settled on-thc 
western sidf. of the river Connecticut, and laid the foundation of 
Hartford, Springfield, and Weathersfield. Their right to this ter- 
ritory was disputed by the Dutch, who had settled at the mouth 
of the Hudson, and by the lords Say-and-Seal and IJrook, whohad 
commenced the settlement called Jr>ay-Brook. The Dutch were 
aoon expelled , and the other? uniting with the colony, all were 
incorporated by a royal charter. 

11. New-Hampshire was first settled in the spring of 1623, un- 
der the patronage of sir f^erdinando Gorges, captain John Mason, 
and several others, who sent over David Thorapssn, a Scot, Edward 
and William Hilton, and a number of people, furnished with the 
requisite supplies. One company landed at a place called Little 
Harbour ; the others settled at Dover. I\lr. Wheelwright, a cler- 
g§'man banished from Massachusetts, founded Exeter, in 1638. 

12. Maine was not permanently settled until 1635. Gorges 
obtained a grant of this territory, which remained under its own 
government until 1652, when its soil and jurisdiction, as far as the 
intddle of Casco bay, was claimed by Massachusetts. 



UNITED STATES. 433 

13. The miitnal hostility of the English aiid Indiana cojmnenced 
with the first settlement ; but it tvhs not until the year 1637, that 
a systematic warfare was begun. I'he Pequods, who broug;ht into 
the field more than a thousand warriors, wc-re exterminated in a 
few months by the combined troops of IMassachuaetts and Connecti- 
cut. In the nisrht, the Pcquods were attacked, near the head of 
Mistic, by the Connecticut troops and Narraganset Indians, com- 
manded by caj»taia Mason : in a few moments, five or^six hundred 
lay t^aspin^ in their blood, or were silent in the arms of death. 
" The darkness, of the forest," observes a New-England author, 
** the blaze jf the dwellings, the ghastly looks of the dead, the 
gfroaus of tjie dying, the shrieks of the women and children, the 
yells of the friendly savages, presented a scene of sublimity and 
terror indescribably dreadful."" 

14. In 1643, an alliance for mutual defence was formed between 
the New-En<tland colonies, excepting Rhode-Island, which Mas- 
sachusetts was unwilling to avlmit. This alliance continued until 
the charters were annulled by .lames the second. 

15. Vp to 1638, twenty-one thousand British subjects had settled 
in New-England; and the country had begun to extend the fish- 
cries, and to export cxirn and lumber to the West Indies. In 1G5G, 
the persecution of the Quakers was at its height. A number of 
these inoffensive jieople having arrived in the Massachusetts colony, 
from England and iiarbadoes, and given effenCe to the clergy of 
the established churt;h by the novelty of their relijiion, were im- 
prisone<l, and by the first opportunity sent away. A law was passed, 
which prohibited masters of ships from bringing Quakers into Massa- 
chusetts,and themselves from coming there, under a graduated penal- 
ty, rising, in case of a return from banishment, to death. In conse- 
quence, several were hanged ! These proceedings are still the 
more reprehensible and remarkable, when contrasted with a pre- 
vious declaration of their government, which tendered '* hospitality 
and succour to all christian strangers, flying from wars, famine, or 
the tyranny of persecution.'" The aiiabaptists were also perse 
cuted ; many were disfranchised, and some were banished. 

16. On the accession of James II. several of the ifew-England 
colonies were deprived ol' their charters ; but these, with various 
unimportant modifications, were restoied after the re\ olution. bir 
\\ illiam riiipps, a native of Maine, who rose to wealth and power 
lU a manner the most extraordinary, was the first gov&rnor of Mas- 
sachusetts under the new charter. With a force of seven hundred 
men,. he wrested from the I'rench, LWcadie, now called Nova Sco- 
tia, lie afterwards made an unsuccessful allempton Quebec, with 
the loss of one thousand men. The new charter, whilst it curtailed 
the liberties, extendi d the territory of Massachusetts ; to it were 
now annexed New Plymouth, Maine, and Nova iScotia, with all 
the country between the latter and the river St. Lawrence ; also 
Elizabeth islands, Murtha"'s Vineyard, and Nantucket. The peo- 
ple, however, had just re-ason to complain that they no longer chose 
their governor, under whose control was the militia, and who leyf- 
€d taxes without their consent, and tried capital clTcnces. 



484 UNITED STATES. 

17. About this time the pillars of society were shaken to the 
fouiulation, in and about Salem, by imaginary witchcraft. The 
delusion commenced at balem village, now Danvers, in the family 
of Rev. Samuel Paris. Two younj? girls, one a daughter of Mr. 
Paris, aged 9 : the other a niece, aged 11, were affictcd with sin- 
gularneivous disorders, which, as they baffled the skill of the phy- 
sician, were thought to proceed from an '^ evil hand." The chil- 
dren were believed by the neighbours to be bewitched, and the 
belief, sanctioned by the opinion of the physician, became general 
throughout the vicinity. 'Jhe more the girls were noticed and 
pitied, the more sing'ular and extravagant was their conduct. Up- 
on the advice of the neighbouring ministers, two or three private 
fasts were first kf pt ; afterwards a public one in the village and 
other congregations ; and finally, the general court appointed a 
fast throi'gh the colony. Tlnis course gave the occurrences a solemn 
aspect, and probably contributed to the public credulity, till the 
iJup[)oscd witchcraft had < xtendt d throughout a great part of the 
county of Essex, 'i he infatuation prevailed from March to Octo- 
ticr, U)92, during which time twenty persons, men and women, 
Were executed. It was then that suspicion roused from its lethargy ; 
eondemation ceas(^d ; the accusers were silent ; tiiose under sen- 
tence wcrt- reprieved, and afterwards pardoned. 

18. In the years lG-27 and '38, '63 and '70, New-England expe- 
rienced violent earthquakes. In the year 1638, Harvard college, 
near Boston, the oldest seminary of learning in the United States, 
was founded. Four hundred pounds were voted to it by the gene- 
ral court; and this sum was nearly doubled by a bequest from Mr. 
John Harvard, a minister of Charleslown. 'This institution is now 
Ihe most richly endov/ed of all the Ann rican colleges. Yale col- 
lege, at A'ew-Haven, was founded in 1701, ten years after that of 
VVilliajn and Mary, in Virgaiia; and Dartmouth college, in New- 
Hampshire, was foimded in 1769. The first printing press estab- 
jished in the British colonies was in 1639, at Cambridge, superin- 
tended by StepVien i)ayc ; but erected chiifly at the expeuie of 
Mr. Glover, au I'nglisli clergyman, who died on his passage to 
/.nietica. 

19. Maryland, the first colony that, from its beginning, was di- 
rectiv governed as a province of the Hrifish empire, was founded 
by sir George C alvert, baron of Baltimore, in Ireland ; a Roman 
catholic nobleman, born m England. He first went to Virginia ; 
but meeting an unwelcome reception there, on account of his reli- 
gion, be fixed his attention to the lands north of the Potomac, and 
obtained a grant of them from Charles I. This country was called 
Maryland, in honour of the queen, Henrietta Maria. The religious 
toleration established by the charter, the first draft of which is said 
Id have been written by sir George himself, is honourable to his 
memory. The grant was given to his eldest son, Cecilius, who 
succeeded to his titles ; but Leonard Calvert, brother to Cecilius, 
was the first governor, and made the first stand, at an i:^.and in the 
Potomac, which he named St. Clements, hi 1633. He made seve- 
ral purchases of the Indians, with whom he cultivated a constant 
friendship, as well on the Potomac, as en both shores of the Gheea- 



t^NlTCD STATES. 



4t^b 



|»eake. Never did any people enjoy hiore happiness than tlie in- 
habitants of Maryland. Whilst Virginia harassed all A\-ho dissent-, 
ed from the rn;;,'lish church, and the northern colonies all who dis-' 
sented from the puritans, the Conian catholics of Maryland, a sect 
•who in the old world never professed the doctrine of toleration, re- 
ceived and protected their brethren of every christian church, and 
its population was rapidly increased. 

!;>0. Al^out the middle of the seventeenth century, some emi- 
grants, chiefly from Vir2;inin, b<.;gan a settlement in the county of 
j\lbemarle ; and soon afterwards, another establi.^hment was com- 
menced at cape J'ear, by* adventurers from Massachusetts. 'I hese 
were held together by the laws of nature, without any written 
code, for some time. Cut Charles II. compelled the colonists to 
becnoie subser^'ient to his rule, and granted to lord (Jlarendon and 
others the tract of land which now composes Notth and ifouth 
Carolina: perfect freedom in religion was granted in the charter. 
The iirst settlement was placed under the command of sir vVilliani 
Berkele)', governor of Virghiia, who assigned his authority to Mr. 
Dnimmond. In 1761, tlie proprietors extended their settlements 
to the banks of Ashley and Cooper rivers, where Charleston now 
stands ; and eventually this became the separate state of South 
Carolina. The culture of cotton commenced here in 1700, and 
that of indigo in 1748. 

21. New- York was first settled by the Dutch, and was hf 
them hfcld for about half a century. It was, however, claimed by 
England as the first discoverer. P'^^fer Stuyvesant, the third and 
last Dutch governor, began his administration in 1647, and was tlis- 
tinguished no less for his iidelity than his vigilance. In 1664 the 
colony surrendered to the English ; and the whole territory now 
comprising New-York, New-Jersey, together v.ilh Pennsylvania, 
Delaware, and a part of Connecticut, was asssigned by Charles IL 
to hi? brother the duke of York. The Dutch inhabitants remain- 
ed ; Stuyvesant retained his estate, and died in the colony. 'J'he 
country was governed by the duke's olRcers uutii 16JJ8 ; w*hen 
representatives of the people were allowed a voice iu the legis- 
lature. 

22. In 1664, the duke of York sold that part of his grant now 
called New-Jersey to lord Ikikeley and sir Geoige Carteret- It had 
previously been settled by Hollanders, Swedes, and Danes. 1 he 
county of Bergen was the first inhabited ; and very soon the towns 
of Elizabeth, ISewaik, Middleton and Shrewsbury were settled. 
The college, originally established at Newark, was, iu 1748, finally 
fixed at Princeton : Its chief benefactor was governor Belchero 
Among the governors of New-Jersey was the celebrated Barclay, 
author of the Apology for the Quakers, of which sect a large num- 
ber had established themselves there. 

23. Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn, son of a dis- 
tinguished admiral of the same nahie. From principle this excel- 
lent man joined the Quakers, theM an obscure and persecuted sect<, 
As one of the members, and a preacher, Penn was repeatedly im- 
prisoned ; but he plead his own cause with great boldness, and 
procured hi^ own acfjuittal from an independent y\rY. "who y,'itht 

41* ' 



48B UNITED STATES. 

himself were imprisoned until an unjust penalty was paid, in 1681, 
he purchased of Charles the tract now called Pennsylvania, for an 
' acquittance of sixteen thousand pounds due to his father ; and soon 
after, he obtained from the duke of York a conveyance of the town 
of New-Castle, with the country which now forms the state of 
Delaware. The f.rst colony, who were chiefly of his *own sect, 
"began their settlement above the confluence of the Schuylkill and 
Delaware rivers. In August, 1682, this amiable man embarked, 
■with about tv/o thousand emii^rants, and in October, arrived in the 
Delav/arc. Besides his own people, he was aided in the first set- 
tlement by Swoiles, Dutch, Finlandcrs, and other Eng^lish. The 
iirst k-^islative assembly was h"ld at Chester, at that time called 
Upland. Amojitr the first laws was one which declared " that none, 
acknowledging- one God, and living peaceably in society, should 
be molested for his opinions or his practice ; nor be compelled to 
frequent or maintain any ministr}- whatever.'^ Philadelphia was 
bcg-un in 16J;3 ; and in 1609, it contained seven hundred houses, 
and al'out four tliousand inhabitants. Durino; the first sevent/ years 
of this setllement. no instance occurred of the Indians killing un- 
armed people. The wise and good man, Penn, made every exer- 
tion and sacrifice to promote the peace and prosperity of his fa- 
vourite colony ; and between the persecution he had to encounter 
in England and the clitficulties in Pennsylvania, his life was a con- 
*tinued scene of vexation — his private fortune was materially injured 
hy the advfinces he made — he was harassed by his creditors, and 
oblig^ed to undergfo a temporary deprivation of his personal liberty. 
He died in London, in 1718, leaving- an inheritance to his children, 
ultimately of immensp value, which they enjoyed until the revolu- 
tion, wbt-n it was assigned to the commonwealth for an equitable 
sum of money. In the interval between 1730 and the war of the 
revolution, in this state, there was a great influx of emigrants, 
})fincipally from Germany and Ireland ; and these people early 
brought thy useful arts and manufactures into Pennsylvania. To 
the Germans, she is indebted for the spinning and weaving of linen 
and woollen cloibs; to the Irish, for various trades indispensable 
to useful agriculture. 

24. Delaware was first settled in 1627, by the Swedes and Fin- 
landers, and the colony bore the naj;jfc of New-Sweden. It was 
afterwards conquered by the Dutch from New-York, and remained 
subservi^-nt to that colony until it passed into the hands of the 
English. 

^25. Cieorgria was the last settled of the thirteen colonies .that 
revolted from Critain. It receivt-d its name fiom Georg-e II. In 
T^ovember, 1732, one hundred and sixteen persons embarked at 
Gravesend, under general Oglethorpe ; and early in the ensuing- 
year arrived at Charleston. Fro)n this port they proceeded to their 
<^estined territory, and laid the foundation of Savannah. The 
Spaniards laid claim to this territory, and made extensive prepara- 
tions to attack it. But through the finesse of Oglethorpe in prac- 
tising an innocent deception, their plans were defeated. For many 
years, this settlement languished from a variety of causes. Gene- 
•IaI Oglethorpe was diitin^uisiied as a iuldier, a statesman and a 



UNITED STATES. 487 

philanthropist. At the beginRin^- of the American revolution, he 
was offered the command of the L.lLish army in America, but this 
from principle he declined. After the contest was decided, he died 
at the ag-e of ninety-seven years, being the oldest general in the 
British service. 



SECTION IV. 

WAR WITH FRANCE, AND CONQUEST OF CANADA. DIS^. 
PUTES WITH GREAT BRITAIN, AND WAR OF THE 
REVOLUTION. 

1. Nearly coeval with the first En°•li^h settlement at James 
Town, in Virginia, was the establishi.aent of a French colony at 
Quebec, on the ?reat river St. Lawrence. The question of bounda- 
ry between Eng-fand and France, had long: been a subject of una- 
vailing neg-otiation. France, beside having Canada in the north, 
had also discovered and settled on Mississippi in the south ; and 
in 1753, she strove, by a military chain, the links of which were 
to be formed by outposts stretching alou^ the Ohio and the lakes, 
to connect these two extremities, and thus restrain the British col- 
onists to a small territory on the .Atlantic ocean, if not entirely ( *- 
pel them from the country. The question of jurisdiction remained 
to be decided by the sword. Repeated complaints of violence 
having come to the ears of the governor of Virginia, he determined 
to send a suitable person to the French commandant at fort Du 
Quesne, (now Pittsburt,h) demanding the reason of his hostile pro- 
ceivdhigs, and insisting that he should evacuate the fort which he 
had recently erected. For this arduous undertaking, George 
Washington, a major of militia,Hhen little more than twenty-one 
years of"ag§, oifered his servict s, 'i he execution of this task seems 
to have be'en accomplished with all that prudence and couragre 
w^hich were so eminently displayed by this hero in afterlife. At 
imminent peril, being waylaid and fired at by Indians, he not only 
faithfully accomplished the errar;d on which he had been sent, but 
gained extensive inffirmation ot the distances and bearings of pla- 
ces, and of the number, size and strength of nearly all the enemy's 
fortresses. 

2. The re[>ly of the French commani^^r brought matters to a 
crisis ; and in 1754, the Virginian assembly organized a regiment, 
to support the claims of the" English over the territory in dispute: 
of this regiment a Mr, Fry was appointed colonel, and the young 
Washington lieutenant colonel. Colonel F»y dying, the command 
of the whole devolved on Washington. The French having been 
strongly reinforced, Washington was obliged to fall back, was at- 
tacked in works which he had not time to complete, and, after a 
brave defence, was obliged to capitulate ; the enemy allowing him 
to march out with the honours of war, and to retire unmolested to 
the inhabited par's of Virginia. 

3. The next year, 1755, general Braddock was sent from Europe 
to Virginia, with two regiments, where he was joiaed by as many 



488 IJN'ITED STATES. 

provincials as made liis force amount to twenty-two hiuulreJ. 
BradJock was a brave man, but lacked that courtesy which could 
conciliate the Americans, and (hat modesty which should profit 
from the knowledge of those \\^o better knew the ground over 
which he was to pass, and (he mode of French and Indian warfare, 
than himself. Tie pushed on incautinuhly, until, within a few miles 
effort Du Queane, he fell into an anduuh of French and Indians. 
In a short time, ^\ asbintcton, who acted as aid to Eraddock, and 
whose duty called him to be on Ivorseback, was the only person 
mounteci who was left alive, or not v.'ounded. The van of the ar- 
my was forced back, and the whole thrown into confusion. The 
slaughter was dreadful. Eraddock was mortally wounded. Vv hat 
was remarkable, the provincial troops preserved their order, and 
covered the retreat under ^\ ashington ; while the regulars broke 
their ranks, and could not be rallied. 

4. Three successive campaigns procured nothing but expense- 
and disappointment to the Fnglish. "With an inferior force, the 
French had succeedf d in every campaign ; and gloomy apprehen- 
sions were entertained as to the destiny of the British colonies. 
But in 1756, a chan.sje of ministry in England took place. \\ illiam 
Fitt was placed at the helm. To despair, succeeded hope ; and to 
hope, victory. Supplies Were granted with liberality, and given 

^Tvithont rcluctanct ; soldiers enli.^ed freely, and fought with en- 
thusiasm. In a short time, the French were dispossessed, not only 
of all the territories iu dii-pute, but of Quebec, and her ancient 
province of Canada ; so that all which remained to her of her nu- 
merous settlements in North America, was New-Orleans, with a (ew 
plantations on the ^li^si<-ippi. Full of youth and spirit, the gallant 
general ^^"olfe, who led the European and colonial troops to vic- 
tory, fell before the walls of Quebec, in the moment of success. 
In 1762, hostilities havinc; raged nearly eight year?, a geneial 
peace was concluded : France ceded Canada, aud -pain reliuquish- 
ed, as the price of recovering Havana, which had been taken by 
the British, both the Floridas to Great tVitain. 

5. Although the American colonies had principally contributed 
to the great extension of the power of Great Britain, co-operating 
with the vigilance of more than four hundred cruisers on the sea, 
and furniching more than twenty-four thousand soldiers ; yet the 
latter regarded her plantations as mere instruments in her bauds. 
On the contrary, the high sentiments of liberty and independence 
nurtured in the colonics from their local situation and habits, were 
increased by the removal of hostile neighbours. Ideas favourable 
to independence increased ; and whilst combustible materials were 
collecting in the new world, a brand to enkindle them was prepar- 
ing in the old. 

6. In 1765, under the auspices of the minister, George Grenville, 
the obnoxious stamp act passed in the British parliament ; by which 
the instruments oi writing in daily use were to be null and void, 
unless executed on paper or parcliment stamped with a specilic 
duty: law documents, leases, deeds and indentures, newspapers 
and advertisements, almanacs and pamphlets, executed and print- 
ed io America — all must contribute to the Urilieh treasury. Tke 



UNITED STATES. " 489 

bill did not pass without the decided opposition of patriots in the 
British leg-islature, who foretold the result, and who declared that, 
the colonies beings planted by British oppression, and havii.g- as- 
sisted the mother countrj", that the mother had no claim on the child 
to derive from it a revenue. The bill did not take effect unlil seven 
months after its passac:e ; thus giving the colonists an opportunity 
of leisurely examining and viewing the subject on every side. 
They were struck with silent consternation ; but the voice of op- 
position was Arst heard in Virginia. Patrick Henry, on the 20th 
]May, brought into the house of burgesses in that colony a number 
of resolutions, which were adopted, and which concluded with de- 
claring, " 1 hat every individual, who, by speaking or acting, 
should assert or maintain, that any person or body of men, except 
tjie general assembly of the province, had any right to impose tax- 
ation there, should l)e deemed an enemy to his majesty's colony.^' 
These resolutions were immediately disseniinated through the other 
provinces ; the tongues and the pens of well-informed men labour- 
ed in the holy cause — the fire of liberty blazed forth from the 
press. The assembly of Massachusetts passed a resolution in fa- 
vour of a continental congress, and fixed a day for its meeting at 
New-Yorlc, in October. The other colonies, with the exception of 
four, accepted this invitation, and assembled at the appointed 
place. TJere they agreed on a declaration of their rights. There 
w-as, hovv'cver, a considt rable decree of timidity evinced in this 
congress. The boldest and most impressive arguments were offered 
by James Otis of IN'lasrachusetts. 

7. The i'lPAe arrived for the act to take effect ; and the aversion 
to it was expressed in still stronger teims throughout the colonies. 
By a common consent, its provisions were disregarded, and business 
was conducted, in defiance of the parliament, as if no stamp act 
was in existence: associations were forme<i against importing 
British manufactures until the law should be repealed ; and law- 
yers were prohibited from instituting any action for money due to 
any inhabitant of England. The sj.iiited conduct of the colonists, 
affecting the interests of the British iuerc bants, had the desired ef- 
fect. "Warm discussions took place in the Hrillsh parliament ; and 
the ablest speakers in both houses denied the justice of taxing the 
colonies. The opposition could not be v.ilhstcod ; and in March, 
17GG, the law was repealed. 

8. Simultaneously, however, with repealing this act, the British 
parliament passed another, declaring that the British parliament 
had a right to make laws binding the colonies in all cases what- 
ever ; and soon after another bill was passed, imposing in the colo- 
nies duties on glass, paper, painters'* colours, and tea. The fire of 
opposition was now rekindled with additional ardour, by the same 
principle, exhibited in its new form. The best talents throughout 
the colonies v/ere engaged, in the public prints and in pamphlets, 
to work up the public feeling against the arbitrary mi asures of the 
British parliament. New assoriations v/ere fornted to suspend the 
importation of British manufactures. The Massachusetts assem- 
bly, having passed resolutions to this effect, drew f«rth the marked 



4S0 • UKiTED STATES. 

displeasure of the crown ; and, on their refusal !.o cancel their resc»- 
lution?, were dissolved. 

9. In 1768, -Mr. Hancock's sloop Liberty was seized at Boston, 
for not entering all the wines she had brought from Madeira : tJiis 
inflamed the populace to a hig:h degree of rest-nlment. Soon af- 
terwards, two British regiments, and some armed vessels, were 
sent to Boston, to assist the revenue olTicers. The parliament, en- 
couraged by the expectation of quelling the refractory by their 
arms, continued to dissolve the opposing assemblies ; but the colo- 
«ies remained Arm in their purposes. 

10. Lord North succeeded the duke of Grafton, as British pre- 
mier in 1770 ; and the act was repealed imposing a duty on glass, 
paper, and painters^ colours ; but that on tea was retained. Some 
slight prospect of allaying the diffiulties succeeded. But on the 
second of March an aflray took place in Boston, between a private 
soldier and an inhabitant. This was succeeded, in a few days af- 
terwards, by a mob meeting a party of British soldiers underarms, 
who were dared to tire, and who at length did Are, and killed five 
persons. The captain who commanded, and the troops who fired, 
were afterwards tried for murder, and acquitted. 

11. Things continued in this mode of partial irritation until 
1773, when the Britisk East India company were authorized to 
export their tea to all places, free of duty. As this would enable 
them to sell that article cheaper in America, with the government 
exactions, than they had before sold it without them, it was confi- 
dently calculated that teas might be extensively disposed of in the 
colonies. Large consignments of tea were sent to various parts, 
and agents appointed for its disposal. The co^.^ignces, in several 
places, were compelled to relinquish tUcir appointments. Popular 
vengeance prevented the landi;jg at New York or Philadelphia. 
In Boston it was otherwise. The tea for the supply of that port 
■was consigned to the sons and particular friends of governor ?Iutch- 
inson. 1 he tea Avas landed by the strenuous exertions of the gov- 
ernor and consignees. But soon a party of men, dressed as Indians, 
boarded the tea ships, ii'oice open the carj^oes, and threw the coii- 
tents into the sea. Enraged against the people of Boston, the par- 
liament resolved to lake legislative vengeance on that devoted 
town. Disr«. garding the forms of tlie British constitution, by which 
none aru fo be punished witout trial, they passed a bill, closing, in 
a commercial senf-e, its port : its custom house and trade were soon 
after removid to Salem. The charter of the colony was new 
modelled, so that th -s w-hole executive go-iemment was taken from 
the people, and the jiomination to all important otfices vested in 
the crown ; and it was enacted, that if any person was indicted for 
any capital otience committed in aiding the magistrates, he miglit 
be sent to Great Britain or another colony for trial. Property, 
liberty, and life, were thus subject to ministerial caprice. The 
parliament went still furliicr, and passed an act exteoding the 
boundaries of Canada, southward te the Ohio, westward, to the 
Mississippi, and northward, to the borders of the Hudson's bay 
<5omjpany, assimilating its laws with the French, which dispensed 



rNlTEr> STATES. .491 

xvlth the trial by jury, and .rcnclfring the inhahltaiits passive 
agents In the hands of powrr. 

12. The flame was now kindled in every breast ; and as-socia- 
tiona were formed, and committees of correspondence were estab- 
lished, which produced a tniity of thoii«:ht and action throughout 
the colonies. General Ga^re, the British commander-in-cliief, ar- 
rived in Boston, in 1774, v/ith more troops, with th^- avoAved inten- 
tion of dragooning; the refractory Rostonians into compliance. A 
general sympathy was excited for the snflering inhabitants of Bos- 
ton : addresses poured in from all quarters; Marblehead ofiered 
to the Boston merchants the use of her wharves, and Salem refused 
to adopt the trade, the offer of which had been prolfered as a temp- 
tation to her cupidity. AfTairs rapidly approached a crisis. ; The 
preparations for offeore and defence, induced general Gage to for- 
tify Boston, and to seize on the powder lodged at the arsenal at 
Charlestown. 

13. In September, deputies from most of the colonies met in con- 
gress, at Philadelphia. These delegates approved of the conduct of 
the people of Massachusetts ; wrote a letter to general Gas;e *, pub- 
lished a declaration of rights ; formed an association not to import 
or use British g-oods ; sent a petition to the king oi Great Britain ; 
ail address to the inhabitants of that kingdom ; another to the in- 
habitants of Cajiada ; and another to the inhabitants of the colo- 
nies. In the beginning of the next year, (1775) was passed the 
fishery hill, by wliich the northern colonies v/cre forbidden to fish 

on the banks of Newfiund'and for a certain time. This bore hard 
upon the commerce of these colonies, which Vfas in a great measure 
iipported by the fishery. 

14. Soon afier, another bill was passed, v/hich restrained the 
trade of the middle and southern colonies to Great Britain,Jreland, 
and the West Indies, except under certain conditions. These re- 
peated acts of op]ircssion on the part of Great Britain, alienated 
tlie afiections of America from her parent and sovereign, and pro- 
duced a combined opposition to the whole system of taxation. Pre- 
parations began to be made to oppose by force the execution of 
these acts of parliament. l"he militia of the country were trained 
to the use of arms— great encouragement was given to the manu- 
facture of gunpowder, and measures were taken to obtain all kinds 
of military stores. 

15. Tn I^'ebruary, colonel Leslie was sent with a detachment of 
troops from Boston, to take possession of some cannon at Salem. 
But the people had intelligence of the design — took up the draw- 
bridge in that town, and prevented the troops fiora passing, until 
the cannon were secured ; so that the expedition failed. In April, 
colonel vSmith and major Pitcairn Avere sent with a body of troops, 
to destroy the military stores which had been collected at Concord, 
about twenty miles from Boston. At Lexington tlie militia were 
collected on a green, to oj)pose the incursion of the British forces. 
These were fired upon by the British troops, and ei^ht men killed 
on the spot. 

16. The militia were dispersed, and the troops proceeded -to 
Concord'; where they destroyed a few slOi'ei?, But on their retura 



492 UNITED STATES. 

tlipy -^ere incessantly harassed by the Americans, who, inflamed 
with just resentmrnt, fired npon them from houses and fences, and 
pursued them to Boston, litre was spilt the^tr^/ blood in the war 
which sever.d America from the British empire. Lexivgton open- 
ed the first scene of the great drama, which, in its prog^ress, exhib- 
ited the raobt illustrious characters and events, and closed with a 
revolution, equally g-lnrions kr the actors, and important in its 
consequences to the human race. This battle roused all America. 
The militia collected from all quarters, and Boston was in a few 
days besieged by twt-nty thcueand rnen. A stop was put to all in- 
tcrcoursp^between the town and country, and the inhabitants were 
redijced to great Vvant of prcAisi^ns. General Gage promised to 
let the people- depart, if they M';nild d. bvcv up their arms. The 
people complied ; but v.hfn the irenf^ral had obtained their arms, 
the perfidious vretch refused to let the people go. 

17. In the mean time, a small number of m'^m, under the com- 
mand of colonel Allen and colonel Faston, without any public or- 
ders, surprised and took the British garrison at Ticonderos;a, with- 
out 4he 1 ss of a man. 

18. In .June followin;:, our troops attempted to fortify Bunker's 
hill, which lie? in Chailestown, and 1>\U a mile and a half from 
Boston. They had, duri'io^ the nisht, thrown up a small breast- 
work, which sheltered thein from the lire of the British caimon. 
But the next morning, the Britisl) army was sent to drive them from 
the hill ; and landing under covv r of their cannon, they set fire to 
Charlcstown, which was consumed, aiid marched to attack our 
ti'oops in the entrenchraf.;:fs. A severe enga<rement ensued, in 
which the British suffered a veryi^reat loss, both of officers and 
privates. They were repulsed at first, and thrown into disorder ; 
but they finally carried the fortification with the point of the bayonet. 
The Americans suflered a small los^ compared with the British ; 
but the death of the bravf gr-neral Warren, who fell in the action, 
a martyr to the cause of his country, was severely felt and univer- 
sally lamented. 

19. About this time, the continental congress appointed George 
"Washington, Esq. to the chief command of the continental army. 
This gentleman had been a distiuguisbed and s-.iccessful officer in 
the preceding war, and he seemed destined by [leaven to be the 
saviour of his country. He accepted the appointment with a diffi- 
dence which was a proof of his prudence and his greatness. He 
refr^ed any pay for eight years laborious and arduous service ; and 
by his matchless skill, fort: tr.de, and perseverance, conducted 
America, through indescribalde difficulties, to independence and 
peace. While true meiit is esteerat d, or virtiie honoured, mankind 
will never cease to revere the memory of this hero ; and while 
gratitude remains in the human breast, the praises of V\ a^hing- 
TON^ shall dwell on every American tongue. 

20. General ^Vashington, with other officers appointed by con- 
gress, arrived at Cambridge, and took command of the American 
army in July From this time, the afl'airs of America began to as- 
sume the appearance of a regular and general opposition to the 
forces of Grtat Britain. 



UNITED STATES. 493 

'2\. fn autumn, a body of troops, under the command of general 
Montgomery, besieged and took the garrison at St. John's, which 
commands the en (ranee into Canada. The prisoners amounted to 
about sevenr hundred. General 3Iontgomery pursued his success, 
and took Montreal, and designed to push his victories to Quebec. 
A body of troops, commanded by Arnold, was ordered to m.uch to 
Canada, by the river Xennebec, and through the wilderness. After 
sutFer.ing every hard^^hip, and the most distressing hunger, they ar- 
rived iri Canada, and were joined by general Montgomery, before 
Quebec. This city, which was commanded by governor Carleton, 
was immediately besieged. But there being little hope of taking 
the town by a siege, it was detenn^ined to storm it. The attack 
was made on the last day of December, but proved unsuccessful, 
and fatal to the brave general, who, with his aid, was killed in at- 
tempting to scale the walls. Of the three divisions which attacked 
the town, one only entered, and that was compelled to surrender 
to superior force. After this defeat, Arnold, who now^ commanded 
the troops, continued some months before Quebec, although his 
troops suffered incredibly by cold and sickness. But the next 
spring the Americans were obliged to retreat from Canada. 

"2. About this time the large and flourishing town of Norfolk, 
in Virginia, was wantonly burnt by order of lord Dunmore, the 
royal governor. General Gage went to England in September, 
and was succeeded in command by general Howe. Falmoutli, a 
considerable town in the province of Maine, in Ma<r3achusetts, 
shared the fate of Norfolk; being laid in ashes by order of the 
British admiral. 

23. The British king entered into treaties with some of the Ger- 
man princes for about seventeen thousand men, Aviio were to be 
sent to America the next year, to assist in subduing the colonies. 
The British parliament also passed an act, forbidding all inter- 
course with America ; and while they repealed the Boston port 
and lishery bills, they declared all American property on the high 
scas forfeited to the captors. This act induced congress to change 
the mode of carrying on the war ; and measures were taken to an- 
noy the eneaiy in Boston. For this purpose, batteries were open-' 
cd on several hilk, from whence shot and bombs were thrown into' 
the town. But the batteries which were opened on Dorchester* 
point had the best effect, and soon obliged general liov/e to aban- 
(!an the town. In March, 1776, the British troops embarked for 
Halifax, and general Washington entered the town in triumph. 

24. In the ensuing summer, a small squadron of ships, under the 
command of sir Peter Parker, and a body ol troops under the gene- 
rals Clinton and Cornwallis, attempted to take Charleston, the 
capital of South Carolina. The ships made a violent attack upo)i 
the fort on Sullivan's island, but were repulsed with great loss, and 
the expedition was abandoned. 

.25. In July, congress published their declaration of independence, 
wliich forever separated America from Great Britain. This great 
event took place two hundred and eighty-four years after the first 
discovery of America by Columbus — one hundred and seventy from 
the first effectual settlements in Virginia — and one hundred arid 

42 



494 UNITED STATES. 

fifty-six from the first settlement of Plymouth in Massachusetts^ 
which were the earliest English settlements in America. Just after 
this declaration, e:cncral Howe, with a powerful force, arrived 
near ^'ew-York, and landed the troops upon Staten Island. Gene- 
ral Washington was in New- York, with about thirteen thousand 
men, encamped either in the city, or in the neighbouring fortiiica- 
tions. 

26. The operations of the Britir^h began by the action on Lone; 
Island, in the month of August. The Americans were defeated, 
and general Sullivan and lord Sterling, with a large body of men, 
were made prisoners. The ni-rht after the engagement, a retreat 
was ordered, and executed witl;^such silence, that the Americans 
left the island without alarming their enemies, and without loss. In 
September, the city of New-York was abandoned by the American 
army, and taken by the British. 

27. In November, fort Washington, on York Island, was taken, 
and more than two thousand men made prisoners. Fort Lee, oppo- 
site to fort Washington, on the Jersey shore, was soon after taken, 
but the garrison escaped. About the same time, general Clinton 
was sent, with a body of troops, to take possession of Rhode Island, 
and succeeded. In addition to all thtse losses and defeats, the 
American army suffered by desertion, and more by sickness, which 
was epidemic, and vcr}' mortal. 

28. The northern army, at Ticonderoga, was in a disagreeable 
situation, particularly after the battle on lake Champlain, in which 
the American force, consisting of a few light vessels, under the 
command of Arnold and general Waterbury, was totally dispersed. 
But general C'arleton, i))6tead of pursuing his victory, landed at 
Crown Point, reconnoitcred our posts at Ticonderoga and iMount 
Independence, and returned to v.- inter quarters in (;a'^?-<^I''^• 

29. At the close of this year, the Amedcan anny was dwindled 
to a handful of men ; and general Lee was taken prisoner in ISew- 
Jersev. Far from being discouraged at these losses, congress took 
raeasurts to. raise J»nd establish an army. In this critical situation, 
general V»"ashingtcn surprised and took a large body of Hessian?,^ 
who were cantoned at 'Frenton ; and soon after, another body of 
the British troops, at Princeton. The addrep;i in planning and ex- 
ecuting these enterprises, reilected the highest honour on the com- 
mander, and the success revived the desponding hopes of America. 
The loss of general Mercer, a gallant olHcer, at Princeton, was the 
principal circumstance that allayed the joys of victory. 

20. The following yrar, (1777) v/as distinguished by very memo- 
rable events in fivour of America. On the opening of the cam- 
paign, governor Tryon was sent, with a body of troops, to destroy 
tfie'^store? at Tanbury, in Connecticut. 'J'his plan v.aa executed, 
and the toAvn ii:ostly'burnt. 'J'he enemy suffered in their retreat^ 
and the Amei leans lost general V\oo£ter, a brave and ciperienced 
officer. General Prescott was taken from his quarters on Khode 
Island, by the address and enterpriie of colonel Barton, and con- 
veyed prisoner to the co!\tinent. General Burgoyne, whd com- 
manded the northern Vvlthh army, took possession of Ticonderoga,- 
which had been abandoned by the Americans, lie puslied his fitc-- 



UNITED STATES. 49i> 

c'esses, crossed lake George, and encamped upon the banks of the 
Hudson, near Saratoga. IJis progress was however checked by the 
defeat of colonel Baum, near Benulngton, in which the undisci- 
plined militia of Vermont, under general Stark, displayed unex- 
ampled bravery, and captured almost the whole detachment. The 
militia assembled ffom all parts of New-England, to stop the pro- 
gress of general Burgoyne. These, with the regular ^roops, formed 
a respectable army, commanded by general Gates. After two se- 
vere actions, in which the generals Lincoln and Arnold, behaved 
with uncommon gallantry, and were wounded, general Burgoyne 
found himself enclosed with brave troops, and was forced to sur- 
render his whole army, amoauting to ten thousand men, into the 
hands of the Americans. This happened in October. This event 
diffused a universal joy over America, and laid a' foundation for 
the treaty with France. 

31. But before these transactions, the main body of the British 
forces had embarked at New- York, sailed up the Chesapeake, and 
landed at the head of Elk river. The army soon began their march 
for Philadelphia. General Washington had determined (o opjiose 
fthem, and tor this purpose made a stand upon the heights near 
Brandywijie creek. Here the armies engaged, and the Americans 
were overpowered, and suffered great los-^. The enemy soon pur- 
sued their march, and took possession of Philadelphia towards the 
close of September. Not long after, the two armies were again 
engaged at Germantqv/n, and in the beginning of the action the 
Americans had the advantage ; b'lt by some unlucky accident, the 
fortune of the day was turned in favour of the British. Both sides 
suffered considerable loss ; on the side of the Americans was gene- 
ral Nash. 

32. In an attack upon the forts at Mud Island and Red Bank, 
the Hessians were unsuccessful, and their commander, colonel Do- 
riop, killed. The British also lost the Augusta, a ship of the line. 
But the feats were afterwards taken, and the navigation of the Del- 
aware opened. General Washington was reinforced with part of 
the troops which had composed the northern army, under general 
Gates ; and both armies rt^tired to winter quarters. 

33. In October, the same month in which gener.T.! Burgoyne was 
takrn at '^'aratoga, general V'aughan, with a small fleet, sailed up 
Hudson^'s river, and wantonly liurnt Kingston, a beaui.iful Dutch 
settlement, on the west side of the river, 

24. The beginning of the next year (i778) wds distinguished by 
a treaty of alliance between France and America ; by which-we 
obtained a powerful and generous ally. Wht'n the Erjglish minis- 
try were informed that this treaty was on foot, tliey despatched 
commissioners to America, to attempt a reconciliation. But Ameri- 
ca would not now accept their offers. Early in the spring, count 
de Estaipg, with a fleet of fifteen sail of the line, v/as sent by the 
court of I'rance to assist America. 

35. General Howe left the army, and returned to England ; the 
command then devolved upon sir Henry Clinton. In June, the 
British army l^ft Philadelphia, and marched for New-York. Oa 



<S6 UNITED STATFS. 

their march they were much annoyed by the Americans ; and at 
Monmoath a very regular action took place between part of the 
armies ; the enemy were repulsed with great loss ; and had g:ene- 
ral Lee obeyed his orders, a signal victory must have been obtain- 
ed. General Lee, for his ill conduct that day, was suspended, 
<ind was never afterwards permitted to join the army. 

36. In August, general Sullivan, with a large bndy of troops, at- 
tempted to take possession of Rhode Island, but did not succeed. 
Soon after, the stores and shipping at Bedford, in Massachusetts, 
were burnt by a party of British troops. The same year. Savan- 
nah, the capital of Georgia, v.'as taken by the British, under the 
command of colonel Campbell. In the following year, (1779) 
general Lincoln was appointed to the command of the southern ar- 
:ny. Governor Tryon and sir George Collier made an incursion iu- 
io Connecticut, and burnt, with wanton barbarity, the towns of 
Fairfield and Noi walk. 

37. But the American arms were crowned with success in a bold 
attack upon Stoney Point, which was surprised and taken by gene- 
ral Wayne, in the night of the 15th of July. Five hundred men 
Y/ere made prisoners, with a small loss on either side. A party of 
British ibrces attempted, this summer, to build a fort on Penobscot 
river, for tlie purpose of cutting timber in the neighbouring forests. 
A plan was laid, by Massachusetts, to dislodge them, and a con- 
siderable lleet collected for the purpose. But the plan failed of 
success, and the whole marine force fell into the hands of the 
British, except some vessels, which were burnt by the Americana 
themselves. 

38. In October, general Lincoln and count de Estain^ made an 
assault upon Savannah ; buj they were repulsed with considerable 
loss. In this action, the celebrated Polish count Polaski, who had 
acquired the reputation of a brave soldier, was mortally wounded. 
in this sumrner, general Sullivan marched, with a body of troops, 
into the Indian country, and burnt and destroyed all their provisions 
and settlements that fell in his way. 

39. On the opening of the campaign, the next year, (1780) the 
British troops left Rhode Island. An expedition under general 
Clinton and lord Cornwallis, was undertaken against ©harlestou, 
i^ouih Carolina, where general Lincoln commanded, lihis town, 
after a close sife/;e of about six weeks, was surrendered to the Brit- 
ish commander ; and general Lincoln, and the whole American gar- 
xiscn, were made prisoners. 

40. General Gates was appointed to the command in the southern 
department, and another army collected. In August, lord Corn- 
wallis attacked the American troops at Camden, in South Carolina, 
and routed them with considerable loss. He afterwards inarched 
through the southera states, and supposed them entirely subdued. 
The same summer, the British troops made frequent incursions from 
New-York into the Jerseys ; ravag-ing and plundering the country. 
In some of these descents, the Rev. Mr. Caldwell, a respectable 
cleravD-ian and warm patriot, and his lady, were inhumauly mur-' 
dere'd by the savage soldiery. 



UNITED STATES, 



497 



41. In Jul)% a French fleet, under Monsieur de Ternay, with a 
body of land forces, commanded by count de Rochambeaa, arrived 
at Rhode Island, to the great joy of the Americans. 

4iJ. This year was also disting-uished by the infamous treason of 
Arnold. General Washington having some business to transact at 
Weathersfield, in Connecticut, left Arnold to command the import- 
ant post of ^Vest Point, which g^uards a pass in Hudson's river, 
about sixty miles from New- York. Arnold's conduct iu the city of 
Philadelphia, the preceding winter, had been censured, and the 
treatment he received in consequence had given him offence. He 
determined to have revenge ; and for this purpose he entered into 
a negotiation with sir Henry Clinton, -to deliver West Point and 
the army into the hands of the British. While general Washington 
was absent, he dismounted the cannon in some of the forts, and 
took other steps to render the taking- of the post easy for the ene- 
my. But by a providential discovciy, the whole plan was defeated. 
Major Andre, aid to general Clinton, a brave offieer, who had been 
up the river as a spy, to concert the plan of operations with Ar- 
nold, was taken, condemned by a court-martial, and executed, 
Arnold made his escape by getting on board the Vulture, a British 
vessel which lay in the river. His conduct has stamped him with 
infamy, and, like all traitors, he is despised by all mankind. Gene- 
ral Washington arrived in camp just after Arnold had made his es- 
cape, and restored order in the gairison. 

43. After the defeat of general Gates, in Carolina, general 
Green was appointed to the command in the southern department. 
From this period, things in this quarter wore a more favourable as- 
pect. Colonel Tarleton, the active commander of the British le- 
gion, was defeated by general Morgan, the intrf pid commander of 
the riflemen. After a variety of movements, the two armies met 
at Guilford., ia North Carolina, liere was one of the best fought 
actions during the war. General Greene and lord Cornwallis 
exerted themselves, at the head of their respective armies, and, 
although the Americans were obliged to retire from the field of 
battle, yet the British army suffered an immense loss, and could 
not pursue the victory. This action happened oa the 15th of March, 
1781. 

44. In the spring, Arnold, who was made a brigadier-gfeneral in 
the British service, with a small number of troops, sailed for Vii'- 
^inia, and plundered the country. This called the attention of the 
French fleet to that quarter, and a naval erigagement took place, be- 
tween the English and French, in which some of the English sliipa 
%vere much damaged, and one entirely disabled. 

45. After the battle at Guilford, g-eneral Greene moved towards 
South Carolina, to drive the British from their posts in tliat state. 
Here lord P^awdon obtained an inconsiderable advantage over the 
Americans, near Camden. But general Greene more than recovered 
this disadvantage, by the brilliant and successful action at the Eu- 
taw springs ; where general Marion distinguished himself, and the 
brave colonel Washington was wounded and taken prisoner. Lord 
Corawallis iiading general Greene successful ia Carolina, marched 

43* 



498 



UNITED STATES. 



to Virginia, collected Lis forces, and fortified himself in Yorkto"?va. 
In the mean time, Arnold made an incursion into Connecticut, 
burnt a part of New-London, took fort Griawold by storm, and put 
the garrison to the sword. I'he garrison consisted chiefly of men 
suddenly collected from the little town of Groton, wiiich, by the 
aavag-e cruelty of the British officer who commanded the attack, 
lost, in one hour, almost all its heads of familes. The brave colonel 
Ledyard, who commanded the fort, was slain with his own sword, 
after he had surrendered. 

46. The marquis de la Fayette, the brave and generous noble- 
man, whose services command the gratitude of every American, 
had been despatched from the main army to watch the motions of 
lord Cornwallis, in Virginia. About the last of August, count de 
Grasse arrived with a large fleet in the Chesapeake, and blocked 
np the British troops at Yorktown. Admiral Greaves, with a British 
fleet, appeared off the Capes, and an action succeeded, but ft was 
not decisive. General Washington had, before this time, moved 
the main body of hii army, together with the French troops, to the 
southward ; and, as soon as he heard of the arrival of the French 
fleet in the Chesapeake, he made rapid marches to the head of the 
Elk, where <^mbarking, the troops soon arrived at Yorktown. A close 
tiege immediately connnenced, and was carried on with such vi- 
gour by the combined forces of America and France, that lord 
Coruwallis was obliged to surrender. This glorious event, which 
took place on the 19th of October, 1781^ decided the contest in 
favour of America, and laid the foundation of a general peace. A 
few mouths after the surrender of Cornwallis, the British evacuated 
■Al their posts in South Carolina and Georgia, and retired to the 
ia;ain army in New-York. 

47. The next spring- (1782) sir Guy Carlton arrived in New- 
York, and took command of the British army in America. Imme- 
Jiately after hit: arrival, he acquainted general Washington and 
c>>ngress, that negotiations for a peace had been commenced at 
Paris. On the uOih of November, 1782, the j)rovisional articles of 
peace were signed at Paris, by which Great Britain acknowledg- 
rd the independence and sovereignty of the United States of 
_i.aicrica. 

4C. Thus ended a long and arduous conflict, in which Great 
Dritain expended near an hunth-edmiliioas of money, with an hun- 
dred thousand lives, and won nothing. America endured every cru^ 
City and distress frtm her enemies ; lost many lives, aiid much 
Treasure — but delivered herself from a foreign domimon, ai.d gained 
a rank among the nctions of the eaith. 



UNITED STATi:?> 499 



SECTION y. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE STATE AND NATIONAL GO- 
VERNMENTS. WARS WITH TRH^OLI AND THE LN- 
DIANS, &c. 

1. The important revolution, as regardint; the dependancc of the 
colonies on Great Britain, required a corresponding alteration in 
their g-overnments. Conventions were assembled in the several 
states, which formed nevv' constitutions, agreeably to the strictest 
principles of republicanism ; retaining whatever was desirable in 
the original institutions, and at the same time providing additional 
security against tyranny or corruptiotj. The statute and comni*n 
laws of England, I'ormerly observed in the provincial courts of jus- 
tice, remain in practice as before. 'J'he inestimable privilege, of 
British origin, a trial by jury ; ihe freedom of the press, with the 
additional right, in case of prosecuting for a lil.'el, of giving the 
truth in evidence ; are declared to be fundamt ntal principles. The 
governmeats resemble, in their principal organization, the frame of 
the new federal constitution: they consist of three branches — a 
governor, a senate, and a lower house of representatives. The elec- 
tions recur frequently, in which, in most oi the states, extry free- 
man has a right to jjarticipate. 

2. As yet the general go^^nment was not established on a solid 
foundation. The articles of union, formed under the pressure of 
common danger, were found inadequate to the efficient maitage- 
ment of the same country in the selfish periods of peace and secu- 
rity. No efficient fund had 4)een provided to pay the interest of 
the lialicnal debt, and the public securities fell to one tenth of their 
nominal value. An open resistance to the government was made 
in Mfissachusetts, headed by a person of the name of Shays. iJan- 
ger increased, and the friends of rational liberty beca.me alarmed. 

o. 'Ihe Virginia legislature, in r/87, in accordance with a mo- 
tion made by James Madison, made a proposal to the other states 
to meet in convention for the purpose of digesting a system of go- 
vernment equal to the exigencies of the union. 1 be convention 
met at Philadelphia, ISlay 25^ 17i;7, and chose general Washingtoa 
president ; and, after deliberating with closed doors until the 17th 
September, agreed on a new plan of national government: this 
was afterv/ards ratified by the several states. ""Jhis new constitu- 
tion not only fixes the national government on a republican basis, 
but guarantees to each state of the family a republican form of go- 
vernojent, and binds the whole to protect each against foreign in- 
vasion ov domestic violence. General Washington was unanimous" 
ly chosen first president under the new constitution. March 4, 
17 G9, the first congress under the new constitution assembled at 
New-York ; and, in 1790, duties were levied on imported mer- 
chandize, to replenish an empty treasury. The public debt incur- 
red during the revolutionary war was funded, and brought at once 
to its par value. A national bank was established, not however 
•without opposition-. An^exci^u duty laid on domestic spirits, pro- 



5Q9 VSlTETt STATES. 

daced an iusurrection ia the irestem part of Pennsylrania ; bnt 
the laws -were ext cnted, and on liie interrtution of an armed force, 
traiicnillity was re-iored withoiit bloodshed. 

4. Two nevr states were admitted ioto the confederacv, viz : 
VermoDt in 1791, and Kentucky in 1792. A war with the Creek 
Indians, whose fiiihtiug- men amounted to about six hundred, some 
tince existed-cn the frontier of Georgia : ptace, however, was re- 
stored there in 1*90. A sanguinary warfare, with various success, 
■was for some time kept up with the north-western Indians. la 
1791. general Harmar was defeated, in tlie Ohio country, with the 
loss of three hundred and sixty men killed. General St. Clair, at 
the head of two thousa-nd militia and regulars, was subsequently 
worsted, near tlie Indian villages on the Miami, with the loss of 
thirty-eight officers, and Bearly six hundred privates. St. Clair 
was succeeded by general V ayne, who completely routed the 
savage loe, and drove the Indians out cf the country.* In the year 
afier, ^\ ayne negotiated a satisfactory treaty of peace with the 
hastilc Indians ; and at this time commenced a humane system for 
ameliorating their condiiioc. 

5. Whilst the United States were employed in quelling the re- 
fractory, and restraining the inroads ci a subtle enemy within their 
own IwTson:, new sources of difficulty discovered tliemselves in ihe 
great convulsions oi Europe. The French revolution had comnien- 
ced. and that nation was under the wild misnile of its directory. 
Claims for assistance were made on t||p United States. Genet, the 
French envoy, having arrived ai Charleston, undertook to author- 
ize the arming of vessels in ihat port, and the enlisting of men ; 
givifig commissions, in the naone of the French gcvernment, to 
to cruise at sea, and commit ho5tilir?*5 on land, against nations 
with whom the United Slates were at p(fracc. The Eri-ish miui;ter 
remonstrated. The president issued orders for defeating the un- 
wammtablc interference of the French ambassador. G^net threat- 
ened an appeal to the people, but w4is 5CK>n after recalled. After- 
wards, the French directory authoriztH the indiscriicinate capture 
of all vessels sailing under the f.ag of the Uiiitcd States ; and or- 
dered the American envoys to leave France. Two severe actions 
occurred in the "SVest Indies, between the American Ligate Con- 
stellation, of thirty-eight gruns, and the Trench frigate L''Insur- 
gente, ef forty, and the same frigate and the La Vengeance, of 
fifty gens, in which L'lnsurgente was captured, and La Vengeance 
worsted. 

6. In 1797, John Adams was chosen presideat ; and in the year 
after, Washington wa* called to the head of the army, in the pros- 
pect of a protracted war with France. Eat speedily after the over- 
throw of the directory government, all the disputes .etween France 
and the United States wer^r amicably arranged. 

7. Although, since the definitive treaty of Paris, there occurred 
no op«n hostiiities between England and the United States, yet 
they were far from being on terms of amity and conciliation. On 
various pretexts, the Ecgiish retained possession of the forts on the 
south side of the lakes, forming the northern boundary of the Lni- 
ted States ; aad irritstioo ws*^ contiauailj eicited ty Uie English 



¥XITED STATt?. 501 

hisiitmg on the right of searching American ships for en&rav's prop- 
erty. Mr. Jay -vras deputed envoy to London, and nerctiated a 
treaty, in 1793, which s-^ttled the differences for the time, tut the 
terms of -ivhich were much opposed in the United States. 

8. December 14. 1799, died the illustrious Washini-totJ, of aa 
infiammatcry sore throat and ferer, contracted from a slight expo- 
sure to the wet weather, after an illness of only about twenty-foat 
hour?. 

9. The seat of government had been removed from New- York 
to Philadelphia, b-.th of which places bein» deemed inconvenient, 
provision was made, at the secoad sesriou after the formation of 
government, for the removal of the g-overgment to a district ou the 
Potomac, which was ceded to the United States by Virginia and 
Maryland ; and, in 1800, the public offices were removed to the 
infant capital, on which magnincent buildings had been erected. 
This city bears the name of Washington, and tie district that of 
Colambia. 

10. The war with Tripoli commenced in 1C01, by an engagie- 
meBt of the Enterprise, captain Sterrett, with a Tripolitaa corsair, 
off Malta, in which_the American was victorious. Commodore 
Murray, the follcwicg year, in the frigate Constellatioa, was at- 
tacked, while cruising off Tripoli, by a fGrTr.i.lable ntimber of g-uH 
boat?, but obliged them to retire in confusion. In 1803, the Piiila- 
delpliia frigate, captain Bainbridge, ran upon a rock, in the very 
jaws of the pirates ; was obliged to at rite, and her ouicers and crew, 
amounting to three hundred, were made prisoners. This vessel 
was, however, recaptured and burnt, while lyin^ in the harbour of 
Tripoli, February 16. 1C04, by captaid Stephen Decatur, jr., and 
seventy men — one of the most daring and gallant exploiU on re- 
cord. ' From the 3d to the '29th :f August following, commodore 
Preble made three general attacks upon the Tripoiiian batterits. 
The barbarian. enemy continued to treat the American prisoners 
witli the most atrocioiis cruelty. Another expedient was tried by 
the American government General Eaton was despatched to co- 
operate with Hamet, who had been driven from tlie government oi 
Tripoli by the usurpation of his brother, '^ravelling to Egypt, he 
fouud the exile, and proceeding fifty-two days through a hideous 
desert, he arrived before Derne, a city ia the regency of Tripoli, 
and carried the town at the poiizt oi the bayonet. Twice did the 
enemy attempt to retake the town ; but, against fearful c-dds, they 
were repulsed by Eaton. This brought the reigning bashaw to 
terms ; a peace was concluded. by coloael Leav, and the pris^iners 
long detained in captivity, were released. 

11. Tennessee in 1796, and Ohio in rjOO.were added to the states 
of the union. In 1803, Louisiana was purchased from the French 
governrnent, for the sum of fifteen millions of dollars ; and in 13 1-2. 
a portion of this extended territory vras erected into a state by that 
na'ae. By this cession, the United States have acquired a terri- 
tory of vast magnitude, and extraordinary fertility, from which 
new states will continue to be incorporated. 

12. In the autumn of 1806, Aaron Burr was detected in an en- 
terprise of great moment, the separation of the W8s:era st^tei from 



'09 , UNITED STATES. 



the union, and the subjugation of New-Orleans : his plan was de- 
feated by the vigilance of the government ; Burr was arrested on 
a charge of high treason — but no overt act being proved on him-, 
he was released. 



SECTION VI. 

WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN, &c. 

1. We come now to treat of those interesting events which 
brought on a second contest between Great Britain and the United 
States. The custom of searching American vessels on the ocean, 
and impressing from them British seamew, had long been practised 
by the English. But hitherto the custom had been confined to pri- 
vate vessels : now, it was carried to the utmost pitch to which op- 
pression Gould extend. Four seamen, deserters from the British 
navy, were reported to have entered the service of the United 
States, and to have been received on board the friciate Chesapeake, 
at the time lying at Mamptpn roads, preparing for the Mediterra- 
nean. Admiral Berkeley ordered captain Hmnphries, of the 
Leopard, to follow tli^ Chesapeake beyond the waters of the Uni- 
ted States, and demand the deserters: this lie did, and, after de- 
manding the seamen, fired a l>roadside upon the American frigate. 
This iiuexptcted attack so disconcerted captain Barron, that he 
imna:iliately struck the colours of the (..'hf.'sapeake, and permitted 
the lour seamen to be taken without resistance, 'i he Leopard car- 
ried fifiy, tht: (Jhcsapeake only thirty-i-ix guns. On board the lat- 
ter, four men were killed and sixteen wounded. One of the im- 
pressed scanien was afterwards hanged, and one died in prison : 
three of them w ;re native Americans. Captain Barron, for neglect 
of duty, was suspended from commatid for five years. This tragical 
occurrtnce prociuced a general indignation. The British, however, 
disavowed admiral Berkeley's orders, and removed him from the 
station, at the same time appointing him to a more impoitant 
one. 

.2. New systems of blockade were invented by the belligerents!, 
commencing with the unlawful British otder in council, issued 
May 16, 180G : this was followed by the French decree of Berlin, 
of November 21, ICOG : January 7, 1807, came the British order 
prohibiting coasting trade ; November 11, the celel^rated British 
orders in council, which cut up the American trade entirely ; and 
December 7, the French iMilan decree. December 2'2, of the same 
year, congress, on the recommendation of i\Tr. Jelferson, then presi- 
dent, ordered an embargo, prohibiting the exportation of every ar- 
ticle from the Unitt-d States. xMarch^4, 11309, the embargo was 
removed, and non-intercourse substituted. April 10, an arrange- 
ment was made with Mr. Erskine, which induced the American 
government to renew the trade with England ; this arrangement 
was subsequently disavowed by the British government. The in- 
sulting deportment of the succeeding negotiator, Mr. Jackson, 
hei^ht^ned the reseutmeut of the republic ;. and a rencounter be- 



WNITSD STATES. 503 

trween the American and British ships of -srar, President and Little 
Belt, increased the unfiiendly sentinicnts of Enjjfland. 

2. Mr. Foster, a new British minister, offered honourable repara- 
tion for the indig-nky on the Chesapeake ; but no chang-e couhl be 
procured in the systems practised by Great Britain and Fra>:ce 
against American trade. The United States now offered to either 
of the belligerent?, or both, as soon as they ceased to violate the 
neutral commerce of the republic, that the non-intercourse ar- 
rangement should be discontinued. The French artfully embraced 
the offer, by information that the P rench Ikrlin and Milan decrees 
had been revoked ; and non-intercourse with France was discon- 
timed by proclamation of the prc-sidt-nt. 

4. War was declared by the United States against Great Brit- 
ain, June 18, 181i?, too late to avail themselves of the retraction 
of the British orders in council, which followed the repeal of the 
Berlin and Milan decrees. The congress voted an addition to the 
regular army, of twenty-five thousand men ; authorized a loan of 
eleven millions ; and nearly doubled the duties on imports. 

6. Previous to the dtclaration of war, indications of hostility had 
appeared among the Indians on the frontif^rs bordering on Canada.* 
A body of troops, under governor Harrison, was attacked on the 
7th .INiovember, 1811, near a branch of the Wabash, by a larg;er 
body of Indians, who were defeated, not without con^^iderable loss 
to the Americans. 

6. On the 12th July, general Hull, governor of the INTicliigan 
territory^ cro?sed from Detroit into the province of Canada, with a 
considerable force. In this situation, he soon received intelligence 
of the capture of the American post at Michiliimackinac. On the 
f;th August, he returned to .'Jctioit, followed by the British general 
Brock, with his regulars and Indians ; and he soon, contrary to 
the v.i.hes of every soldier under his command, v.-ho burned with 
desire to meet the enemy, inglcriously surrendered to the British, 
not only his army, but incjiided the -whole territory of IMichigan in 
the articles of capitulation. He was afterwards tried, and found 
guilty of cowardice and neglect of duty, and sentenced to be shot : 
but, in consideration of his revolutionary services, and hi= age, the 
court recommended him to mercy, and the president withdrew the 
punishment of death. 

7. On the lOth August, the Coni^titution frigate, captain Hull, 
captured the British frigate Gueniere, captain Dacres, after an 
action oi thirty jninutes: loss of the Guerriere. f:Oren killed, sixty- 
four Avounded, and twenty-one missing — thai oastilution, 
ji!e-\-en killed and se\fn v^ounded. October '- . ._^-),te United 
States, captai ■, met (he Jiriti.-h frigate -Macedonian, off 
the wes'icrn i:-: . .ptu.red her after an action of one hour and 
a half: iiiitibh ic^j, Ihiriy-tiM kiilcd and sixty-eight v/cunded— 
American loss, seven killed , lix^^ Avnunded. The neiit naval achieve- 
ment was the capture of i he British brig Frolic by the American 
sloop Wasp, commanded by captain Jones : Briti?:h loss.thirty killed 
and fifty wounded — American, live killed, nvc wounded. In Decem- 
ber, the Consiit;uion, captain Bainbridge, again met the enemy, and 
• iu; filiate Java was captured: British loss, aixty killed, and one 



604 fcNITEB STATES. 

liundred and one wounded — American, nine killed, twenty-five 
wounded. Besides these victories of public ships, numerous priva- 
teer* swarmed llie ocean, and before the meeting of congress, in 
November, neaily two hundred and fifty vessels were captured 
from the enemy. 

8. In November, general Van Rensselaer, with about one thou- 
sand troops, crossed the, Niagara river into Upper Canada, and at- 
tacked the British at Queenstown •, and, after an obstinate engage* 
ment, was obliged to surrender, with a loss of sixty killed, and about 
one hundred wounded. In this engagement the British general 
]3rock was killed. 

9. ^arly in 1813, an action was fought at the river Raisin, be- 
tween an American detachment, under general Winchester, and a 
British and Indian force under colonel Proctpr. The Americans 
were defeated, and the greater part of five hundred prisoners were 
inhumanly massacred, Proctor being unable or unwilling to protect 
them, as he had expressly stipulated ! Soon after, general Harri- 
son was attacked and besieged, by the combined British and In^ 
dians at fort .Veigs A desultory war was kept up for some time. 
Colonel LHidley was detached from tb.e fort, to attack the enemy's 
battery on the opposite side of the river. He succeeded in captu- 
ring; the battery, but his troops, imprudently pursuing the enemy, 
were soo"n surrounded 1-y an Indian army, three times their num- 
ber, headed by the Indian general Tecumseh ; a desperate fight, 
and a scene of slaughter almost as terrible as that at Raisin, en- 
sued. ■ Of eight hundred men composing the detachment, only 
about one hundred and fifty escaped. 

10. On the 21st February, the British attacked Ogdcnsburgh, 
on the river St. Lawrence, with a force of twelve hundred, and 
compelled the Americans to evacuate the place. In A])ril, the 
Americans, under general I'ike, lauded at York, in Upper Canada ; 
avid, alter some severe fghting, succeeded in capturing or destroy- 
ing- a large amount of public stores. '1 he Britisli lost seven hun- 
dred and fifty men, in killed, wounded and captured. "^I'he brave 
Pike was mortally wounded, by the explosion of a magazine, which 
had been purposely set on fire. The object of the expedition beings 
gained, the American forces evacuated York on the 1st of May, 
and re-embarked. 

11. Fort George, commanded l)y general Vincent, was taken by 
the American forces, imder general IJoyd and colonel Miller, May 
'27, after a sharp conflict. The British lost, iu killed and wounded, 
about two hundred and fifty men, b( sides six hundred prisoners — 
their antagonists, thirty nine kiiled and one hundred and eight 
wounded. Soon afterwards, generals Chandler and Winder, who 
had advanced with a considerable force, were attaclied in the 
night, by genjnal Vincent, who had been reintbrced, between fort 
George and Burlington bay, and, in a scene of confusion, were both 
made prisoners ; their troops retired to fort George. 

12. Captain James Lawrence, of the Hornet, I'ell in with, and 
captured, the British sloop of %\'ar Peacock, February 21. 'J'he ac- 
tionlasted eight minutes ; and the BriLish captain and several oth- 
<?fs were kiiled, and tv.enty-nine wounded — the Hornet had three 



UNITED STATES, -50* 

"grounded. The Peacock sunk soon after the action, and thirteen 
British sailors -went down with her. Capt. Lawrence was after- 
wards appointed to the command of the ill-fated Chesapeake, then 
lying in Boston harbour. The British frigate Shannon, command- 
ed by captain Broke, had been for some time in the bay, seeking 
an engag-ement with an American frigate. Lawrence, burning 
with impatience to meet the enemy, did not wait to inquire into 
the relative condition of the vessels. The Shannon had a picked 
crew, and was accoutred for the express purpose of engaging an 
American frigate of the largest size. The Chesapeake, not of the 
largest description of frigates, had recently discharged a part of her 
crew, and enlisted others : several of her officers were sick. Law- 
rence sailed on thefirst of June ; and when he came within sight 
of the Shannon, addressed his crev/, but they listened with no en- 
thusiasm: some complained that they had not received ther prize 
mone)' — murmurs and dissatisfaction were general ; in fact the 
crew were almost in a state of mutiny. The Chesapeake closed 
with the enemy and gave the first broadside ; and at the first fire 
of the Shannon, captain Lawrence was mortally wounded. A 
second and a third broadside gave the British a decided advantage, 
which \vas followed up by boarding the Chesapeake. A scene of 
horrid carnage ensued ; captain Lawrence was carried below, ex- 
claiming, as he left the deck, " DouH giv* up the ship." Every of- 
ficer qualified for command in the Chesapeake, was either killed or 
disabled : about eighty v/ere killed, and as many wounded. Of the 
British, tv/enty-three were killed and fifty-six wounded. The 
captured frigate was carried in triumph to Halifax. The brilliant 
achievements of Wellington and Nelson called not forth more lively 
expressions ol exultation in England, than did the capture of the 
Chesapeake. The tower guns at London were fired on reception of 
the news, and the prince regent conferred on captain Broke the 
order of knighthood ! 

13. On the 4th of August, the American sloop of war Argus v/as 
captured by the Pelican, a vessel of her own class, but said to be 
two guns superior. Captain Allen, commander of the Argus, was 
mortally wounded at the first broadside of the enemy. In the fol- 
lowing month, the American brig Enterprize captured the Boxer, a 
vessel superior in effective force. The only person killed on board 
the Enterprize was her gallant commander, lieutenant Burroughs, 
and thirteen were wounded. The British loss was greater : among 
the slain was captain Blythe, who commanded the Boxer, and who 
was buried by the side of his antagonist in the town of Portland^ 
olT whose harbour the action was fought. 

14. But the most brilliant achievement this year was that of the 
youthful Perry on lake Erie. The British force consisted of six 
vessels, having sixty-three guns ; that of the Americans, of nine 
vessels and fifty-six guns. The conflict was tremendous. The 
■flag ship of Perry suffered dreadfully in the loss of men, and was 
en the point of sinking : he left the ship in the midst of the hottest 
fire, and proceeded to another vessel ; and after three hours con- 
flict, the laurel of victory was assigned to Perry ; the triumph was 
Coinplete-^not a single vessel of the enemy escaped. This action 

43 



506 UNITED STATE^i 

took place on the 10th September, and made the Apierlcana mas- 
ters of the lake. The g-allant Perry announced this victory in the 
following laconic epistle to gen. Harrison : *' We have met the en- 
emy and they are ours — two ships, two brigs, one schooner and one 
sloop."" 

15. Chesapeake bay was blockaded by the British during^ the 
spring of this year, and several predatory incursions by their troops 
were made. Much property was plundered and destroyed, and 
scenes occurred, particularly at Hampton and Havre de Grace, 
which will long be remembered to the disgrace of a nation pioless- 
ing to be civilized. 

16. An attack was made, May 29, en Sacketfs harbour by 
about one thousand British, who were repulsed with coi^siderable 
loss. General Brown commanded the American, and sir George 
Prevost the British troops. About the same time the British at- 
tacked Craney Island, near Norfolk, and were defeated with loss. 

17. Gen. Dearborn, the American commander, retired from ser- 
Tice this year. Fort Sandusky was invested by a large force of 
British and Indians ; and tlie exploit -of major Cvoghan in repuls- 
ing the assailants wilh immense loss, called forth general admira- 
tion. In October, Detroit Avas abandoned by the British, on the 

.approach of a large army under general Harrison ; who, soon after, 
defeated the enemy und^r the command of creneral Proctor, in Up- 
per Canada ; in this battle the celebrated Tecumseh was killed. 

18. Little was done this year very effective towards the con- 
quest of Canada. General Wilkinson descended the St. Lawrence 
from lake Ontario in November ; and an engagement took place at 
"Williamsburgh, in wiiich the Americans were repulsed with the 
loss of three hundred killed, v/ounded ar.d prisoners. A disagree- 
ment between the generals Hampton and Wilkinson, prevented 
that concert which was necessary to secure success ; tlie design of 
attacking Montreal was relinquished, and the army retired to win- 
ter quarters. Fort George was evacuated in the month of Decem- 
ber ; and misconceiving his instructions, general ISrClure, who 
commanded the fortress, set Are to the village of Newark. Niag- 
ara was afterwards surprised and retaken by the British. — TheBrit- 
ish crossed over to the American side, and in resentment for the de- 
struction of ^ewark, burnt Buffalo and some other villages, and 
laid waste the whole frontier. 

19. The Creek Indians, wbo had been for some time in open hos- 
tilities with the United States, were completely subdued this season 
and the succeeding spring, principally by troops commanded by 
general Andrew Jackson. 

20. In January, 1814, propositions having been made by the 
prince regent for a negotiation, Messrs. Russell and Clay were ap- 
pointed to join Messrs. Adams, Bayard and Gallatin, already in 
Europe, as commissioners to meet such as the British government 
might appoint ; and Messrs. Gambler, Golbourn and William Ad- 
ams were appointed to meet tbem. The place of assembling was 
first fixed at Gottenburg, but afterwards changed to Gheat in 
Flanders ; where the commissioners met in August. 



UNITED STATES. 507 

21. The frigate Essex, captain David Porter, after having long 
♦;ruised in the Pacific and captured a great number of British ves- 
sels, was herself captured in the harbour of Valparaiso, by the 
British frigate Phebe and the sloop Cherub. The Peacock captur- 
ed the British brig Epervier, April 29, after an action of forty- 
two minutes. The Hornet sloop of war captured the English na- 
tional brig Penguin ; and the old Constitution, under captain 
Stev/art, overcame the united forces of the Cyane and Levant. 

22. In the beginning of July, fort Erie was taken by the Amer- 
icans. On the 4th of July, a brilliant victory was gained by gen- 
eral Brown at Chippewa. On the 25th, one of the most sanguin- 
ary battles on record took place at Bridgewater : in this action 
the American generals Scott, Ripley and Porter, with colonel ]Mil- 
ier, majors Hindman, Jessup, Leavenworth and M'Neil; distin- 
guished themselves. The British forces were led by generals l^rum- 
mond and Rial. The battle lasted from four o'clock, P. M. until 
midnight. The British lost nine hundred, killed, wounded and 
prisoners : the American loss was lei-s. The latter maintained 
their ground; while the former retired. 

23. The town of Eastport in the bay of Passamaquoddy, was 
this year taken by a British naval force ; and soon after the Brit- 
ish took possession of Castine and all that part of the new state 
of Maine, lying between that place and Penobscot riven, an(i com- 
pelled many of the inhabitants to take the oath of allegiance to 
Great Britain. 'I'he British this year landed marauding parties, 
at Saybrook, Wareham, Scituate and other places, and destroyed 
much shipping: in an attempt on Stonington, they v/ere beaten off 
by a few gallant inhabitants with heavy loss. 

24. From the 16th to the 20th August, about sixty sail of the 
British arrived in the C-hesapr-ake, intending to invade the States 
in earnest. More than fifty of them landed at Benedict, on the 
Patuxent, about forty miles from Washington. On the 22d the 
British Hankers reached ^Vood Yard, fourteen miles from \\'ash- 
ington. Commodore Barney here blew up a flotilla of gun boats 
to prevent their falling into the hands of the enemy. On the 23d 
the British forces, estimated at six thousand, reached Bladens- 
burg-, about six miles from Vv^ashington. Here a short enga'-'-e- 
ment took place ; but the greater part of the American mililia 
fled. Commodore Barney, with a few eighteen pounders and 
about four hundred men, made a gallant resistance from Bladens- 
burg to the city ; but he was wounded and taken prisoner. The 
British here destroyed the capltol, the president's house and sever- 
al other public buildings, mutilated the monument in the navy 
yard, and committed many excesses worthy only of Goths and 
Vandals. In the night of the 25th, the British retired, gained their 
shipping by raipid marches, and embarked on board their ships on 
the 27th. Several British ships under captain Gordon, at the same 
time, ascended the Potomac, appeared before Alexandria, rob- 
bed the defenceless inhabitants of a vast quantity of flour and other 
plunder ; and escaped down the river without molestation* 



oOB UNITED STATES, 

25. Aunrust 14, Gen. Drummond was repulsed in an attack on 
fort Erie, after a severe conflict, with a loss of five hinidred and 
fighty-two in killed, wounded and prisoners, tv/o hundred and 
tv/enty one being killed ; American loss in killed and wounded, 
two hundred and forty-five. 

26. On Sunday, the 11th of September, admiral Cochrane ap- 
peared Oil" Baltimore v/ith about fifty sail. The larger vessels 
landed at North Paint, ten miles from the city, about seven thou- 
f^and troops under general Ross and admiral Cockburn. The next 
df^y, as they advanced towards the city, they were met by general 
Strieker v.ilh about three thousand militia, and a severe engagc- 
>nent look place, in which the British general was killed. The 
Arnericaris were however repulsed by superior numbers ; and on 
'l"uf-?day evening, the British advanced to within about two miles 
of the American entrenchments. But so strong was the American 
i'orce, and so valiantly had they fought the preceding day, that the 
British retreated before morning, and hastily re-embarked. A 
grand attack was made on Tuesday on fort M'Henry, on the other 
3ide of the city and commanding the Vv'ater passage to it, from fri- 
guter, bomb and rocket vessels, which lasted the whole day and a 
part of the night, doing but little damage. In the night about 
a thousand of the enemy landed betv/een the fort and the city, but 
were soon repulsed. The loss of the Amercans in killed, wounded 
nnd prisoners, was two hundred and thirteen: that of the British 
i? not known. The enemy, thus discomfitted, moved down the bay. 

.27. The governor-general of Canada, sir George Prevost, with 
iVom twelve to fourteen thousand men, made an attack on Platts- 
burgh, Sept. 11. At the same time a naval engagement, on lake 
Champlaim, took place insight of the land forces. The American 
fleet having eighty-six guns and eight hundred and twenty-six 
men, was commanded by captain M'Douough ; the British, con- 
M'sting of ninety-five gL-.ns and one thousand and fifty men, was 
commanded by commodore Downie, The action ended in the 
surrender of the British vessels, viz. one frigate, one brig and two 
sloops of war. Some of their gallies were sunk ; others escaped. 
American loss, fifty-two killed, fifty-eight wounded : British loss, 
eighty-four killed, one hundred and ten wounded. At the same 
time that Ihe fleets were engaged, governor Prevost attacked the 
forts at Plattsburgh with his land forces, throwing shells, balls and 
rockets : he attempted to cross the Saranac, but was repulsed at 
three different places. So effectual was the fire of the Americans, 
that, before sunset, the batteries he had erected were all silenced ; 
a.hd at nine o^clock in the evening his v/hole army began a rapid re- 
treat, leaving many wounded, and much ammunition, provision and 
baggage. The American loss this day,and in skirmishes previous on 
laud, was thirty-nine killed, sixty-two wounded and twenty miss- 
ing : the loss of the British, in killed, wounded and deserters, be- 
sides those on board the fleet, was estimated at two thousand five 
hundred. General Alexander Macamb commanded the American 
land forces. 



UNITED STATES, 



509 



28» As on Erie and Champlaln, so on the lake Ontario, each 
party strove for a naval ascendancy. Several large ships were 
built by the the Americans at Sackett's harbour, and by the Brit- 
ish at Kingston. The American fleet was commanded by captain 
Chauncey, and the British by commodore Yeo. As at no time, one 
side equalled the other in strength, so at all times one avoided a3 
the other sou!?ht for an engfagement. A partial action once took 
place ; but the British commander, at that time supposing hia 
force inferior, took the advantage of circumstances to make his 
port. One of the British vessels ready for sea at the close of the 
war manned nearly one hundred guns ; and two of the largest class 
of vessels in the world were at the same time erecting at Sackett'i 
harbour. 

29. In a sortie from fort Erie, under the command of general 
Jacob Brown, after a severe engagement, the British were defeat- 
ed with the loss of nearly a thousand, in killed, wounded and pris- 
oners : the American loss exceeded five hundred. 

30. The frigate President, commodore Decatur, sailed from 
New-York, Jan. 14, 1815, and was the next day pursued by four 
frigates and a brig of the enemy. An engagement took place be- 
tween the foremost of the pursuing vessels, the Endymion and the 
President : after a severe action of two hours, the Endymion wa3 
silenced and beaten off. The Pamone and Tenedos in one hour 
coming up, the President was obliged to surrender. 

31. One of the most splendid events on the part of the Ameri- 
cans closed the late war: it was the discomfiture and repulse of 
the British at New-Orleans. A very large British force entered 
lake Pontchartrain, near New-Orleans, early in December, 1814, 
defeating, after an obstinate conflict the small American naval force 
stationed there. The British were commanded by general Pack- 
enham, one of Wellington's invincibles who had conquered the 
great Napeleon : the American army was led by general Andrew 
Jackson. Several skirmishes took place, in which the British were 
almost the exclusive sufferers. On Sunday morning early, Jan. 8, 
a grand attack was made by the British on the A.merican troops in 
their entrenchments. After an engagement of more than an hour, 
the enemy were cut to pieces to a degree almost beyond example, 
and fled in confusion, leaving on the field of battle their dead and 
mounded. The British loss was seven hundred killed, fourteen 
hundred wounded, and five hund;ed prisoners : the generals Pack- 
enham and Keane, were among the slain, and general Cobb was 
dangerously wounded. The American loss was only seven killed 
and six wounded ! The attack was not renewed, and in a short 
time after, the British left the west. 

32. Up to the close of 1814, the British ministry, calculating to 
bring the Americans, from the farce of opposition at home, t& their 
terms, had discovered an indisposition to treat with the commis- 
sioners of the United States ; but the defeat of the British before 
Plattsburgh, gave a new turn to the negotiation, and a treaty of 
peace was signed at Ghent, December 24, 1814. Both nations 
agreed to appoint coaimissioners to settle disputed boundaries. 

43* 



510 UNITED STATES* 

No allusion was made in the treaty to the causes of the vaf. 
Security against their recurrence rests, however, on a much firmer 
basis than the provisions of the most solemn treaty. Britain has 
been taug-ht to appreciate the strength of the republic. She will 
read, in the history of the late struggle, the most convincing ar- 
guments against the invasion of neutral rights. By this war the 
public debt of the United States was increased a hundred millions 
of dollars. 

33. It would too much extend this sketch of the history of the 
republic, to trace to its source the origin of parties which have di- 
vided the country into two great sections with different appella- 
tions. The distinction was unknown until subsequent to Mr. Jay's 
treaty with Great Britain in 1795. George Washington was elec- 
ted president in 1788, and re-elected in 1792. He was succeeded 
by John Adams, elected in 1796, between whom and Thomas Jef- 
ferson the parties divided in 1800 : the latter was chosen at that 
time, not hov/ever until he had been balloted for thirty-six times 
'qy the house of representatives in congress, the vote by states be- 
ing at each balloting equally divided between Mr. Jeflerson and 
Aaron Burr. In 1804, Mr. Jefferson was re-elected. Declining 
an election in 1808, Mr. Jefferson gave place to James Madison. 
The latter continuing eight years, James Monroe was elected to 
the presidency in 1816 ; and so general was the satisfaction with 
the administration, that in 1820, he had all the electoral votes 
save one for the same office. 

34. Since the peace the attention of the country has been cal- 
led to the propriety of augmenting the national defence. Con- 
gfress having made appropriations for the purpose, extensive for- 
tifications have been and continue to be erected For the security of 
the commercial towns. One million of dollars annually is like- 
wise appropriated for the gradual augmentation of the navy, to 
'which, independent of smaller vessels, nine ships of the line, 
twelve frigates and three floating batteries are to be added. 

35. By an act of congress in the year 1818, a yearly pension, 
sufficient for their decent maintenance, having been granted to 
those officers and privates who served mojre than nine months at 
any one time in the war of the revolution, more than thirty thou- 
sand individuals made application for relief. The sum required 
much exceeded general expectation ; and the following year an 
additional act was passed which circumscribed the applicants to a 
narrow space. Importations having lessened, the amount received 
into the treasury from duties became less than the calculations ; 
■and in 1821, the standing military force was reduced from ten to 
aix thousand, and the building of ships of war was, in some de- 
gree, siwpended. 

36. Since the admission of Louisiana in 1812, six other states 
have been admitted into the Union— Indiana in 1816, Mississippi 
an 1817 ; Illinois in 1818, Alabama in 1819, Maine in 1820 and 
Jklissouri in 1821. Indiana and Illinois are sections of the same 
territory from which Ohio was made a state. Mississippi and Ala- 
caina -belonged to Georgia and Louisiana : Maine was separated. 



UNITED STATES. 511 

from Massachusetts, and Missouri from the vast tract ceded by the 
French, under the name of Louisiana. 

37. A treaty was concluded at Washington in 1819, by which 
Spain ceded to the United States that portion of her territory, 
known by the name of Florida. Five millions of dollars was the 
price ; and the sum is to be paid as indemnity to Americaa citizens 
for illegal seizures of their property in Spanish ports. 

38. Besides the different state governments, territorial govern- 
ments, with magistrates appointed by the president and senate, ex- 
ist in Michigan, Arkansas and Florida. 

39. In the year 1820, the fourth authorized census of the inhab- 
itants was recorded. The progress of population has been rapid 
almost beyond a parallel. In 1790, the population was three mil- 
lions nine hundred and twenty-one thousand : in 1800, five mil- 
lions, three hundred and twenty thousand : in 1810, seven millions 
two hundred and forty thousand; and in 1820, nine- millions sis 
hundred and thirty-eight thousaad. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 



EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY, 

To give a distinct view of the succession of princes in the chief 
empires or kingdoms, without employing' different columns (which 
distracts the attention, and occupies too much space), the series of 
the sovereigns of different nations is distingfuished in this table by 
different typographical characters. By this method the succession 
of the sovereigns in the different kingdoms is immediately distin- 
guishable, and also the duration of their reigns. In the intervals of 
time between every two successive reigns are recorded the remark- 
able events which occurred in those periods, in all parts of the 
world ; and thus the connexion of general history is preserved un- 
broken. 

The series of tte kings and emperors of Rome is printed/in a 
larger Roman type than the rest of the table : as, 

14 Tiberius, Emperor of Rome. 

The series of the popes is distinguishable by this character M pre- 
fixed t© each name ; as, 

1513. IF Pope Leo X. 

The names of the emperors of Germany are printed itt Italic 
crapitals ; as, 

887. AR:N'0LD^ Emperor of Germany. 

The kinjs of England are designated by the black Saxon type; aa, 

1066. ®^lUtam (the Conqueror)king of England. 

The kings of Scotland are denoted by a larger capital beginning 
the word ; as, 

1309. Robert III, kiog of Scotland. 
The kings of France are distinguished by the Italic type ; as, 
1498. Ltwi^ XJl^ king of France. 



^s^simmiSimaj^ m^iti. 



B. C. . 

.400'4 The Creation of the World, accerding to tlie Hebrew text 
of the Scriptures. 
According to the version of the Septuagliit 5872. 
According to the Samaritan version 4700. 
2348 The Universal Deluge. 
2247 The Building of Babel ; the Dispersion of Mankind ; and 

the Confusion of Languap^es. 
2217 Nirarod supposed to have built Babylon, and founded the 

Babylonish Monarchy ; and Assur to have built Nineveh, 

and founded the Monarchy of Assyria. 
2188 Menes (in Scripture Misraim) founds the Monarchy of F.gypt. 
2084 The Shepherd Kings conquer Egypt. 
2040 Moeri? King of Thebes and Memphis in Egypt. 
1996 The Birth of Abram. 

1897 Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed by fir^from Heaven. 
1896 Isaac born. 

1856 Inachus founds the Kingdom of Argos in Greece. 
1836 Jacob and Esau born. 
18"-^5 The Shepherd Kings abandon Egypt. 
1823 Death of Abraham. 
1796 The Deluge of Ogyges in Attica. 
1722 Sesostris or Rameses King of Egypt. 
1635 Joseph dies in Egypt. 
1582 The Chronology of the Arundelian Marbles begins with this 

year. 
1571 Moses born in Egypt. 
1556 Cecrops founds the Kingdom of Athens. 
1546 Scamander founds the Kingdom of Troy. 
1532 Judgment of the Areopagus between Mars and Neptune, two 

princes of Thessaly. 
1529 The Deluge of Deucalion in Thessaly. 
1522 The Council of the Amphictyons instituted. 
1520 Corinth built. 

1500 Erectheus or Erycthonius institutes the Panathenaean Gamesr. 
1493 Cadmus builds Thebes, and introduces Letters into Greece 
1491 Moses brings the Israelites out of Egypt. 
1453 The first Olympic Games celebrated ia Greece. 
1452 The Pentateuch, or five Books of Moses, written. 
1451 The Israelites led into the land of Canaan by Jo3hi;a 
1438 Pandion King of Athens. 



i 



I 



514 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

B. C. 

1406 Minos reig-ns in Crete, and gives laws to the Cretans. 

1376 Sethos reigns in Egypt. 

1322 Belus reii^ns in Babylon. 

1267 ISinus reig:ns in Assyria. 

1266 Oedipus marries his Mother Jocasta, and reigns in Thebes. 

1263 The Argonautic Expeditien. According to the Newtonian 

chronology 937. 
1257 Theseus unites the Cities of Attica. 
1252 Tyre, the capital of Phoenicia, built. 
1225 Siege of Thebes. War betv/een Eteocles and Polynices. 

Eurysthenes and Procles Kings of Lacedi^raon. 

1215 Second War of Thebes, or War of the Epigonoi. 

Semiramis supposed to have reigned at Babylon. 

1207 Gideon Judge of Israel. 

1202 Teucer built Salamis. 

1193 The Trojan War begins. 

1184 Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks. According tQ the 

Arundelian Marbles 1200. 
1182 x^^neas lands in. Italy. 
1155 Samson born. 

1104 Return of the Ileraclldse into Peloponnesus. 
1099 Samuel delivers Isi-ael. 
1079 Saal King of Israel. 
1070 iNIedon first Archon of Athens. 

1069 Codrus King of Athens devotes himself for his country. 
1055 David King of*Tsrael. 
1004 Dedication of Solomon's Temple. 

980'Ti.ehoboam King of Israel. 

839 Athaliah, wife of Jehoram, usurps the throne of Judah. 

886 Homer's Poems brought froni Asia into Greece. 

884 Lycurgus reforms the Constitution of Laccdjemon. 

869 llie city o( Carihage built by Dido. 

820 Nineveh taken by Arbaces and Belesis, which finishes th^t 
kingdom. 

776 The first'Olympiad begins in this year. 

769 Syracuse built by Archias of Corinth. 

767 Sardanapalus King of Assyria. 

760 The Ephoii, popular Magistrates, instituted at Lacedscm6», 

757 Ilalyattes Knig of Lydia. 

754 Decennial Archons elected at Athens. 

752 The foui'datioii of Roaie by Romulus. 

758 Rape of the Sabine W'omen. 

747 The Era of Nabonassar made use of by Ptolemy. 

738 Candaulcs King of Lydia. 

724 Hezekiah tenth King of Judah. 

721 Salmanazar takes Samaria, and carries the Ten Tribes into 

captivity, v.hich puts an end to the Israelitish Kingdom. 
715 Numa Pompilius/gecondKingof Rome. 
711 Sennacherib, King of Assyria, invades Judea: 
710 Dejoces King of Media* 



CHRONOLOGICAL TASLE. 5tS 

B. C. 

708 Habakkuk prophesied. 

703 Corcyra founded by the Corinthians. 

696 Manasseh sixteenth King of Judah. 

688 Judith kills Holoftrnes the Assyrian General. 

684 Annual Archons elected at Atheusr 

681 Esarhaddon unites the Kingfdoms of Babylon and Assyriav 

672 TulllIS HoSlilius, third King of Rome. 

670 Psammeticus King of Eg"ypt. 

607 Tke Combat between the iJoratii and Curiatii. 

658 Byzantium founded byPausauius King of Sparta. 

Phraortes King of Media. 

640 AnCUS Martius, fourth King of Rome. 

627 The Forty Years of Ezekiel began. 

62G Periander Tyrant of Corinth. 

Nabopolassar, father of Nebuchadnezzar, begins to reign at 

Babylon. 

624 Draco, Archon and Legislator of Athens. 

616 TarquiniTS Prisons, f:fth King of R.ome. 

606 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, and carries' the Jews into 
captivity. 

€01 Rattle between the Medes and Lydians, who are separated 
by a great eclipse of the sun, predicted by Thales. (New- 
ton. Chron. 5Bb.) 

End of the Assyrian Empire. Nineveh taken by Nebuchad- 
nezzar. 

GOO Jeremiah prophesied. 

399 Birth of Cyrus the Great. 

504 Solon, Archon and Legislator of Athens. 

578 Stirvius Tullius, sixth King of Rome. 

572 Nebuchadnezzar subdues Egypt. 

571 Phalaris Tyrant of Agrigentum. 

562 Comedies first exhibited at Athens by Thespis. 

Croa,gus reigns in Lydia. 

551 Confucius, the Chineee Philosopher, born. 

550 Pisistratus I yrant of Athens. 

548 The Ancient Temple of Uelphos burnt by the Pisistratidse. 

538 Babylon taken by Cyrus. End of the Babylonian Empire. 

ooG Cyrus ascend-- the throne of Persia. He puts an end to the 

Jewish captivity, which had lasted seventy years. 
534 Tarquinus Superbus, seventh King of Rome. 

Daniel prophesied. 

529 Death of Cyrus the Great. Cambyses King of Persia. 

Death of Pisistratus, Tyrant of Athens. 

522 Darius, son of llystaspes, King of Persia. 

520 The Jews begin to build the second Temple, which isfinishr 

ed in four years. 
510 The Pisistratidae expelled from Athens, and the Democracy 

restored. 



515 CMRONeLOGICAL TABLE. 

B. C. 

509 The Tarquins expelled from Rome and the Regal Govern. 
mentabolis^h^d. 

508 The first Alliance between the Romans and Carthaginians. 

504 Sardis taken and bijrnt by the Athenians. 

498 The first Dictator created at Rome (Lartius). 

497 Institution of the Saturnalia at Rome. 

493 The port of Pirseas built by the Athenians. 

490 The Battle of i\larathon, in which Miltiades defeats the 
Persians. 

488 The first Tribunes of the People created at Rome. Accord- 
in- to Blair 493. 

■ Miltiades dies in prison. 

486 Xerxes succeeds his father Darius in the kingdom of Persia. 

485 Coriolanus banished from Rome. 

483 QusBstors instituted at Rome. 

Aristides banished from Athens by the Ostracism. 

480 The Spartans, vnder Leonidas, slain at Termopylae. 

Naval Victory gained by the Greeks over the Persians' at 

Salamis. 

479 Attica laid waste and Athens burnt by Mardonius. 

Victories over the Persians at Platsea and Mycale. 

■ Xerxes leaves Greece. 

477 300 Fabii killed by the Veicntes. 

476 ThemJstocles rebuilds Athens. 

■ Valerius triumphs over the Veientes asd Sal^ines. 

The Roman Citizens numbered at 103,000. 

— - A great Eruption of .Etna. 

Hiero King- of Syracuse. 

471 Volero, the Roman Tribune, obtains a law for the election 
of magistrates in the comitia held by tribes. 

470 Cimon, son of Miltiades, defeats the Persian army and fleet 
m one day, at the mouth of the river Eurymedon. 

469 Capua founded by the Tuscans. 

464 Artaxerxes (Longimanus) King of Persia, 

Cimon banished by the Ostracism. 

463 Egypt revolts from the Persians. 

462 The Terentian Law proposed at Rome. 

456 Cincinnatus Dictator at Rome. 

The Ludi Sajculares first instituted at Rome. 

455 Commencement of the Seventy Prophetical Weeks of Daniel. 

453 The number of the Tribunes of the people at Rome increas- 
ed from Five to Ten. 

452 The two Books of Chronicles supposed to have been written 
at this time by Ezra. 

451 Creation of the Decemviri at Rome, and Compilation of the 
Laws of the Twelve Tables. 

449 Peace between the Greeks a«d Persians concluded by Ci- 
mon, glorious for Greece. 

Death of Virginia, aud Abolition of the Decemvirate. 

445 The Law of Canuleius for the Intermarriage of the Patricians 
and Plebeians at Rome. 



CHnONOLOeiCAL TABLE. ' 517 

B. C. 

445 Military Tribunes created. 

437 The Censorship lirst instituted at Rome. 

436 Pericles in high power at Athens. 

432 Meton's Cycle of the Moon of nineteen years. 

431 The Peloponnesian War begins, which lasted twenty-seven 

years. 
430 The History of the Old Testament ends about this time. 
— - Great Plague at Athens, eloquently described by Thucydides. 

Malachi the last of the Prophets. 

428 Death of Pericles. 

423 Darius Nethus King- of Persia. 

418 Disturbances at RoKie on account of the Agrarian Law. 

414 The Athenians defeated before Syracuse. 

413 Alcibiades, accused at Athens, flies to the Lacedsemonians. 

412 A Council of 400 governs Athens. 

405 Lysander defeats the Athenians at ^g^os Potaraos. 

404 Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon) King- of Persia. 

• End of the Peloponesian War. 

403 Lysande*- takes Athens. Government of the Thirty Tyrants .- 
401 The younger CyAis defeated by his brother Artaxerxes, and 
killed. 

Retreat of the 'T'en Thousand Greeks. 

= Persecution and Death of Socrates. 

Thrasybulus drives out the Thirty Tyrants, and delivers 

Athens. 
399 A Lectisternium first celebrated at Rome. 
397 The lake of Alba drained by the Romans. 
Sf^6 Syracuse unsuccessfully besieged by the Carthaginians. 
391 Marcus Furius Camillus Dictator at Rome. Veil taken. 
387 Dishonourable Peace of Antalcidas between the Spartangi 

and Persians. I 

nSS Rome taken by the Gauls under Brennus. 
382 Phsebidas, the Spartan, seizes the Citadel of Thebes. 
380 Pelopidas and Epaminondas deliver Thebes from the Lace- 
daemonians. 
371 Battle of Leuctra, in which the Lacedaemonians are defeated 

by the Thebans under Epaminondas. 
364 Pelopidas defeats the Tyrant of Pher{ea,but is killed in battle. 
363 Battle of Matinea, in which Epaminondas is killed. 
362 Ciirtius leaps into a Gulph in the Forum at Rome. 
361 Darius Ochus (or Artaxerxes III.) King of Persia. Accord- 
ing to Blair, 358. 
558 War of the Allies against Athens. 

358 Philip of Macedon takes Amphipolig, Pydna, and Potldea. 
357 Dion overcomes the party of Dionysius at Syracuse. 
356 Alexander the Great born at Pella in Macedonia. 

The Temple of Diana, at Ephesus, burnt by Erostratus.. 

The Phocian or Sacred War begins in Greece. 

Philip conquers the Thracians, Pseonians, and IllyriaSJs, 

350 Darius Ochus subdues Egypt. 

348 Philip of Macedon takes Olyathus, 
- — Eud of the Sacred War. 
44 



518 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

B. C. 

347 Dionysius restored at Syracuse, after an exile of ten years, 

346 Philip admitted a Member of the Amphictyonic Council. 

343 Syracuse taken by I'imoleon, and Dionisius the Tyrant 
finally banished. 

=— The War between the Romans and Samnites, which led to 
the conquest of all Italy. 

340 The Carthagfinians defeated near Agrigentum. 

P. Decius devotes hiinself for his country. 

338 Battle of Cheronssa gained by Philip over the Athenians and 
Thebans. 

337 Philip chosen Generalissimo of the Greeks. 

336 Philip murdered by Pausanias. 

Alexander the Great, King of Macedon. 

Alexander the Great destroys Thebes. 

335 Darius III. (Codomannus) King of Persia. 

Alexander chosen Generalissimo by the States of Greece. 

334 Alexander defeats the Persians on the banks of the Grauicus, 

333 The Persians defeated by Alexander at Issus. 

332 Alexander conquers Egypt, and takes Tyre. 

331 Darius defeated by Alexander at Arbela. 

330 Darius Codomannus killed. End of the Persian Empire, 

Alexander takes possession of Susa, and sets fire to the Pal- 
ace of Persepoli?. 

328 Alexander passes into India, defeats Porus, founds several 
cities, penetrates to the Ganges. 

The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates. 

325 Papirius Cursor, Dictator at Rome, triumphs over the Sam 
nites. 

524 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon, at the age of thirty- 
three. 

•321 The Samnites make the Roman Array pass under the yoke 
at Caudium. 

320 Ptolemy carries 100,000 Jews captives into Egypt. 

317 Agathocies Tyrant of Syracuse, 

312 Era of the Sclucida?. 

311 Cassander, Lysimachus, and Ptolemy, conclude a peace with 
Antigonus. 

304 Demetrius besieges Rhodes. 

303 Demetrius restores the Grcik Cities to their liberty. 

301 Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in which Antigonus is defeated 
and slain. 

■ Fabius Maximus and Valerius Corvus Dictators. 

300 Seleucus founds Antioch, Edessa, and Laodicea. 

298 Athens taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes. 

294 Seleucus resigns his \\ ife Stratonice to his son Antiochus. 

286 Law of Ilortensius, by which the decrees of the people were 
allowed the same force as those of the senate. 

285 The Astronomical Era of Dionysius of Aloxandiia. 

284 Ptolemy Philadelphus King of Egypt. 

283 The Library of Alexandria founded. 

281 Commencement of the Achtean League^ 

^80 Pyrrhus invades Italv, 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE* 519 

B. C. 

280 Antiochus Soter King of Syria. ^ 

277 The Translation of the Septuagint made by oraer oi i tole- 
my Philadelphus. Playfair, 285. 

Aniigonus Gonatus reigned in Macedon thirty-six years. 

275 Pyrrhus unsuccessful against the Carthaginians in Sicily. 
274 Pyrrhus, totally defeated by the Romans near Beneventum, 

evacuates Italy. 

272 The Samnites finally subdued by the Romans. 

266 Silver Money is coined at Rome for the first time^ 

265 The Citizens of Rome numbered at 292,224. 

264 The first Punic War begins. The Chronicle of Paros com- 
posed. 

260 Provincial Q?estors instituted at Rome. 

. First Naval Victory obtained by the Romans under the Con:- 

sul Duilius. 

255 Regains defeated and taken prisoner by the Carthaginians 
under Xantippiis. 

253 Manasseh chosen High Priest of the Jews. 

251 Great Victory of Metellns over Asdrubal. 

250 The Romans besiege Lilybosum ; are defeated by Hamilcar. 

241 End of the first Punic War. 

Attains King of Pergamus succeeds Eumenes. 

240 Comedies are first acted at Rome. 

235 The Temple of Janus shut the first time since the reign of 

Numa. 
228 Hamilcar killed in Spain. 
225 Great Victory of the Roinans over the Gauls. 
219 Hannibal take? Saguntum. 
218 The second Punic War begins. 
217 Hannibal defeats the Pi,omans under Flaminiua. 

Fabius Maximus Dictator. 

216 Battle of Cannre, in which the Romans are totally defeated 

by Hannibal. 
212 Philip II. of Macedon defeats the .Etolians. 

Marcellus takes Syracuse, after a siege of two years. 

211 Capua surrenders to the Romans. 

-— Antiochus the Great conquers Judrea. 

210 Asdrubal vanquished in Spr m by the Scipios. 

P'ublius Scipio, sent into Spain, takes New Carthage. 

206 Philopoemen Frretor of the Achjeans. 

203 The Carthaginians recal Hannibal to Africa. 

Sophonisba poisoned by Massinissa. 

201 Syphax led in triumph to Rome by P. Scipio. 

197 Philip defeated by the Romans at Cynocephale. 

196 The Battle of Zama, and end of the second Punic War. 

190 The Romans enter Asia, and defeat Antigonus at Magnesia. 

183 The elder Cato Censor at Rome. 

173 Vv'ar between the Romans and Perseus King of Macedon*. 

172 Antiochus defeats the generals of Ptolemy in Egypt. 

170 Antiochus Epiphanes takes and plunders Jerusalem. 

169 Terence's Comedies performed at Rome, 



520 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

B. C. 

167 Perseus defeated by Paulus iEmiliup, and brought prisoner 

to Rome. End of the kingdom of Macedon. 
166 Judas Maccabeus drives the Syrians out of Judea. 
164 The Roman Citizens numbered at 327,032. 
149 The third Punic War beg;ins. 
147 Metellus defeats the Achaean?. 
146 Corinth taken by the Consul Mummius. 

Carthage taken and destroyed by the Romans. 

137 The Pconians shamefully defeated by the Numantine*. 
135 The History of ihe Apocrypha ends. 

Antioclius besieges Jerusalem. 

133 Tiberius Gracchus put to death. 

Numantia taken. Pergamus becomes a Roman Province. 

121 Caius Gracchus killed. 

113 Carbo the Consul drives the Cimbri and Teutones out of Italy. 

ill The Ju2:urthine War begins. 

108 Marius defeats Jugurtha. 

103 Jugurtha starved to death at Rome. 

102 Marius defeats the Teutones and Cimbri. 

91 The War of the Allies against the Romans. 

90 .Sylla defeats the Marsi, Peligni, Samnites, &c. 

89 The Mithridatic War begins. 

88 Civil War between Marius and Sylla. Sylla takes posses- 
sion of Rome. 

86 Mithridates King of Pontus defeated by Sylla. 

83 Sylla defeats Norbanus. The Capitol burnt. 

02 Sylla perpetual Dictator. His horrible Proscription, 

HO Julius Csesar makes his first Campaign. 

79 Cicero's first Oration for Roscius. 

78 Sylla resigns all power, and dies. 

77 The War of Sertorius. 

72 Lucullus repeatedly defeats Mithridates, and reduces Pontus 
to a Roman province. 

70 Crassus and Pompey chosen Consuls at Rome. 

63 Victories of Pompey. Betakes Jerusalem, audvrestores Hyr- 
canus to the government of Judea. 

()2 Cataline's Conspiracy quelled at Rome by Cicero. 

61 Pompey enters Rome in triumph. 

59 The first Triumvirate ; Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar. 

— CcEsar proposes a new Agrarian Law. 

58 Clodius the Tribune procures the Banishment of Cicero. 
57 Casar defeats Ariovistus in Gaul. 

. Cicero brought back from Exile with high honour. 

55 Czcsar lands in Britain, and makes a short campaign. 

54 CcBsar invades Britain a second time, and conquers part of it. 

53 Crassus killed in Mesopotamia. 

52 Milo defended by Cicero for the slaughter of Clodius. 

49 Csesar passes the Rubicon, and marches to Rome. 

Commencement of the Era of Antioch, October, 49 A. C. 

48 Battle of Pharsalia, in which Pompey is defeated. 

— Pompey slain in Egypt. 

— The Alexandrian Library of 400,000 volumes burat. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE'. 521 

B. C. 

46 Cato besiejr^d iu Utica, kills himself. 

45 The Kaleiidar reformed by Julius Caesar, by introducing the 
Solar Year instead of the Lunar. The first Julian Year 
beaau January ], 45 A. C 

44 Julius Cfesar killed in the Senate-House. 

-f~ Octavius, grand-nephev/ and heir of Julius Cccsar, comes to 
Rome, and is opposed at first by Antony. 

43 Second Triumvirate ; Octavius, Mark Antony, andLepidus. 

42 Battle of Philippi, in which Brutus and Cassius are defeated. 

40 Ilerod marries Mariamne, daughter of Hyrcanu&, and ob- 
tains from the Romans the Government of Judfea. 

34 Antony divides Armenia among the children of Cleopatra. 
33 Mauritania reduced into a Roman Province. 

32 War declared by the Senate agaiiast Antony and Cleopatra.. 
31 Battle of Actiura and end of the Roman Commonwealth. 

— Octavius Emperor of Rome. 

30 Death of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. Alexandria taken 

by Octavius. 

— Octavius receives the title of Augustus. 
23 Death of Marcellus. Agrippa in Spain- 

20 Porus King of India sends an Embassy to Augustus. 

17 Augustus revives the Secular Games. 

15 TheRhseti and Vindelenci defeated by Drusus. 

10 The Temple of Janus shut by Augustus for a short time. 

8 Augustus corrects an Error of the Roman Kalendar. 
- Death of Msecenas. 

5 Augustus ordains a Census of all the people in the Romaa 

Empire. 
4 JESUS CHRIST is born four years before the commencement 

of the vulgar era. 
A. D. 

9 The Roman Legions under Varus, destroyed in Germany. 

— Ovid the Poet banished to Tomos. 
14 Tiberius Emperor of Rome. 

19 Germanicus dies at Antioch. 

— Tiberius banishes the Jews from Rome. [ siah. 

26 John the Baptist preaches in Judsea the Coming of the Mes- 

27 Tiberius retires to the, island of Caprese. 

— Pilate made Governor of Judsea. 

31 Sejanus disgraced, and put to death by Tiberius. 

33 IF St. Peter first Pope. 

— JESUS CHRIST is crucified. 

35 The Conversion of St. Paul. 
37 Caligula Emperor of Rome. 

39 St. Matthew writes his Gospel. 

40 The name of Christians first given to th$ Disciples of Christ 

at Antioch, 

41 Claudius Emperor of Rome. 

— Herod persecutes the Christians, and imprisons Peter. 

42 Sergius Paulus, proconsul, converted by St. Paul. 
io Expedition of Claudius into l>ntaia. 

44* 



622 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 

A. D. 

44 St. Mark writeB his Gospel. 

45 Vespasian in Britain. 

47 The L^idi Sceculares (secular gumes) performed at Rome. 

48 Messalina put to death by Claudius, who marries Agrippini 

the mother of Nerd. 

50 St. Paul preaches in the Areopagus at Athens. 

51 CaractacHs, the British King, is carried prisoner to Rome. 
54 Nero Emperor of Rome. 

65 Britannicus poisoned by Nero. 

59 Nero puts to death his mother Agrippina. 

60 Suetonius Paulinus defeats the Britons. 

CI The Britons, under Queen Boadicea, defeat the Romans. 
64 The first Persecution of the Christians raised by Nero. 

— Rome set on fij-e by Nero. 

66 Bareas Soranus and Thrasea Patus put to death by Nero. 

— IT Pope Linus. 

67 Massacre of the Jews by Florus, at Csesarea, Ptolemais, and 

Alexandria. 
.— St. Peter and St. Paul put to death. 

— Josephus, the Jewish historian, governor of Galilee, 

— T[^ Pope St. Clement. 

68 Galta Emperor of Rome. 

69 Otho Emperor of Rome. 

— Vitellilis Emperor of Rome. 

70 Vespasian Emperor of Rome. 

— Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus. 

77 TT Pope St. Cletus. 

78 A great Pestilence at Rome, 10,000 dying in one day. 

79 1 ItUS Emperor of Rome. [ suvius. 

— Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an Eruption of Ve- 

80 Conquests of Agricola in Britain, 
ni Domilian Emperor of Rome. 
83 IT Pope Anacletus. 

89"Apollonius of Tyanea defends himself before Domitian a- 
gainst an accusation of Treason. 

95 Dreadful Persecution of the Christians at Rome, and ia the 

provinces. 

— St. John writes his Apocalypse, and his Gospel. 

96 Nerva Emperor of Rome. 

— IT Pope Evaristus. 

98 Trajan Emperor of Rome. 

— Trajan forbids the Christian Assemblies. 
100 

103 The Dacians subdued by Trajan. 

107 Trajan's Victories in Asia. 

108 St. Ignatius devoured by wild Beasts at Rome. 
• IT Pope Alexander I. 

i 15 The Jews in Cyrene murder 200.000 Greelcs and Romans. 
il7 H Pope SIxtas I. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE^ 523 

A. D. 

118 Adrian Emperor of Rome. 

— — Persecution of the Christians renewed by Adrian, but after- 
ward suspended. 
120 Adrian's Wall built across Britain. 
,127 11" Pope Telesphorus. 

131 Adrian visits E^ypt and Syria. 

132 Adrian publishes his perpetual Edict or Code of the Laws. 
135 The llomans destroyed 580,000 Jews in Judfca. 

137 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem by the name of /Elia Capitoliaa. 

138 IT Pope Hyginus. 

Ar.tonius Pius Emperor of Rome. 

142 1i Pope Pius I. 

150 H" Pope Anicetus. , 

154 Justin Martyr publishes his Apology for the Christians. 

161 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, and Lucius Verus, 

Emperors of Rome. 

162 ^ Pope Soter. 

167 Polycarp and Pionices suffered Martyrdom in Asia. 

169 War with the Marcomanni. 

171 Death of Verus. Marcus Aurelius sole Emperor. 

. IF Pope Eleutherius.- 

177 Persecution of the Christians at Lyons. 

180 Commodus Emperor of Rome. 

185 IF Pope Victor I. 

189 The Saracens defeat the Romans. This people first men- 
tioned in history. 

193 Pertinax Emperor of Rome. Didius JuIianUS pur- 
chases the Empire. 

Pescennius Niger declared Emperor in the East). 

Septimius Severus Emperor of Rome. 

104 Niger defeated by Severus, and put to death. 

195 Byzantium besieged, surrenders to Severus. 

j96 Albmus proclaimed Ernpsror in Britain. 

197 Albinus, defeated by Severus, kills himself. 

"il Pope Zephyrinus. 

^00 [E-ypt„ 

202 The fifth Persecution against the Christians, principally in 
208 Severus, with his sons Caracally and Geta, in Britain. 
.209 The Caledonians repulsed, and a Wall built between the 
rivers Forth and Clyde. 

211 Caracalla and Geta Emperors of Rome, 

212 Caracalla murders Geta. 

217 Caracalla put to death. 

Macrinus Emperor of Rome, 

IT Pope Calixtus L 

218 HellOgabaluS Emperor of Rome. 

222 Alexander Severus Emperor of Rome. . 
--^ A Tribute paid by the Ronaans to the Got^g, 

\ 



524 CHRONQLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. C. 

222 If Pope Urban I. 

226 The Persians totally defeated by Alexander Severus, 

230 IT Pope Pontiamis. 

235 IT Pope Anterus. 

Maximinus assassinates Alexander Severus, and is pra-- 

claimed Emperor of Rome. 

236 The sixth Persecution of the Christians. 

If Pope Fabianus. 

237 Maximinus defeats the Dacians and Sarmatians. 

238 Maximus and Balbinus Emperors of Rome. 

Gordian Emperor of Rome. 

242 Gordian defeats the Persians under Sapor. 
244 Philip the Arabian Emperor of Rome. 

248 The Secular Games celebrated at Rome. Pompey's Thea- 

tre burnt. 
— - St. Cyprian elected Bishop of Carthage. 

249 Decius Emperor of Rome. 

250 The seventh Persecution of the Christians under Decias.. 
1[ Pope St. Cornelius. 

251 Vibius Volusianus Emperor of Rome. 
. — Gallus Emperor of Rome. 

252 H" Pope Lucius I. 

253 The Goths, Burgundians, &c. make an Irruption into Moesia 

and Pannonia. 

254 Valerianus Emperor of Rome. 
IF Pope Stephen I. 

257 The eighth Persecution of the Christians. 

IT Pope Sixtus II, 

259 The Persians ravage Syria. 
H Pope Dionysius. 

260 Gallienus Emperor of Rome. 

The Temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. 

261 Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus, and Csesarea. 

267 The Heruli invade and ravage Greece. 

268 Claudius II Emperor of Rome. 

269 The Goths and Heruli, to the number of 320,000,defeated by 

Claudius. 

IT Pope Felix I. 

270 Aurelian Emperor of Rome. 

271 The Alemanni and Marcomanni ravagfe the Empire. 

272 The ninth Persecution of the Christians. 

273 Zenobia Queen of Palmyra defeated by Aurelian at Edessa. 

274 IT Pope Eutychianus. 

275 Tacitus Emperor of Pvome. 

276 Florianus Emperor of Rome, 

277 Probus Emperor of Rome. 

•282 Carus Emperor of Rome defeats the Quadi and Sarsya" 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABILE. 52 J 

A. D. 

282 Carinus, Numerianus, Emperors of Rome. 

283 IT Pope Cains. 

Fingal King of Morvea died. 

284 Diocletian Emperor of Rome. 

28G The Empire attacked by the Northern Nations. 

Carausius usurps the government of Britain, and reigns seven 

years. 

290 The Gregorian and Hermogenian Codes published. 

292 Partition of the Empire by Diocletian between two Empe- 
rors and two Caesars. 

295 IT Pope Matxellinus. 

Alexandria in Egypt taken by Diocletian. 

300 

302 The tenth Persecution of the Christians, 

304 If Pope Marcellus. 

Resigaation of Diocletian and Maximian.. 

- Galerius and Constantius Emperors of Rome. 

305 Maxirninus Emperor of Roms. 

306 CoQStantine the Great Emperor of Rome. He stops 

the Persecution of the Christians. 
310 ^ Pope Eusebius. 

T Pope Melchiadeg. 

314 IT Pope Sylvester. 

325 Constantine abolishes the Combats of Gladiators. 

325 He assembles the first General Covmcil at Nice, where the 

Doctrines of Arius are condemned. 

326 St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, introduces Monach- 

isni in the Roman empire. 
329 Constantine removes the Seat of Einpire to Constantinople, 

336 H Pope Marcus. 

337 1i Pope Julius I. 

— - Death of Constantine. The Empire divided atiiong- his 
three Sons. 

- Constantine II, Constans, and Constantius, Empe- 

rors of Rome. 
352 IF Pope Liberius. 

356 "IT Pope Felix I. 

357 The Germans defeated by Julian at Strasburg, 

358 If Pope Felix II. 

361 Julian Emperor of Rome. He abjures Christianity, is elec- 
ted Pontifex Maximus, and attempts fruitlessly to rebuild 
the Temple of Jerusalem. 

363 Jovian Emperor of Rome. 

364 Valentinian Emperor of the West. 

Valens Emperor of the East. 

366 If Pope Damasus. * 

367 Gratian Emperor of the West, 

375 Valentinian II Emperar of the West. 



i 



i 



> 



526 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 
376 Valens allDWs the Goths to settle m Thrace. 

378 The Goths advance to the Gates of Constantinople. Death 

of Valens. 

379 Theodosius the Great Emperor of the East. 
381 Second General Council held at Constantinople. 

383 The Huns overrun Mesopotamia ; are defeated by the Goth?. 

384 Symmachus pleads the cause of Paganism against St. Am- 

brose in the Senate. 

385 IT Pope Syricius. 

392 Theodosius Emperor of the West and East. 
395 Arcadius Emperor of the East, and HonoruiS of tlac 
West. 

The Huns invade the Eastern Provinces. 

397 St. Chrysostom chosen Patriarch of Constantinople. 

399 ir Pope Anastasius. 

Gainas the Goth obtains Honeurs from Arcadius. 

400 

Alaric the Goth ravages Italy. 

401 If Pope Innocent I. .] 

403 Stilicho, General of Houorius, defeats Alaric near Pollentia^. j 

404 Fcrgfus I, King of Scotland,supposed to have begun his reigii-. \ 

400 The Vand-.ls, Alans, &e. invade France and Spain. j 
408 Iheodo-^ius II Emperor of the East. j 

410 Rome sacked and burnt by Alaric. Death of Alaric. 

411 The Vandals settled in Spain. 

410 The Secular Games celebrated at Rome. 

The Pelagian Heresy condemned by the Bishops of Africa. 

417 ^ Pope Zczimus. 

418 IT Pope Boniface I. i 
420 Pharamond first King of the Franks supposed to have be- 1 

gun his reign, 
422 H Pope Ctelestinus. 

424 Valentinian III Emperor of the West. 
426 The Romans withdraw finally from Britain. 
428 /Etius, the Roman General, defeats the Franks and Gotli?. 

431 The third General Council held at Ephesus. 

432 J Pope Sixtus III. 

435 The Theodosian Code published. 

439 Generic the Vandal invades and plunders Italy. 

Eadocia the Empress, wife of Theodosius, retires to Jerusa- 

lem. 

Carthage taken by the Vandals. Kingdom of the Vandals j 

in Africa. i 

440 IT Pope Leo the Great. ^ 
442 Theodosius forced to make a disgraceful Peace with Attila 

the Hun. , 

Attila causes his brother Bleda to be murdered. . i 

445^ The Britons in vain solicit the Romans to assist them against \ 

the Tict^ aad Scots. 



eHRONOLOGICAL TABL-E. '52f 

K. D. 

445 Attilathe Hun overruns Illyrium, Thrace, Dacia,Mc2sia, and 
Scythia. 

448 The Romans eng-ag-e to pay a heavy Tribute of Gold to Attila. 

449 Merov(£us King of the Franks. 
430 Marcian Emperor of the East. 

Attila ravages Germany and France. 

451 Theodoric King of the Visigoths killed in battle. The Huns 

defeated by ^Etius. 

The Saxons arrive in Britain under Hengist and Horsa.- 

■ The fourth General Council held at Chalcedon. 

452 Foundation of the city of Venice. 

435 Petromius Maximus Emperor of the West. 
. AvitUS Emperor of the West. 

Home taken and plundered by Genseric the Vandal. 

456 Ckilderic King of the Franks. 

ASn Leo the Great f:mperor of the East. 

__ Majorianus Emperor of the West. 

461 Severns Emperor of the West, raised by Ricimer. 

H Pope Hilarius. 

467 Allthemius Emperor of the West. 

468 Eric Kingf of the Visigoths drives the Romans out of Spaln^ 
— - IF Pope Simplicius- 

470 ^lla the Saxon takes possession of the Kingdom of Sussex, 

471 -Slla defeats all the British Princes. 

472 Groat Eruption of Mount Vesuvius, seen from Constantino- 

ple. 
Oiybius Emperor of the West. 

473 GlyceriUS, Emperor of the West, degraded and stripped by 

474 Julius NepOS Emperor of the West. 
ZciiO Emperor of the East. 

AllgUStulus Romulus Emperor of the West, raised by his 

father Orctes, General of Nepos. 
476 Orestes pot to death by OdoacerKing of the Heruli. 

■ Rome taken by Odoacer nov/ kin^ of Italy. 

Extinction of the Western Empike of tire Romans. 

507 years from the battle of Actium, and 1224 from the 

building of Rome. 
4^1 Clovis King of the Franks. 

Zeno makes Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, his General, and cvfi- 

ates him Consul. 
483 % Pope Felix III. 
485 Battle of Soissons gained by Ciovis. 
483 Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, entirely defeats Odoacer, and is 

acknowledged King of Italy by the Emperor Zeno. 

490 The Burgundians, under Gondebald, ravage Italy. 

Ireland, called the Isle of Saints, famous for its Schsols, 

491 AnastasiuS Emperor of: the East. 
493 Odoacer put to death by Theodoric. 



I 



528 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
A. D. 

496 IT Pope Anastasius II. 

497 Clovisaiid the Franks convex ted to Christianity. 

498 IT Pope Symmachus. 

499 Alliance between Clovis and Theodoric tfee Great. 
500 

Gondebald, the Bnrg:undian, becomes tributary to Clovis. 

501 The Bnrgundian Laws published by Gondebald. 

502 Cabades King of Persia raA^ages part of the Eastern Empire. 
504 1 he Eastern Empire makes peace with Cabades. 

507 Clovis defeat? Alaric the Visigoth, and receives a congratu- 

latory embassy, wiih a diadem, from Anastasius. 

508 Theodoric the Great defeats Clovis in the battle of Aries, and 

then makes peace with him. 

510 Clovis makes i-'aris the capital of the kingdom of the Franks,; 

511 Death of Clovis. Division of his kingdom among his four sons. 
Child ebert^ Thierry^ Clotairt^ and Clodomir, Kings nf^ihe 

Franks. 

512 The Hernli allowed by Anastasius to settle in Thrace. 
514 *i[ Pope Hormisdas. 

615 Arthur king of the Britons supposed to have begun his reign, 

516 The Computation of Time by the Christian ^ra introduced 

by Dion5'sius the Monk. 

517 The Getae ravage Illyrium, Macedonia, and Epirus. 

518 Justin 1, Emperor of the East, raised from obscurity. 

519 Justin restores the Orthodox Bishops, and condemns the Eu- 

tychians. 

Cabades King of Persia proposes that Justin should adopt his 

son Cosroes, aad makes war on a refusal. 
523 IT Pope John I. 

525 The Arian Bishops deposed by Justin, and this act highly re- 

resented by Iheodoric. 

Antioch and many other cities almost destroyed by an earth- 

quake, and rebuilt by Justin, who adopts his nephew Jus- 
tinian . 

526 Theodoric puts to death Boethius and Symmachus. 

IT Pope Felix IV. 

527 Justinian 1 Emperor of the East. 

529 Belisarius, General of Justinian, defeats the Persians. 

The Books of the Civil Law published by Justinian. 

530 H Pope Boniface H. 

532 Justinian congratulates Cosroes on succeeding to the throne 

of Persia, and concludes a perpetual peace v/ith him. 

Great Insurrection at Constantinople quelled with prodigious 

slaughter by Belisarius. 

533 Athalaric King of the Ostrogoths dies, and is succeeded by 

his mother Amalasouta. 

TT Pope John II. 

534 Thendobert King of Mctz. 

Belisarius defeats Gelimer and the Vandals in Africa. 

535 !r Pope Agapetus. 

536 ^ I'ope Sylvester. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TASL&i 629 

I. y. 

537 Belisarlus subdues the Ostrogoths in Italy, and takes Rome* 

538 II Pope Vigiiius. 

540 Belisarius refuses to accept the Crown of Ttaly. 
543 Totila, the Goth, recovers Italy from the Romans. 

547 Totila takes and plunders Rome. 

548 Theobald King of Me!z. 

549 Rome retaken by Beliaarius., 

550 Commencement of the kingdom of Poland under Lechus. 
— — Rome recovered by Totila. 

551 I'he manufacture of Silk introduced into Europe. 

653 Totila defeated by Narses the Eunucli, and put to death. 

555 H Pope Pelagius L 

658 The Huns, breaking into Thrace, are defeated by Belisarius, 

559 Belisarius degraded, and ungratefully treated by Justinian. 
■^ — Clntaire sole King of France, 

560 IT Pope John III. 

• — Belisarius restored to his Honours and Command. 

^6*2 Caribert^ Gonlran Sigebtrt^ and Chilperic^ Kings of France, 

565 Jlisdn II Emperor of Rome. 

666 Narses, recalled from Italy, invites the Lombards to take 

possession of the country. 
6G8 Italy conquered by the Lombards. 
571 Birth of Mahomet the false Prophet, -. 

574 IT Pope Benedict I. -* 

578 Tiberius II Emperor of the East. 

TF Pope Pelagius II. 

680 The Latin Tongue ceases to be spoken in Italy about this 

time. 
682 Maurice Emperor of the East. 
584 Cloitaire II King of Soissons. 
690 Antioch again destroyed, with 30,000 inhabitants, by an 

Earthquake. 

IT Pope Gregory the Great 

596 Thierry II and Theodobert II Kings of Paris and Ausirasia. 

Aug;ustine the Monk converts the Saxons to Christianity. 

€00 

602 1 nocas Emperor of the East acknowledges the Supremacy 

of the Popes. 
604 T Pope Sabinianuso 
-607 IT Pope Boniface IV, 
' — The Pantheon at Rome Dedicated to God, the Virgin, and 

the Saints. 
■608 IT Pope Boniface IV. 

609 The Jews of Antioch massacre the Christians, 
611 Heraclius Emperor of the East. 
613 The French Maires du Palais first introduced by Clotalre as 

Regents, 
S14 Clotatre II sole King of France, 
-— Queen Bruuechilda, accused of numberless crimes, is put t# 

death by Clotaire IL ' 

46 



536 . GHttO?JOLOGICAL TASLE. 

A. D. 

^15 IT Pope Deus-dedit. 

616 Jerusalem taken by the Persians 'under Cosroes 11. 

G18 IT Pope Boniface V. 

622 Era of the Heg^yra, or Flight of Mahomet from Mecca iK> 

Medina. 
625 IT Pope Honorius I. 

The Persians under Cosroes II, with the Huns, Abari, and 

Sclavonians, besiee:e Constantinople. 

628 Dagobert and Chariucrt Kings of trance.. 

®32 Death of Mahomet. Abubeker succeeds him as Caliph of 
the Saracens. 

633 Abubeker die?, and is succeeded by Omar in the Caliphate. 

•636 Jerusalem taken by Omar acd the baracens, "who keep pos- 
session of it 463 years. 

638 Sigebert Hand Chris 11^ Kings of France. 

640 IT Pope Severinus. 

^ Pope John IV. 

- — The Library of Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus, is burnt by the Saracens. 

•-641 Const antine, Emperor of the East for a few months, poi- 
soned by his step-mother. 

Heraclionas and Tiberius III, Emperors of the East. 

642 Constans, son of Constantine, Emperor of the East. 

11 Pope Theodorus. 

645 Otman succeeds Omar in the Caliphate. 

648 Cyprus taken by the Saracens under Mawia, 

649 IT Pope Martin I. 

653 The Saracers take Rhodes, and destroy the Colossus. 

654 Child eric JI King of Avstrasia, 

IF Pope El, genius I. 

'«55 Ali Caliph of Arabia. Mawia Caliph of Egypt. 

€57 If Pope Vitalianus. 

€58 The Saracens obtain Peace of the^Emperor Constans, and 

agree to pay a yearly tribute. 
1168 CoilStantius V (Pogonatus) Emperor of the East. 
669 Sicily ravaged by the Saracens. 
^72 If Pope Adeodatus. 

The Saracens ineffectually besiege Constantinople. Their 

fleet destroyed by the Greek Fire used by Callinicus. 

675 The Saracens attempt to land in Spain, but are repulsed by 

\^'amba King of the Visgoths. 

676 11 Pope Don us. 

<79 Thierry J V King of all France. 

H Pope Agatho. 

680 The sixth General or CEcumenical Council of Constantinople , 

682 IF Pope Leo II. " 

Q?A IT Pope Benedict II. 

685 IT Pope John V. 

. Justinian 11 Emperor of the East. 

The Britons, .totally subdued by live Saxons^ -retce at into 

Wales and Cornwall. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, ^31 

A. D. 

686 ir Pope Conor.. 

686 Ceadvralla King of Wessex subdues Sussex and Kent. 

637 IT Pope Sergius. , 

690 Pepin Heristel, Maire du Palais^ defeats Thierry, and ae ? 

quires the chief powpr in France. 
692' Clovis III King of' Francs. 

694 Justinian II dethroned, mutilated, and banished by Leontiu8, 

695 Childebert III King of France. 

LeoiUius Emperor of the East. Dethroned and mutilated by 

697 Apsimar or Tiberius, Emperor of the East. 

699 The Saracens defeated by John the Patrician. 
700 

The Saracens again defeated with great slaughter by Herac- 

lius, brother of Tiberius. 

701 IF Pope John ^^I. 

704 Justinian escapes from prison, defeats Tiberius, and ia restor- 
ed to the throne. 

707 Justininn II defeated by the Bulgarians. 

708 IF Pope Sisinnius. 

'B' Pope Coastantine. 

7J1 Philippicus Bardanes Emperor of the East. 
~- Dagohtrt III King of France. 

713 Anastasius II Emperor of the East. 

Spain conquered by the Saracens under Muca, the geia«cra-3 

of the Caliph "V\alid. 

714 IF Pope Gregory II. 

= Theodosius Emperor of the East. 

- — Charles j.lartel, Maire du Palais^ governs all France for 26 

years. 
716 Childeric II King of France, 

jueo (the Isarian) Emperor of the East. 

720 Omar II besieges Constantinople without success. 
■— — Thierry IV King of France. 

726 Leo forbids the Worship of Images, which occasions a gTfat 
rebellion of his subjects. The Pope defends the practice. 

728 Leo orders Pope Gregory to be seized and sent to Constant!- 
' nople ; but the order is frustrated, and Leo confiseates the 

Imperial Domains of Sieily and Calabria. 

729 The Saracens ravage Gallia Narbonnensis. 

731 IF Pope Gregory III. 

732 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens between Tours and 

Poictiers. 

736 Leo persecutes the Monks. 

737 Death of Peiagius, who preserved the Christian Monarchy 

in Asturia. 

740 The Duchy of Spoleto seized by the NormaHs. Recovered 

by the Pope. 

741 IF Pope Zachary. 

742 Childeric III King of France, 



4>3i2 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A, D. 

742 Constantine (Copronymus) Emperor of the East. An ei> 

emy to hnagfes and saint worship. 

743 He defeats and puts to death Artabazdusy who had seized 

Constantinople. 
745 He destroys the fleet ot* the Saracens. 
749 The Rnce of the Abassidse become Caliphs of the Saracens. 

761 Pepin (h JBref) King of Frame ^ founder of the second or 

Carlovingian Race, 

752 IT Pope Stephen III. 

763 Astolphus King of the Lombards erects the Dukedom of Ra- 
venHa, and claims from the Pope the Dukedom of Rome. 

754 Pope Stephen requests the assistance of Pepin against tlie 
Lombards. 

Pepin invades Italy, and strips Astolphus of his new posses* 

.«ions, conferring them on the Pope as a temporal sove- 
reignty. 

- — ATmanzor Caliph of the Saracens, a great encourager of learn- 
ing-. 

756 Dcsiderius, or Dider, proclaimed King of the Lombards, with 

the Pope's consent. 

Abdalrahman I takes the title of King of Cordova, and is the 

founder of the splendid dominion of the Moors in Spain. 

757 ^ Pope Paul I renews the alliance with Desiderius. 
759 % Pope Stephen III quarrels with Desiderius. 

762 Almanzor builds Bagdat, and makes it the seat of the Em- 

pire of the Caliphs. 

767 The Turks ravage Asia Minor. 

768 Charles {the Great) and Carloman^ Kings of France. 

H Pope Stephen IV. 

770 Constantine dissolves the Monasteries in the East. 
772 Charlemagne sole Monarch of France. 

He makes war against the Saxons. 

1[ Pope Adiian I. 

774 Charlemagne defeats Desiderius, and puts an end to the 

kiuiidom of the Lombards, which had subsisted 206 years. 

775 Leo IV Emperor of East. 

778 Battle of Roncezvalles between the Christians and Moors in 

Spain, where Rolando is killed. 

779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre and Sardinia. 

781 Constantine (Porphyrogenitus) Emperor of the East. 

Irene, Empress, is Regent in her son's minority, and keep&s 

him in entire subjection. 
<— She re-establishes the worship of images. 
285 Charlemagne subdues the Saxons. 

Haroun Alraschid Caliph of the Saracens. 

He invades and ravages a part of the ewjpire. 

786 Constantine assumes the government of the empire, and im . 

prisons his mother. 

787 The Danes first land in England. 

-: — The seventh General Council, or second of Nice? 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 53S 

A. D. 

788 Irene puts to death her son Constantine, and is procahned 
sole Empress. 

793 Irene proposes to marry Charlemagne, which bein^ disap- 

proved by her subjects, she is dethroned, and confined to 
a monastery. 

Nicepliorus Emperor of the East. 

794 Cliarleraagne defeats and extirpates the Huns. 
794 IT Pope Leo HI. 

797 The Saracen^ ravage Cappadocia, Cyprus, Rhodes, &c, 

Nicephorus associates his sou Saturacius in the empire. 

800 

New Empire of the West. Charlemagne crowned Em- 

peror at Rome. 
807 Haroiin Alraschid courts the alliance of Charlemagne. 
811 Michael (Curopalates) Emperor of the East. 

813 JuP'O (the Ar nenian) Emperor of the East. 

Aima^aon, Caliph of the Saracens, a great encouarger of 

Icarnins^. 

814 Lewis (le Dcbonnaire) Emperor of Frarice. 

816 i'tie Eastern Empire ravaged by Earthquakes, Famine, 
Conflagrations, &;c. 

816 IT Pope Stevf^n V. 

817 1[ Pope Pascal I. 

L«^wis (le Deb.) divides the enapire among his sons. 

821 ?'^Hchael (Balbus or the Stammerer) Emperor of the East, 
824 H" Pope Eugene fl. 

827 jE3!)tl*t unites the kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy. B«» 

ginning of the kingdom of England. 

IT Pope Valentine. 

828 Gregory IV. 

|29 Theophi'US Emperor of the East. 
838 ^tlirlbJOif Kiag of England. 

The Scots under Kenneth entirely subdue the Picts. 

840 LOTHARIUS Emperor of Germany. 

Charles {the Bald) King of France. 

841 Lotharius defeated by his two brothers in the battle of Fon- 

tenai, and deposed. 

842 LEWIS (of Bavaria) JEmperor of Germany. 

Michael III Emperor of the East. 

843 The Normans plunder the city of Rouen. 

844 H Pope Sergius III. 

845 The Normans plunder Hamburgh, and penetrate into Ger- 

many. 

847 If Pepe Leo IV. • 

848 The Venetian Fleet destroyed by the Saracens. 

851 If Pope Joan supposed to have filled the Papal chair fv»r iwo 

years. 
^— Bas llius associated Emperor of the East, 
45* 



^34 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLEw 

A. D. 

855 LEWIS II Emperor of Germany. 

€57 IStfielDilltr and lEthelttVt Kings of England. 

858 If Pope Nicholas I. ^ , 

866 ^thrlrrtr King of England. 

867 The Danes ravage England. 

Basilius sole Emperor of the East. 

' H Pope Adrian IT. 

- — Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, excommunicates Pope 

Adrian. 
872 ^IfrP^ (the Great) King of England. 

V Pope John VIII. 

875 CHARLES (the Bald) Emperor of Germany. 
877 LEWIS (the Stammerer) Emperor of Germany and King of 
France. 

879 Lewis III and Carleman^ Kings of France* 
■ The kingoiom of Aries begins. 

880 CHARLES (the Gross) Emperor of Germany and King of 

France. 

Ravagers of the Normans in France, 

882 ? Pope Marinus. 

884 ^ Pope Adrian HI. 

886 Leo (the Philosopher) Emperor of the East. 
The University of Oxford founded by Alfred. 

887 AliJ^OLD Emperor of Germany. 

The Normans besiege Paris, -which is gallantly defended by 

Eisjiop Goselin and Count Eudes. 
5888 Exidf.3 or Odo King of Franc t. 

890 Alfred the Great composes his Code of Laws, and divide? 

England into Counties, Hundreds, and Tithingr- 

891 IT Pope Formosus. 
896 ^ Pope Stephen VII. 
^97 If Pope John IX. 

898 Cli-arles III (the Simple) King of FrmcCo. 
900 

. IT Pope Benedict IV. 

LEWIS /F" Emperor of Germany. 

SOI l^^UtU (the Elder) succeeds Alfred aa King of E-ngland .a 

904 IF Pope Leo V. 

S05 IT Pope Sers:ius III. ♦ • 

911 COJfRAD^I Emperor of Germany. 

Constantine IX Emperor of the East. 

912 The Normans are established in Normandy under RoUo, 

913 IT Pope AnastasiUs, 
814 H Pope Landon. 

915 Constantine and Romanus Emperors of the East.. 

Pope John X. 

The University of Cambridge founded by Edward the Elder^ 

920 HEJVRY (the Fowler) Emperor of Germany. 

923 Rodolph Kim of France. 

Qro ^XMntm King of England, 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 535 

A. D. 

928 ir Pope Leo VI. 

929 ir Pope Stephen VIII. 
931 % Pope Johu XI. 

936 OTHO (the Great) Emperor of Germany. 

— - IT Pope Leo VII. 

936 Leivis IV {d^ Outremer) King of France. 

939 IF Pope Stephen IX. 

940 Howel-Dha, King of Wales, an eminent Lawyer. , 

941 ^trmUntr I Kin- of England. 
943 IT Pope Marinus XIIL 

946 ^ Pope Agapet. 

948 ^Dfretr King of England. \ • 

954 Lolharius King of France. 

955 <Sl3bg King of England. 

956 IT Pope John XII. 

959 Roman us II Emperor of the E&s;^". 

€^BpC King of England. 

983 "ff Pope Leo VIII. 

Nicephorus Phocus Emperor of the East.. 

964 Otho the Great conquers Italy. 

965 IT Pope John XIII. 

967 Antioch recovered from the Saracens by Nicephorus, 

969 John Zemisses Emperor of the East. 

972 IF Pope Benedict VI. 

§73 02'HO II Emperor of Germany. 

974 IT Pope Boniface VII. 

975 ^ Pope Benedict VII. 

- Basilius and Constantine X, Emperors of the East. 

976 a^DbJra II King of England. 
978 <i£d)llvfa H King of England. 
983 OTHO III Emperor of Germany. 
^84 IF Pope John XIV. 

SS6 IF Pope John XV. 

Leivis V {It Faineant') King of Frafiee. 

Hugh Capef^ King of France, founder of the Third Race of 

the French Kings. 
991 The Arabic mimeral Cyphers first introduced into Europe, 
996 Robert {the Wise) King of France. 
-^ — IF Pope Gregory V. 
999 IF Pope Silvester II. 
1000 

1002 HEJfR Y II Emperor of Germany. 

Great Massacre of the Danes by Ethelred King of England;, 

1003 T Pope John XVI. 
IF Pope John XVII. 

1004 IF Pope John XVIII. - • ' 
1095 Churches first built in the Gothic stile^ 
1009 T Pone Sergtus IV. 

ion % Pope Beuedict VIII* 



536 CHROI^OLOGiCAL TABLE* 

A. D. 

1013 The Danes, under Sueno, get possession of England. 

1015 The Manichean Doctrines prevalent in France and Italy. 

1016 <Z^DimmU II ( Ironside) King of En-land. 

Six Battles fought with the Danes under Canute ia England. 

1017 Canute the Dane (the Great) King of England. 

1018 The Normans invade Italy. 
1024 IT Pope John XIX or XX. 

CONRAD IJ (the Salic) Emperor of Germany, 

■ 1025 Musical Characters invented by Guido Aretino.' 

1028 Romanus Arcryrus Emperor of the East. 
1031 Henry J Kins: of Franee. 

1033 IT 1 ope Be.ie^dict IX. 

1034 Michael IV Emperor of the East. 
1036 i^aroln n (Harefoot) Ki.ig of England. 

1039 IIEjVRY III Ejiip< jor of Germany. 

Canute IL or l'?r.rniC*nulte King of England. 

1040 Macbeth usurps the 1 hrone of Scotland by the murder of 

Duncan. 

1041 (Z^DtsXttU J ■ (the Confessor) King of England, restores the 

Saxoo liae. 

1041 Michael (Calaphales) Emperor of the East. 

1042 Constantiue (Monomarhus) Emperor of the East. 

1043 The Turks, under '^' angrolipix, subdue Persia. 

1045 U Pope Gregory VI. 

1046 IT Pope Clement II. 
104f; IT Pope Damasus II. 
1049 T Pope Leo IX, the first pope -who maintained a regular 

army. 

1054 Theodora Emperor of the East. 

" Pope Leo IX taken prisoner by the Normans. 

1055 IT Pope Victor II. 

The Turks take Bagdat, and overturn the Empire of the 

Caliphs. ^ 

1056 HENRY /F Emperor of Germany. 

1057 Malcolm III (Canmore) King of Scotland. 

Isaac (Com n en us) Emperor of the East. 

IT Pope Stephen X. 

1058 V Pope Nicholas II. 

- The Saracens driven out of Sicily by Robert Guiscard the 

Norman. 

1059 Constantine XII (Ducas) Emperor of the East. 

1060 Philip I King of France. 

1061 IT Pope Alexander II. 

1065 The Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens. 

1066 C^i^rolD II King of England reigned nine monVhs. 

WLMiXti (the Conqueror) King of England. 

1068 Romanus Diogenes Emperor of the East. 

- Edgar AtJaeli»g seelis refuse m Scetland. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TAPLE. 537 

A. D. 
1068 Margaret, sister of Edgar Adieling, married to Malcolm 

King of Scotland. 
l€70 The Feudal Law introduced into England. 
1071 Michael Due as Emperor of the East. 
1073 IT Pope Gregory VII. 
1076 The Emperor Henry IV excommunicated and deposed by 

the Pope. 

1078 Niccphorus (Boton) Emperor of the East. 

1079 Doomsday-book begun by William the Conqueror. 
1081 Alexius I (Coranenus) Emperor of the East. 
— — Henry IV Emperor besieges Rome. 

1084 He is re-crowned Emperor of Germany. . 

1086 T Pope Victor III. * . 

1087 IT Pope Urban II. 

. Siaiitliam H (Rufus) King of England. 

1093 St. Margaret Queen of Scotland died. 

Donald Bane King of Scotland. 

1095 Uuncan II King of Scotland. 

The first Crusade to the Holy Land. Peter the Hermit. 

1098 The Crusaders take Autioch. 

xLdgar King of Scotland. 

1099 Jerusalem taken by Godfrey of Boulogne. The Knights of 

St. John instituted. 
— — H Pope Pascal II. 
1100 

. !^ett,t^ I (Beauclerc) King of England. 

1102 Guiscard of Normandy takes the title of Kingof NapIeV 
1104 Baldwin King of Jerusalem takes Ptolemais. 

1106 HEJ\^RY V Emperor of Germany. 

1107 Alexander I King of Scotland. 

1108 Lewis VI {It Gros) King of France. 

1118 ^ Pope Gelasius II. 

= The order of Knights Templars instituted, 

John (Comnenus) Emperor of the East", 

1119 IF Pope Calixtus II. 

1124 David I King of Scotland. 
. II Pope Honorius II. 

1125 LOTHARIUS II Emperor of Germany. 
1130 Pope Innocent II. 

1135 •^tepljen King of England. 

1137 Leicis VII (le Jeune) King of France. Married to Eleanor 

of Guienne, 

The Faudects of the Roman Law discovered at Amalphi. 

1138 CONRAD III Emperor of Germany. 

. The Scots, under David I, defeated by the English in the 

battle of the Standard. 

1139 Alphonso I King of Portugal rescues his kingdom from the 

fcaracens. 



ZrSS t^^RONOLOGICAL TAi3LE. 

A. D. 

1140 TTie Canon Law first introduced into Englanrl. 

1141 Stephen King- of England taken prisoner in the battle of Lii> 

coin by the troops of Matilda, 

1143 He recovers his kingdom. 

If Pope Cselestiuus II. 

* Manuel (Comnenus) Emperor of the East. 

1144 IT Pope LuciuE il. 

1145 t Pope Eugene III. 

1147 The second Crnsade excited by St. Bernard. 

1150 The study of the Civil Law revived at Bolcjrna. 

1151 The Canon Law is collected by Gratiau, a monk of Bologtta 

1152 FREDERICK / (Barl.arossa) Emperor of Germany. 

11.53 Malcolm IV King of Scotland. 

' f Pope Anastasius IV. • 

*— Treaty of Winchester. Compromise between King Stcphcia 

and Prince Henry. 
1154 l?ettr? H (Plantagenet) King England. 
•■■ ■ Pope Adrian IV. 
" The parlies of the Guelphs and Ghibellines disturb Italy. 

1157 The bank of Venice instituted. 

1158 Interview betw^een Henry II and Malcolm IV at Carlisle. 

1159 V Pope Alexander III. 

1160 The A.ibigenvs maintain heretical doctrines. 

1164 Institution of the order of the Teutonic Knights in Germany^ 
• T. Becket condemned by the Council of Clarendoa. 

1165 William (the Lion) King- of Scotland. 

1171 T. Becket murdered at Canterbury. 

1172 Conquest of Ireland by Henry II. 

1180 Philip Augustus Kir.g of France. 

1181 Alexius 11 (Comnenus) Emperor of the East. 
1183 ? Pope Lucius HI. 

Androiiicus, (Comnenus) Emperor of the Eaat. 

1185 'i Pope Urban III. 

^ Isaac Angclus Emperor of the East. 

1187 V Pope Gregory VIII. 

-, The city of Jerusalem taken by Saladin. 

1188 T Pope Clement III. 

1189 BiCljarB I (Coeur de Lion) King of England. 

• The third Crusade under Richard I and Philip Augustus, 

1190 HENRY r/- Emperor of Germany. 

1191 % Pope Calestinus III. 

1192 Richard I defeats Saladin in the battle of Ascalon. 
Guy of Lusignan King of Jerusalem. 

11<>5 Alexius Angelus (the 'Tyrant) Emperor of the East. 

1198 PHILIP Emperor of Germany. 

II Pope Innocent HI. 

1199 3l0^n King of England. 
1200 

1202 The fourth Crusade sets out from Venice. 



JtifIRONOLO(*T«AL TABLK. SS'f' 

A. B. 

1^202 Constantinople taken by the French and Venetians. . 

1203 Alexins and Murbzuphlus Emperors of the East. 

1204 Baldwin I Emperor of Constantinople, and 1 heodore L 

CLascaris) Emperor cf Nicrea. 

The Inquisition established by Pope Innocent III. 

1206 Henry Emperor of C-.>nstantinople. 

1208 OTHO IV Eraperor of Germany. 

London incorporated, obtains a Charter for electing a Mayor 

and Magiptiates. 
1210 Crusad* a^-rainst the AlbisfenseF, under Simon dc Montfor.t. 
1212 FREDERICK II Emperor of Germany. 

1214 Alexander II King of Scotland. 

1215 Magna Charta sig-ned by King John, 

1216 l^mv^ Hi KingV England. 

i^eter and John Ducas, Emperors of the East. 

1210 Robert Emperor of the East. 

Damictta taken by tiie Crusaders. 

1223 'Lads Fill Kina of France, 

1226 IT Pope IL.r.orius^lII. 

St. Lewis IX King of France. 

1227 IT Pope Gregory IX. 

Gengiskan and the Tartars overrun the empire of tke 

Saracens. 

1228 Baldwin II French Emperor of Constantinople. 
1234 The Inquisition committed to the Dominican Monks, 
1237 Russia brought under subjection by the Tartars. 
1241 If PopeCa^lestinuslV. 

1243 !r Pope Innocent IV. 

1248 The fifth Crusade under St. Lewis. 

1249 Alexander 111 King of Scotland. 
1251 COjYRAD /r Emperor of Germany. 

1254 ^ Pope Alexander IV. 

— — Interregnum in the empire of Germany, from the death of 
Conrad IV in 1254, to the election of Rodolph in 1273. 

1255 Theodore II (Lascaris) Emperor of Nicjea. 

1258 Bagdat taken by the Tartars. End of the Empire of tiie Sa- 

racens. 

1259 John (Lascaris) Emperor of Nicsea. 

1260 Michael (Palaologus) Emperor of Nica^a. 
• The Flagellants preach Baptism by Brood. 

1261 % Pope Urban IV. 

The Greek Emperors recover Constantinople from theFrench. 

1263 The Norwegians invade Scotland, and are defeated by Alex- 
ander III in the battle of Largs. 

1284 ^ Pope Clement IV. 

The Deputies of Boroughs first iguiiuBoned to Parliament ift 

England. 

— — Henry III of England taken prisoner in the battle of Lewe$. 

i2€^ Charles Cottet of Anjou King of Sicily v 



54@ CflRIJNOLOGlGAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1270 Philip in {the Bold) King oj France. 

1271 '^ } ope Gregory X. 

1*272 ©istoirD 1 (Lougshanks) King: of England. 
1273 RUDOLPH {oi Hapsburg) Emperor of Germany, first c' 
the Austrian Family. 

1276 IT Pope Innocent V. 

' IT PoDe'Adrian V. 

f T'ope John XXI, 

1277 IT Pope -Mchnlas ill. 

1281 IF Pope Martin IV. 

1282 The Sicilian Vespers, when 8,000 French were massacred . 

1283 Aridronicus 1 (-alfeologus) Emppror of the East. 
— — The cenqiipst of Wales by Edward I. 

1285 ? Pope Honorius IV. 

Philip IV {the Fair) King of France, 

1286 Margaret (of Norway) Queen of Scotland. 
1288 If Pope Nicholas IV. 

1290 Interregnum in Scotland for two years. Competition be- 
tween Bruce and Baliol for the crown, decided by Ed- 
ward I. 

3291 Ptolemais taken by the T'.rk^. End of the Crusades. 

1292 J ohn Paliol King of Scotland. 

ADOLPHUS (of Nassau) Emperor of Germany. 

IT Pope Caelestinus V. 

1293 From this year there is a reg;ular succession of English Par- 

liaments. 

1294 ? t'ope Boniface VIII. 

1295 Michael Andronicus Emperor of the East. 

1296 Interregnum -in Scotland for eight year?. Sir William Wal- 

lace nobly supports the liberty of his country, defeats the 
English at Sterling, and drives them out of the kingdom. 

1298 Wallace chosen Regent of Scotland, defeated at Falkirk. 

ALBERT I (of Austria) Emperor of Germany. 

The present Turkish Empire begins under Ottoman in Bi- 

thynia. 

1300 

1301 Quarrel between Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface VIII. 

1302 Comyn and Eraser defeat the English thrice in one day. 
— — The Mariner's Compass said to be discovered at Naples. 
1304 Wallace betrayed, delivered up, and put to death by Ed- 
ward I. 

1306 Robert I (Bruce) King of Scotland. 

1307 The Establishment of the Swiss Eepublics. 
.. OEDUjarn 11 King of England. 

1308 HE.YRY VII Emperor of Germany. 
• — :- f Pope Clement V. 

r— — The seat of the Popes transferred to Avignon for scventf 

years. 
itSlO Rhodes taken by the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem* 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 541 

A. I>. 

131 1 Pierce Gareston, favourite of Edward II, put to death. 

1312 The Knights Templars suppressed by Philip the Fair. 

1314 The Scots under Robert Bruce defeat the English under Edh 

ward II at Bannockburn. 
LE WIS V (of Bavaria) Emperor of Gevjoaany. 

Lewis X {Hutin) King of France. 

1315 John King of France. 

1316 IT Pope John XXII. 

. Philip V(the Long) King of France. 

1320 Andronicus 11 (Palxologus) Emperor of the East. 

1321 Charles IV {the Fair) King of France. 
1327 ^nto^ra I! I King of England. 

1323 Philip VI {of Valois) King of France. 
1329 I}avid II King of Scotland. Randolph Earl of Murray 
Regent. 

1331 The I'eutonic Knights settle in Prussia. 

1332 Edward Baliol, assisted by Edward III, is crowned at Scone 

King of Scots, but is soon driven out of the kingdom. 

1333 Casimir III (the Great) King of Poland. 

1334 IT Pope Benedict XII. 

2340 Gunpowder invented by Swartz, a monk of Cologne, 

Oil Fainting invented by John Van Eyk. 

1341 John V (Palfeologus) Emperor of the East. 

John Cantacuzenos, his governor, usurps the throae. 

1342 If Pope Clement VI. 

1346 Battle of Cressy won by Edward III and the Black Prince 

over the French. 

' ■ Battle of Durham, in which David 11 of Scotland is taken 

prisoner. 

1347 CHARLES IV Emperor of Germany. 

' Cola Rienzi assumes the Government of Rome. 

1350 The order of the Garter instituted by Edward III. 
Peter (the Cruel) King of Castile. 

1351 John II Kins: of France. 

1352 ir Pope Innocent VI. '^' 
The I'urks first enter Europe. 

1356 The Battle of Poictiers, in which John IT King of France is 

taken prisoner, and afterwards brought to London. 
1362 IT Pope Urban V. [English. 

The Law-pleading^s in England changed from French to 

1346 Charles V King of France, 

1370 IF Pope Gregory XI. 

"-— Robert II King of Scotland. 

1377 The Seat of the Popes removed back from Avignon to Rome» 

K.C^actJ 11 King of England. 

Wickliffe^s Doctrines propagated in England. 

1378 The Schism of the double Popes at Rome and Avignon be- 

gins and continues thirty-eight years. 
~- f Pope Urban VI of Rome. 

f Pope Ciemeut VII of Avignon. 

46 



542 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1378 WENCESLAUS, Emperor of Germany, deposed in 1400. 

1380 Charles VI King of France. 

Tamerlane invades and subdues Choras«ar. 

1381 Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's Insurrection in England. 
■— ~ — Peace between Venice and Genoa. 

Bills of Exchange first used in England. 

1383 Cannon first used by the English in the defence of Calais. 

1384 Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, succeeds to the Earl- 

dom of Flanders. 
1386 Tamerlane subdues Georgia. 

1388 Battle of Otterburn between Percy (Hotspur) and Douglas. 

1389 IT PopeBoniface IX. 

1390 Robert III King of Scotland. 

1391 Manuel II (Palfeologus) Emperor 6f the East. 

1392 The Cape of Good Hope discovered by the Portuguese. 
3394 The Jews banished from France by Charles VI. 

If Pope Benedict XIII. 

1395 Sigismund King of Hungary defeated by Bajazet I. 

1398 Tamerlane subdues part of Hindostan, and takes Delhi, 

1399 l^enre IV King of England. 
1400 

1,402 Bajazet is taken prisoner by Tamerlane in the Battle of 
Angon'a. 

Battle of Halidoun Hill, in which the Scots are defeated. 

1403 Battle of Shrewsbury, in which Hotspur is killed. 

1404 IF Pope Innocent VII. 

1405 Death of Tamerlane. 

1406 James I King of Scotland. 

IF Pope Gregory XII. 

1409 Council of Pisa, where Pope Gregory is deposed. 

IT Pope Alexander V. 

1410 JOSSE (Marquis of Brandenburgh) Emperor of Germany. 

IF Pope John XXIII. 

1411 SIGISMVMD E,: peror of Germany. 

The University cf St. Andrews in Scotland founded. 

1413 I'^Zm'i V King of England. 

1414 Council of Constance, in which two Popes were deposed, 

and Popedom remained vacant near three years. 

1415 Henry V defeats the French at Agincourt. 

~- - ■ John Huss condemned by the Council of Constance for Here- 
sy and burnt. 

1416 Jerome of Prague condemned by the same Council, and burnt. 

1417 IF Pope Martin V. 

«.^-^ Paper first made from linen rags. 

1420 The island of Madeira discovered by the Portuguese. 

1421 John VI (Palffiologus) Emperor of the East. 

1422 Amurath besieges Constantinople. 

!l)fnr? Vi King of England. * 

. Charles VII King of France. 

- — - James I King of Scots liberated from cfeiptivity by the EnglUk* 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 543 

\. B. 

1425 The Court of Session in Scotland instituted by James I. 
1428 Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, compels the English to 

rai?e the siejrc of that town. 
1431 H Pope Eugene IV= 

Rise of the Medici family at Florence. 

1436 Paris recovered by the French from the English. 

1437 eJames 11 King of Scotland. 

1438 ALBERT II Emperor of Germany. 

1439 Reunion of the Greek and Latin Churches. 

— — The Pragmatic Sanction established in France, 

1440 FREDERICK III Emperor of Germany. 

— — Invention of the art of Printing by John Guttenberg at 
Strasburg-. 

1444 Ladislaus King; of Hungary killed in battle with the Turks. 

1445 CoDStantine (Palsologus) Emperor of ihe East. 

1446 Great Inundation of the sea in ilolland. 

1447 ^ Pope Nicholas V. 

Rise of the Sforza Family at Milan. 

1453 Constantinople taken by the Turks. Extinction gf tke 

Eastern Empire of the Romans. 

End of the English government in f ranc©. 

1455 "if Pope Calixtus III. 

_ Battle of St. Albans, where Henry VI is taken prisoner by 

the Duke of York. 

1458 f Pope Pius II (^neas Sylvias). 

1459 The art of Engraving on copper invented. 

1460 James III King of Scotland. 

Battle of Wakefield, in which the Duke of York is killed. 

1461 (t^tslD-atB IV^ King of England. 
-, Jjcwis XI King of France. 

1470 Henry VI restored to the throne of England. 

1471 Battle of Barnet, where Warv,'ick is killed. Battle of 

Tewksbury, where the Lancastrians are totally defeated. 

Edward IV restored. Prince Edward of Lancaster basely 

murdered by Clarence and Gloucester. Death of Henry VI. 
._„.- T[ Pope Sixtus IV. 

1474 The Cape de Verd Islands discovered by the Portuguese. 

1475 Edward IV invades France. Peace of Pecquigni purchased 

by the French. 
1479 Ferdinand and Isabella unite the kingdoms of Arragon and 

Castile. , 
Russia freed from subjection to the Tartars by John Basil- 

witz. 

1483 Charles Fill King of France. 

<lvDtlX\rlJ V King of England. Duke of Gloucester Protector. 

Edward V and his brother murdered. 

KiCllir>l III King of England. 

1484 II Pope Innocent VIII. 

1485 battle of Bosworth, in which Richard III is killed. 
.^— "iydVCi Vll King of England, first oi the house of Tudor. 

Union of the houses of York and Lancaster* 



^44 CHROJ^OLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1488 James IV King of Scetland. 

3491 Granada taken by Ferdinand and Isabella. End of the 
kingdom of the Moors in Spain. 

1492 IT Pope Alexander VI (Borgia). 

■ Hispaniola and Cuba discovered by Christopher Colqmbus, 

1493 MAXIMILIAjY I Emperor of Germany. 

1494 Expedition of Charles VIII into Naples. 

Algebra first known in Europe. 

America discovered by Columbus. 

1497 The Portnguese, under Vasco de Gama, double the Cape of 

Good Hope and sail to the East Indies. 

1498 Lewis XII King of France. 

Savanorala burnt by Pope Alexander VI for preaching 

against the vices of the clergy. 

1499 Lewis Xil takes possession of the Milanese. 

Sebastian Cabot lands .-i North America. 

1500 

Brazil discovered by the Portuguese. 

iMaximilian divides Germany into six Circles, a»d adds fbiir 

more in 1512. 

1503 ^ Pope Pius III. 

IT Pope Julias II. 

Battle of Cerizole*, in which the French lose Naples. 

1504 Philip I King of Spain. — 1506 Jane his Queen. 

1507 Madacrasf ar discovered by the Portuguese. 

1508 League of Cambray against the Venetians. 

1509 f}m^ VI 11 King of England. 

Battle of Agnatlello, May 14. 

1511 Cuba conquered by the Spaniards. 
1513 Battle of Floddea, fatal to the Scots. 
J ames V King of Scotland. 

*S Pope Leo X. 

1515 Fronc^s I King of France. 

1516 Charles I (Emperor Charles V) King of Spain. 
-— — Barbarossa seizes the Kingdom of Algiers. 

1517 'J"he Reformation in Germany begun by Luther. 

< The Turks put an end to the reign of the Mamelukes ia 

Egypt. 

1518 Leo X condemns Luther's Doctrines. 

1519 CHARLES V Emperor of Germany. 

Fernando Cortez engages in the conquest of Mexico. 

1520 Sweden and Denmark united. [ Trollo. 
Massacre at Stockholm by Christiern II and Archbishop 

1521 IT Pope Avlriau VI. 

Gustavus Vasa King of Sweden. 

Cortez completes the conquest of Mexico. 

1522 The first Voyage round the world performed bf a ship ««t 

Magellan's squadron. 

1523 Solyman the Matjnificent takes Belgrade- 
IT Pope Clement^II. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. S'45 

A. D. 

1524 Swe(Scn and Denmark embrace the Protestant faith. 

1525 Battle of Pavia, in which Francis I i3 taken prisoner by 

Charles V. 

1526 Treaty of Madrid between Charles V and Francis I, when 

the latter is set at liberty. 

1527 Rome taken and plundered by Charles V. 

Pizarro and Dalmagro invade the empire of Peru. 

1528 Revolution of Genoa by Andrea Doria. 
Gustavus Eriscon crowned King^ of Sweden. 

1529 Diet of Spires against the Huguenots, then first termed Pro- 

testants. 
— — Peace of Cambray, August 5. 

1530 The League of Smalcald between the Protestants, 

1531 Michael Servetus burnt for heresy at Geneva. 

1532 The Treaty of Nuremberg, August 2. 

The Court of Session inScotland new-modeled by James V. 

1534 The Reformation in England. 
IT Pope Paul III. 

— — Barbarossa seizes the Kingdom of Tunis. 

■ Jack of Leyden heads the Anabaptists at Munster. 

1535 The Society of the Jesuits instituted by Ignatius Loyola. 
• Expedition of Charles V against Tunis. 

1538 Treaty of Nice between Charles V and Francis L 

1540 Dissolution of the Monasteries in England by Henry VIH. 

1542 Mary Queen of Scotland. 

1544 The French defeat the troops of Charles V. in the battle of 

Cerizoles. The Treaty of Crepi. 

1545 The Council of Trent begins, which continued eighteen 

years. 

1546 Cardinal Beaton, of St. Andrew's, assassinated. 

1547 Fiesco's Conspiracy at Genoa. 

The Battle of Mulberg, in which the Protestants are de- 
feated, and the Elector of Saxony taken prisoner. 

CDtD^D VI King of England. 

Htnry TI King of France. 

1548 The Interim granted by Charles V to the Protestants. 
1550 V Pope Julius III. 

1552 The Treaty of Passau between Charles V and the Elector erf 

Saxony, for the Establishment of Lutheranism. 

1553 ^4rp Queen of England. 
Lady Jane Grey beheaded. 

1555 ? Pope Marcellus II. 
^ Pope Paul IV. 

-„ — Many Bishops Burnt in England by Mary. 

1556 FERDIKAKD I Emperor of Germany. 
Philip II King of Spain. 

1557 Philip II defeats the French at St. Quiatin, 

1558 (Klt^abetlj Queen of England. 

1559 If Pope Pius IV. 

Francis II King of France 

"-"— Treaty of Catleau-CambreaisT 
46* ' 



546 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1660 Charles IX King of France. 

Conspiracy of Amboise formed by the party of Conde againr^ 

that of Guise. Beginning of the Civil Wars in France. 
■ The Reformation completed in Scotland by John Knox. 

1561 Mary Queen of Scots arrives in Scotland from France. 

1562 Battle of Dreux. Victory of the Guises over Coude. 
1564 MAXIMILIAN II Emperor of Germany. 

1566 IT Pope Pius VI. 

Revolt of the Netherlands from Philip II. 

1567 The Duke of Alva sent by Philip to the Netherlands. 
James VI King of Scotland. 

1568 Mary Queen of Scots flees to England for protection. 

Philip II puts to death his son Don Carlos. 

1569 The Earl of Murray, Regent of Scotland, assassinated by 

Hamilton. 

The battles of Jarnac and Moncontour in France, in. which 

the Protestants are defeated. 

1571 Naval Victory at Lepanto, where the Turks are defeated by 

Don John of Austria. 

1572 IT Pope Gregory XIII. 

The Massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24. 

1574 Henry III King of France. ^ 

" Socinus propagates his opinions. 

Don Sebastian King of Portugal invades Africa. 

3576 RODOLPIIUS 11 Emperor of Germany. 

• The League in France formed against the Protestants. 

1579 Commencement of the Republic of Holland, by the union cl 

Utrecht. 

1580 Philip II takes possession of Portugal. 

The World circumnavigated by Sir Francis Drake. 

2582 The new Style introduced into Italy by Pope Gregory XIII, 
the 5th October being counted the 15th. 

1584 William I Prince of Orange murdered at Delft. 
' Virginia discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh. 

1585 IT Pope Sixtus V. 

1587 Mary Queen of Scots beheaded at Fotheringay. 

1588 Destruction of the Spanish Armada by the English. 

1589 Henry III of France murdered by Jaquez Clement. 
Henry IV {the Great) King of France. 

1590 The battle of Ivry, which ruins the league in France. 

ir Pope Urban VII. 

H Pope Gregory XIV. 

1591 The Univjersity of Dublin erected. 
? Pope Innocent IX. 

1592 Presbyterian Church Government established in •Scotland'. 
^ Pope Clement VIII. 

1594 The Bank of England incorporated. 

1598 Edict of Nantes, tolerating the Protestants in France. 

Peace of Verins concluded betwetn France aad Spaia^ 

Philip III King of Spain. 

^^^ Tyroiie's rebellion ia Irela»d. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 547 

A. D. 
1600 
— — Gowrie's Conspiracy in Scotland. 

The Earl of Essex beheaded. 

The English East India Company established. 

1602 Decimal Arithmetic invented at Bruges. 

1603 3IamejSi I King of Great Britain. Union of the Crowus of 

England and Scotland. 
1605 The Gunpowder Plot discovered. 

% Pope Paul V. 

1608 Galileo discovers the Satellites of Jupiter, 

Arminius propagates his opinions. 

1610 Henry IV of France murdered by Ravaillac. 

1610 Lctvis III King of France. 

The Moors expelled from Spain by Philip III. 

Hudson's Bay discovered. 

1611 Baronets first created in England by James L 

1612 MATTHIAS Y^m^evov of Germany. 
1614 Logarithms invented by Napier. 

1616 Settlement of Virginia by Sir Walter Pvaleigh. 

1613 The Synod of Dort in Holland. 

1619 Discovery of the Circulation of the blood by Dr. Harvey. 
' FERDIjYAKD II Emperor of Germany. 

Vanini burnt at Thoulouse for Atheism. 

1620 The Battle of Prague, by which the Elector Palatine loses 

his E'lectorate. 

The English make a settlement at Madras. 

Navarre united to France. 

1621 Philip IV King of Spain. 

Batavia, in the island of Java, built and settled by the Dutch. 

IT Pope Gregory XV. 

1623 IT Pope Urban VIII. 

1625 Ci)ati-!0 I ICing of Great Britian. 

The Island of Barbadoes the first English settlement in the 

V\^est Indies. 

1626 League of the Protestant Princes against the Emperor. 
1632 Gustavus Adolphus killed in the battle of Lntzen. 

Christina Queen of Sweden. 

16.35 The French Academy instituted. 

1637 FERDIJVA.YD III Emperor of Germany. 

1638 Bagdat taken by the Turks. 

The Solemn League and Covenant established in Scotland. 

1640 John Duke of Braganza recovers the Kingdom of Portugal, 

1641 The Irish Rebellion, and Massacre of the^ Protestants^ Octo- 

ber 23. 

The Earl of Strafibrd beheaded. 

1642 Beginning of the Civil War in England. The battle of 

Edgehill,-October 23. 
1043 Lttvis XIV King of France. 

Ann of Austria Regent of France. 

' Archbisiiop Laud condemaedby tkii Cdittflfltofis, acd'belieadcd, 

2644 1 Pope laaoceat X. 



548 CHRONOt^OGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1644 Revolution in China by the Tartars. 

1645 Charles I defeated in the battle of Naseby. 

1648 The Peace of Westphalia. The Civil War of the Fronde 

at Paris. 

1649 Charles I of England feeheaded. 

— Commonwealth of England beginsV 

1650 The Marquis of Montrose put to death. 

Battle of Dunbar. Covenanters defeated by Cromwell. 

1651 The battle of Worcester won by Cromwell. 

1652 The first War between the English and Dutch. 

1654 End of the Commonwealth of England. Oliver Cromwell 

Lord Protector. 

■ ■ ■ ■ The English, under Admiral Penn, take possession of Jamai- 
ca. 

— — Christina Queen of Sweden resigns the Crown to Charles X. 

1655 If Pope Alexander VII. 

1653 LEOPOLD I Emperor of Germany. . 

Richard Cromwell Lord Protector of England. 

1659 The Peace of the Pyrenees between France and Spain. 

1660 C!tl)arif^ Jl King of Great Britain. Restoration of Monar- 

chy. 
— — The Peace of Oliva between Sweden, Denmark, and Poland. 

1662 The Royal Society instituted in England. 

1663 Charter of Carolina, and a colony settled soon after. 

The French Academy of Inscriptions instituted. 

1664 The second Dutch War begins. 

1665 Charles 11 King of Spain. 

Great Plague in London. 

1666 Great Fire in London. 

The Academy of Science instituted in France. 

Sabatei Levi, in Turkey, pretends to be the Messiah. 

1667 The Peace of Breda, which confirms to the English PennsyV 

rania, New- York and New-Jersey. 

? Pope Clement IX. 

1668 The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1669 The island of Candia taken by the Turks. 

1670 If Pope Clement X. 

1672 Lewis XIV conquers great part of Holland. 

The De Witts put to death in Holland. 

1674 John Sobieski King of Poland. 

1676 If t^pe Innocent XI. 

1678 The Peace of Nimeguen, July 31. 

= The Habeas Corpus act passed in England* 

1679 The Long Parliament of Charles II dissolved. 
1681 Peter the Great Czar of Muscovy. 

1683 Execution of Lord Russel, July 21. 

— — Execution of Algernon Sydney, December 7.- 

-^ The Siege of Vienna by the Turks raised by John Sobieski. 

1685 3lamejS il King of Great Britain. 

— — Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Lewis XIY. 

'^ Duke of Monnaovith beheaded. 



e^RONOLOGICAL TABLE. 349 

A. I). 

1G86 The Nf^wtonian Philosophy f.rst published, in Exaglanil. 
— — The Leag-ue of Aug-sburg against France. 

1688 Revolution in Britain. King James abdicates the throne, 

December 23. 

1689 ^M'llum «n(| ^M^ King and Queen of Great Britain. 

Episcopacy abolished in Scotland by King William. 

H Pope Alexander Vill. 

16^0 Battle of the Boyne, July 1. 

1691 ^ Pope Innocent XI!. 

1692 Battle of La liog-ue, May 19. 

The Massacre of 'Glcucoe in Scotland, Jan. 3!. O. S. 

Battle of Steedkirk. King William defeated by Luxemburg:, 

July 24. ^ 

Hanover made the ninth Electorate ogpfte Empire. 

1695 Namur taken by King William, June 25. 
1697 Peace of Riswick concluded, September II. 

Charle- XU King of Sweden. 

1699 Peace of Carlovitz concluded, January 26. 
1700 

. Philip V King of Spain. 

^ Pope Clement XL 

1701 Death of James II at St. Germain's. 

1702 2nne Queen of Great Britain. Vv'ar against France and 

Spain. 

The English and Dutch destroy the French Fleet at Vigo. 

The French send colonies to the Mississippi. 

1703 Gibraltar taken by Aditiiral Rooke, July 24. 

1704 Battle cf Blenheim, The French defeated by Marlborougli 

and Prince Eugene, Ar.giist 2. 
Peter the Great found? it. Petersburgh. 

1705 The English lake Borcelona. 
JOSEPH I Emperor of Gc rmany. 

1706 Battle of Ramilies. The French* defeated by the Duke of 

Marlborough, May 12. 

_ The Irealv of Union between England and Scotland, signed 

July 22.' 

1707 The battle of Almauza. The French ind Spaniards, under 

the Duke of Be; v/ick, defeat the allies, April 14. 

1708 Battle of Oudmarde. 1 he French defeated by Marlbo- 

rough and Eugene, June 30. 
Minorca taken by General Staphope, September 18. 

1709 Battle of PultoAva. Charles Xil defeated by Czar Peter, 

June 30. 

- — Battle of Malplaquet. The French defeated by Marlborough 
aad Eugene, September 1 L 

171 1 CITARLES VI Emperor of Germany. 

1713 The Peace of Utrecht signed March 30. 

171 A^ZQX%1 I Elector of Hanover, King of Great Britain. 

2715 Lewis XF Kvag of France. 

^^^^ The Rebellion of Scotiand, Battle oL Sheriff muir, Novem- 
ber 13, 



550 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1716 Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Peterwaradin. 

JI718 Charles XII of Sweden killed at the siege of FrederickshalL 

1721 IT Pope Innocent XIII. 

17^24 T Pope Benedict XIII. [Empress. 

1723 Death of Peter the Great, Czar of Muscovy. Catharine 

1726 Great Earthquake at Palermo, August 21. 
1727'€^eorge U Kmg of Great Britain. 

1727 Treaty of Copenhag-en between Great Britain andDemnarkt 

The Spaniards besiege Gibraltar, May 20. 

1728 Treaty between Great Britain and Holland, May 27. 
The Congress of Soissons, June 14. 

1729 Treaty of Seville between Great Britain, France and Spaia, 

November 9-^ 

1730 T Pope Clemel|KII. 

Christian VI King of Denmark. 

The Persians under Kouli-Khan defeat the Turks. 

1731 Treaty between Great Britain, the Emperor, and Kia§p of 

Spain, July 22. 
3733 The Jesuits expelled from Paraguay, January. 

Frederick III King of Poland. 

1734 Commercial Treaty between Great Britain and Prussia, De- 

cember 2. 

1735 The French defeat the Imperialists in Italy. 

1736 Peace between Spain and Austria. 

- Kouli-Khan (Nadir-Schah) proclaimed King of Persia, Sep- 

tember 29. 

1737 \Var declared between the Emperor and the Turks, July 2. 

1738 The Russians invade the Crimea. 

1739 Kadir-Schah conquers the greater part of the Mogul Empire. 
Treaty between Great Critain and DenL'^ark. 

Peace between the Emperor and the Turks, August 21. 

Peace between Russia aud the Turks, jNovember. 

1740 Frederick III (the Gceat) King of Prussia. 
IT Pope Benedict XIV. 

~ — • War between Poland and Hungary. 

1741 War declared between Russia and Sweden. 

The Prussians masters of Silesia, October 20. 

1742 Peace between Austria and Prussia, June M. 

» Defensive Alliance between Great Britain and Prussia, No- 
vember 18. 
— - CHARLES VII (of Bavaria) Emperor of Germany. 

1743 Defensive Alliance between Great Britain and Russia, Feb- 

ruary. 
War in Germany between the British, Hungarians, French, 

and Austrians. 
— -~ The French deftaied by the allies at Dettingen, June 6. 

1744 War declared in Great Biiiain against France, March 31. 
'— — The King of Prussia takes Prague. 

Commc/dore Anson completes his Voyage round the world. 

1745 FRAjYCIS I (of Lorraine) Emperor of Germany. 

"— Quadruple Alliance between Britain, Austria, Holland, and 
Poland, Jajiuary §, 



eHRON®L»GICAL TABLE. 551 

A. D. 

1745 The allied army defeated by the French at Fontenoy, 

April 30. 

Louishurg and Cape Breton taken by theBritish troops,Jime 6, 

■ The Rebellion breaks oat in Scotland, July. 

Treaty of Dresden between Prussia, Poland, Austria, and 

Saxony, December 25. 

1746 Ferdinand VI King of Spain. 

Frederick V King of Denmark. 

Count Saxe takes Brussels and x4ntwerp. 

— -— Victory of CuUoden, which puts an end to the Rebellion iu 
Scotland, April 16. 

= Lords Balmerino and Kilmarnock beheaded, August 18. 

Count Saxe defeats the aliies at Raucoiix, Oct. 1 1. 

Dreadful Earthquake at Lima in Peru, October !7. 

1747 Kouli-Khan murdered. Revolution in Persia. 

1748 Peace of Aix-la-rihapelle belweon Great Britain, France, 

Spain, Austria, Sardinia, and Holland, October 7. 

1750 Joseph King of Portug'al. 

Academy of Sci'^nces found '.d at Stockholm. 

1751 Adolphus of Holplein King; of Sweden. 
Ptace between Spain and Portugal 

1752 New Style introduced in Rrifain, Sept. 3 reckoned 14. 

1753 The British Museum e3tanlished in Monfaguc house. 

1754 Great Eruption of J£tun. 

Great Eanh^juake at Constantinople and Cairo, Sept. 2. 

1755 Lisbon destroyed by an F>avthqi!ake, November 1. 

1756 War declared between Great Bri'.ain and France, May 18. 

1757 "^'he Kin^' <">f Prussia conquers Silesia. 

1758 IT Fove Clement, XIII. 

1759 f'h French de^ ated by the allied army at Minden, Aug. 1. 

Charges HI King of Spam. 

— — The Jesuits expelled from Portugal, Sept. 3. 

General Wolfe takes Quebec in Canada, Sept. 17. 

1760 Montreal and Canada taken by tUe British, Sept. 8- 
0i:;,r{j?. 1 1 1 King of Great Britain, October 25. 

1762 Peter" IIT Eraneror of Russia. 

— ^ The Jesuits banished irom Pravice, August. 

' Peace between Great Britain and France at Fontaineblea% 

Nov. 3. 

1763 Peace between Great Britain, France, and Spain, at Parlsj 

February 0. 
• Catharine II Empress of Russia. 

1764 Stanislaus II KJMg of Poland. 

Byron's Discoveries in the South Seas« 

1765 JOSEPH 11 Fm peror of Germany. 

'1766 Th-3 Jesuits expelled from Bohemia and Denmark. 

Christian VU Krng of Denmark. 

1767 T'ne Jesuits expelled from Spain, Genoa, and Venice, 

Discoveries of Waliis and Carteret in Lhe South Seas» 

1763 Boyal Academy of Arts estai)Hshad at London. 

The Jesuits exjielled from Naples, Malta, and Pai'ma- 

— — Bougaimriile's Discoveries in" the South Seas. 



552 CHRONOLeaiCAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

17o9 1i Pope Clement XIV. 

Cook's first DisGoveries in the South Seas, 

•— — Corsica taken by the French, June 13. 
1770 Earthquake at St. Domingo. 

177; Gnstavas III King of Sweden. 

1772 Revohition in Sweden, August 19. 

P( land dismembered by R'!ssia, Prussia, and Austria. 

1773 C«<'k's second Voyag-e and Discoveries. 

— — 1 he •fnciety of Jesuits suppressed by the Pope's bull, Au- 
gust -JS. 

1774 lev-is XVI King of France. 

11775 Fa tie of P-anker's hill in North America, June 7. 
177G ^ Pope Pius VI. 

'] bo Americans declare their Independence, July 4. 

177^ R ary Qaeen of PortugKl. 

Surrender of the Brici^h Ariny nnder Burgoyne at Saratogtjj 

in the state of iNew-Vork, Oct. J7. 

1778 Leagrue b( tween the French and Americans, Oct. 30. 

1779 Peace between.the Irr-prrialists and Prussians, May 13. 
Great Eruption of Vesuvius, August 8. 

Siege of Gibraltar by the SpanifirJ?, July. 

Captain Co^k killed in the island of Owyhee. 

1730 frreat Riots in London on account of the Popish Bill, June 2, 

War declared between Great Britain and Holland, Dtcem- 

ber 20. 
1781 Surrender ©f the British Army under Cornwallisto the Ame- 
ricans ar>d French at Yorktown in Virginia, October 18. 
, 1782 Sir G. Rodney df feat." the French fleet off l>ominica, April 12. 

1783 Peace bfrtween Great Britain, France, and Spain, and the 

Independence of A-ti-erica declared, January 20. 

1784 Peace between Great Britain and Holland, May 24. 

1785 Treaty of iMlian^e between Austria, France and Plollaad, 

November 9. 

1786 Frexlerick IV King of Prussia. 

1783 Defensive Alliance betv.f^en England and Holland, April 25. 

1789 Selim III Grand Seignior, April. 

George ^^ashington first President of th<» United States,April. 

-— The Kaslille at fans taken and destroyed, and the Gov^ra- 
or massacred, July 14. 

1790 Monastic Establishments suppressed in France, Feb. 13. 

War commenced in India with Tippoo Sultan, May 1. 

LEOPOLD II Emperor of Germany. 

1792 FRAATIS II Emperor of Germany. 

Gustavus III King of Sweden assassinated by Ankerstrom, 

March 29. 

-— — Gustavus IV King of Sweden. Duke of Sudermania Re 
gent in his minority. 

The Thuilleries attacked. The King and Queen of France 

take refuge in the National Assembly. The Swiss guards 
massacred by the populace, August tO. 

The Royal Family cf France ijtnprisoned in the Temple, Au- 
gust 14. 



CHRONOLOaleAL TABLE. S5S 

A. D. 

1792 A dreadful Massacre of the state -prisoners at Paris, Septem- 

ber 2, 3. 

The National Convention is constituted, the King deposed, 

and France declared a Republic, Sept. 21. 

Saroy incorporated with the French Republic, Nov. 27. 

Lewis XVI is brought to trial, and answers each article of 

accusation, Dec. 14. 

1793 Lewis XVI condemned to death by a majority of five voicesf, 

January 17, and beheaded, Jan. 21. 

Russia declares war against France, Jan. 31. 

= The French Convention declares war against England and 

Holland, Feb. 1. 

— — Queen of France condemned to death and beheaded, Octo- 
ber, 15. 

1794 Robespierre, with his chief partizans, gullotined, July 28. 

1795 The Stadtholder takes refuge in England. Holland over- 

run by the French, January. 

= Lyons bombarded, laid in ruins, and all its loyal inhabitants 

massacred, May. 

Lewis XVII died in prison at Paris, June 8. 

' The Cape of Good Hope taken by the British, Sept. 16. 

Belgium incorporated with the French Republic, Sept. 30. 

■ Stanislaus II resigns the Crown of Poland. The kingdom 

divided between Prussia, Austria and Prussia, Nov. 25. 

1796 The French overrun and plunder Italy. 

' Death of Catharine IT. Paul Emperor of Russia, Nov. 17. 

1797 John Adams Pre^^ident of the United States, March 4. 

The Dutch Fleet beaten and captured by Admiral Duncan, 

Oct. 11. 

1798 The Papal government suppressed by the French. The Pope 

quits Rome, Feb. 26. 

Ireland in open rebellion. May, June, &c. 

' Adm. Nelson destroys the French fleet in the battle of the 

Nile, Aug. 1. 

The Swiss finally defeated, and their Independence afeolish- 

ed, Sept. 19. ' 

1799 Seringapatam taken by General Harris, and Tippoo Sultan 

killed, May 4. 

-^ Death of Pope Pius VI, September. 

~ A Revolution at Paris. Bonaparte declared First Consul* 

Dec. 25. 
1800 

-"^ Union of Britain and Ireland* 

. . Bonaparte defeats the Austriana in the battle of Marengo ia 

Italy, June 14. 
*^— Armistice bet-vVeen the French and Austrians in Germany, 

July 15. 
• > The new Pope, Pius VII, restored to his government by the 

Emperor, July 25. 

Malta taken by the British, Sept. 5. 

J801 First meeting of the Imperial Pariiament of Bri^n and fee-* 
laud, January, /' 

47 * 



554 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1801 Thomas Jefferson President of the United States, March 4. 
' ■- ' Death of Paul. Alexander I Emperor of Russia, March 236 

Battle of Copenhagen, in which the Danes are defeated by 

Lord Nelson, April 3. 

1802 The Catholic Religion re-established in France, March. 

Treaty of peace between Britain and France. 

" ■ The King of Sardinia resigns his crown to his brother, July. 

Bonaparte declared Chief Consul for life, July. 

War between France, and Germany and Russia, in which 

the French are successful. 

1803 War between Britain and France. 

1804 Emperor of Germany assumes the title of Emperor of Aus- 

tria, August 11. 
•— — Bonaparte crowned Emperor of France^ December 2. 

1805 Bonaparte King of Italy, March. 

«— — Lord Nelson defeats the combined fleets of France and 
Spain off Cape Trafalgar, takes or destroys 19 ships of the 
line, and is killed in the battle, Oct. 21. 

' War between England and Spain. 

1806 Lewis Bonaparte crowned King of Holland, June. 

The British Parliament vote the Abolition of the Slare 

Trade, June 10. 
Francis II resigns the office of Emperor of Germany, Auj. 2. 

War between France and Prussia. 

Battle of Jena and total defeat of the Prussians, Oct. 14. 

i807 War between France and Russia, in which the French arc 

successful. 
-— Copenhagen taken by the British, and the Danish fleet car- 
ried to England. 

Treaty of Peace between France, and Russia and IVussia. 

1808 Abolition of the Slave Trade in the United States of Ameri- 

ca, January 1. 
War between Russia and Sweden. 

- Bonaparte seizes Portu^^al, and the Royal Family flee tc 

Brazil, 
ta— — . Bonaparte seizes the Royal Family of Spain. Warbetwceii 
France and Spain. 

1809 Battle of Corunna, Jan. 16. 

— ' — Fall of Sarragossa, February 21. 

• James Madison President of the United States, March 4. 

- Gustavus IV King of Sweden deposed, and Charles XIII pro 

claimed, March 13. 
*— — W^ar between Ffance and Austria, April 6. 
French enter Vienna, May 12. 

War between Russia and Austria, May 22* 

— — « The Papal States united to France, June 1. 
= Battle of Talavtra, July 24. 

Peace of Vienna between Austria and Fiance, Oct. 14. 

1810 Bonaparte divorces the Empress Josephine, January 16. 

— — He marries the Arch-Duchess Maria Louisa of Austria, April 1 
-— — Louis Bonaparte abdicates the throne of Holland, July I, 
««-«. Hollaad annexed to the French, 



eHRONOLOeiCAL TABLE. OoO 

A. D. 

1810 Population of the United States, 7,239,903. 

1811 Prince of Wales appointed Regent, Feb. 8, 

Two hundred buildings and large quantities of goods burnt 

in Newburyport, Mass. 

Massacre in Cairo, when about 1,000 Mamelukes lost their 

lives, March 1. 

A Son born to Napoleon Bonaparte, styled King of Rome^ 

March 20. 

Batavia captured by the English, August 8. 

An unusually large comet appeared, September 1. 

Richmond theatre burnt, December 26. 

1812 Great earthquake at Carraccas, March 26. 

- Perceval, prime Minister of England, assassinated, May 11 > 

War against Great Britain declared by the United States, 

June 18. 

■ General Hull and his army taken prisoners in Canada, 

August 16. 

Battle of Smolensk©, August 17. 

Battle of Moskwa, Sept. 7. 

The French army enter Moscow, 14th September, 

= — — British Frigate Gucrriere captured, August 29. 

do. do. Macedonian captured, Oct. 25. 

do. do. Ja.va captured, Dec. 29. 

iCl3 Lewis XVIII publishes an Address to the people of France^ 
Feb. 1. 

Treaty between Great Britain and Sweden, March 3. 

■ Sweden declares War against France, March 3. 

- The Russian troops enter Hamburgh, March 18. 
•— — Prussia joins Russia against France, March. 

-^ Spanish Inquisition abolished by the Cortes, April. 

Battle of Vittoria, in Spain, June 2. 

Austria declares War against France, August 11. 

General uloreau killed, August 28. 

Commodore Perry captures the British squadron, on lake 

Erie, Sept. 10. 

Battle of Leipsic, Oct. 19^. 

The Prince oi Orange assumes the title of Sovereign Prince 

of the Netherlands, Dec. 2. 

.^ The Russians and their Allies enter France, Dec. 23. 

1814 The Pope released by Bonaparte, Jan. 23. 

Lord Wellington took possession of Bordeaux, Feb. 13. 

Paris capitulates to the Allies, March 30. 

The Allies enter Paris, April 1. 

Napoleon Bonaparte dethroned, April 4, and banished to the 

island of Elba, for which he sails, April 28, 
". Lmcis XVIII^ being called to the throne of France^ made his 

entry into Paris, May 3. 
— — General Peace in Europe, May 30. 

The allied Sovereigns visit London, June 8. 

Inquisition restored in Spain, July 18. 

Norway annexed to Sweden, August 14. 

,^ — City of Washingtan taken by the British, August 24. 



A. IV. 

T£14 f ' - 



- : :^ 5 juid Great Briil 

- If ac^ ber^recB Gts^ BriT&rn &i^ -fbe Cstit^ Slates r&ti&ed 

B:r ^r.SLTte saikd ysmm Elba, F^w 56 — ^iaiids m Frawcf^XTarcfc 

i — enters pMis. Marck $S, 

Brtm^partf }ef: Picns toiDM* ti»e Allies. M»t 2. 

Pjiiuf r.f WBiBrloo. Jfrne' 17 and 28. 

hriTi'-q-.r^T'f scrrenders hiaself t» the ftiti t, 'M^ IS. 

Jcsirihuii Mur^. Kisg of ?^afie&, sint ier 11^ Tnatsor 

Oct IS. 

Bonacant 1e2j!^i! ist *?t iiek-aft. Ort TS 

Ma'-k^ >%-T - - . -. - - . - 

-Si. -Johns. > — . cje^^rz.^-ec . j .-^-f.^ Feb. IS, 

Princess Cr: W^ies named to Prince Leopold; 

■=- hurt Cocitra&e t- ron, iiag. tf . 

Hr if-:-5»i^- :. 7. 

1: -5 & Stale, 

in7 I : Miiioeai at 

Americas c _ Soci£^ fir &«■ BSacicB mgamimC^ 



:. jt: a Srate. Dec 11 






ed ai W aghfng TfTr- J . 
■^^— rJEs: Steam shK> sails for ^zr^^-t^ --*-J- 

■ Cnmmdart Perry d*e£ k; tb* "^est indies. AjinHt 2*. 

■ Aiauama ar^— — - - -..-.__... ^^- . . . - 

1B20 &f oT-rt in. : 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 557 

A. D. 

1820 ^:arjfe IV succeeds to the throne of Great Britain and 

Ireland. 

The Duke of Berry assassinated, Feb. 14. 

— — Maine admitted into the Union as a State. 

— — Queen Caroline of England prosecuted for Adultery- 

Another Revolution, which gives a Free Constitution to tJie 

Spanish nation. 

Population of the United States, 9,625,734. 

1821 Missouri admitted into the Union as a State. 

— — An attempt to destroy the Royal Family of France, Jan 27. 
— — British Government issue a Manifesto respecting' the Holy 
Alliance, February. 
■ Napoleon Bonaparte dies at St. Helena, May 5, 1821, aged 52. 

Queen Caroline of England dies, August 7, 1821. 

Elias Boudinot, President of the American Bible Society, dies. 

1822 William Pinckney dies, Feb. 26. 

— — Iturbide declsLred himself Emperor of Mexico. 
■ Columbian College established. 

— — Massacre of Greeks at Scio. 

Revolution in Portugal with a Cortes and Free Constitution. 

Don Pedro, eon of the King of Portugal, declared Emperor 

of Brazils. 

1823 Iturbide dethroned and banished to Italy. 

France declares War against Spain, and invades it with a 

large army. 
— ^ Counter Revolution in Portugal. 
=?— Treaty of Peace between Spain and Buenos Ayres, July4: 



47* 



COMPARATIVE VIEW 



OF 



Mmmis 



AND OF 



I 



ii(g)^i^i? (£i@(i<:gi,:F:ii'f, 



111 ike iblldwl^g Tables the Countries unknoWki to Aacifeiits, ff 
of which the Names are uncertain, are left blank. 

The same numbers in the two adjacent colu»"rtas on each page in» 
dicate the ancient and modern names of the samfi couatrtss 6r 

.^►laces. 



MODERN EUROPE. 



ANCIENT EUROPE. 



GRT:ENLAND, or tb? Arctic 

Continent 
SPITSBERGEN (Island) 
ICELAND (Island), belonging 

to Norway 

NORWAY, 
i. Wardhuis, or Norwegian 
Lapland 

2. Prontheina 

3. Bergen 

.4. Aggerhuis, or Christiana 
SWEDEN. 

1. Lapland and West Bothnia 

2. Sweden Proper 
S. Gothland 

4. Finland 

5. klands of Gothland— Oe- 

land, Alaad, Rugen 



SCANDINAVIA, SCANDIAj 
vel BALTlAr 

2. Nerigon 

3, Sitones 



1. Scritofinni 

2. Suiones 

3. Gutac et Hilleviones 

4. Finningia 

5,. Insulae Sinus Codans 



560 



COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 



MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 



DENMARK. 

Jutland. 

1. Alburg 

2. Wyburj 

3. Aarhusen 

4. Rypen 

5. Sleswick 

Islands in the Baltic 

1. Zealand 

2. Funen 

3. Falster 

4. Lonjeland 

5. Laland 
g, Feneren 

7. Alsen 

8. Moen 

§, Bornholm 

RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 

1. LiTonia and Estonia 

2. Ingria, or the Governmeiit 

of Petersburg 

3. Carelia, or the GoTcnuneDl 

♦f Wiburg 

4. Novogrod 

5. Archangel, Saraoiedia 
S. Moscow 

7. Nishnei Novogrod 

8. Smolenski 

9. Kiew 

10. Bielgorod 

11. Woreneak 

12. Azoflf 

FRANCE 

1. Pieardy 

2. Isle of France 

3. Champagne 

4. Normandy 

5. Bretany 

6. Orleannois 



7. Lionneis 

8, Froveace 



Chersonesits Cimhrica, 
1. Cimbri 

3. Harudes 

4. Phundusii, Sigulones 
3. Sabalingii 

Insulm Sinus Cedani 
1, 2. Teutones 



SARMATIA EUROPiEA,' 
1. Hirri et Miiii Tel Odtione! 



4. Budini 
•. Basilici 
8. Cariones 

10 & 4. Budini 

11. Roxolaui 

12. lazyges 

GALLIA. 

1. Ambiani 

2. Bellovaci, Parisii, Su&s 

sones 
3.. Remi, Catalauni, Tricas- 
ses, 13 Lingones 

4. Unelli vel Veneti, Saii,") 

Lexovii, Veliocasses j 

5. Osismii, Veneti, Nam- , 

netes, Andes, Re- 1 S 
dones j % 

6. Aureliani, CamiUes, ! ^ 

Senones,^ Turoneg, L 
Pictones, Bituri^es J 

7. ^dui, Segusiani 
8.- Salyes, Cavar^ 



ANCIE^*T Ji.ND MOtJERN GEOGRAPHY. 1>'&1 

MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE-, 



0. Languedoc 

i'O. Guienne 

11. Gascoig-ne 
1*2. Datiphine 

13. Burgundy and Franchft- 

comte 

14. Lorraine aiad Alsace 

UNITED PROVINCES, OR 
KINGDOM OF PIOLLAND. 

1. Holland 

2. Frieslaad 

3. Zealand 

4. Groningen 

5. Overyssel 

6. Guelderland and Zutphen 

7. Utrecht 

NETHERLANDS, 

BELOITGING TO PRANCE A:SD 
HOLLAND. 

1. Brabant 
S. Antwerp 

0. Mechlea or Malin^s 

4. Li-mburgh 

5. Luxemburgh 

6. Namur 

7. Ilainault 

8. Cambresis 

9. Artois 
10. Flanders 

GERMANY 

1. Upper Saxony 

2. Lower Saxony 

3. Westphalia 

4. Upper Rhine 

5. Lower Rhine 

6. Franconia 

7. Austria 

8. Bavaria 

9. Suabia 

BOHEMIA- 

1. Bohemia Propei: 

2. Silesia 

3. Moravia 



9. ^^olcae, Areconiici, Helvii, 

Tolosates 

10. Petrocorii, Bituri^fes, Ca- 

durci, Riiteni 

11. Aquitani 

12. Allobroges, Centrones 

13. Liugones, ^Edui, Sequani 

14. Leuci, Mediomatric^j Ttii 

boci, Nemetes 

SAXONE^. 

1, 2. Frisii 



4. Cauci vel Chauci 

5. Franci ^^ 

6. Bructeri, Catti, SiGarabil 

7. Batavi 



BELG^, &c. 

1. Menapii, Tungrii 

2. Toxandri 

4, 5. Alenianni 

6. Treveri 

7. Remi 

9. Atrcbates, Veromandui 
10. Belgae, Morini 
NATIONES GERMANICiE. 

1. Seuvi, Lingae, &c. ^ 

2. Saxones, Longobardi, | 

Gambrivii I £ 

3. Cherusci, Chamavi, 1 % 

Gauchi, Germania f x 
Inferior 

4. Germania Superior 

5. Marci, Tincteri 

6. Marcomanni, Hermondu?! 

7. Noricum 

8. Rhsetia 

9. Viudelicia 



J 



1. Boiohoemum 

2. Corconti 

3. Quadi 



6-62 



ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY 



MODERN EUROPE. 

POLAND. 

1. Greater Poland. 

2. Less Poland 

3. Prussia Royal 

4. Prussia Ducal 

5. Samogitia 

6. Courland r 

7. Lithuania 

8. Warsovia 

9. Polachia 

10. Polesia 

11. Red Russia 

12. Podolia 

13. Volhinia 

SPAIN. 

1. Gallicia 

2. Asturia 

3. Biscay 

4. Navarre 

5. Arragon 

6. Catalonia 



ANCIENT EUR;OPEt 

GERMANO-SARMATiE. 

1. Peucini 

2. Lugii 

3. 4. Burgundiones, Rugii*, 

Guthones 

5. Ombroges 

6. Scyri 

7. 8. Germano-Parmatia 



H, 12, 13. Ba3tarn« 



HISPANL4, vel IBERIA. 

1, 2, 3. Gallaeeia Canlabri, 

Astures, Varduli 



4, 5, 6. Tarraconensis 

Vascones, Valetani 



7. Valentia 

8. Murcia 

9. Granada 

10. Andalusia 

11. Old Castile 

12. New Castile 

13. Leon 

14. Estremadura 
SPANISH ISLANDS. 

Ivica 

Majorca 

Minorca 

PORTUGAL. 
Entre Minho e Dour<v 
Traloa Montas 
Beira 

Estremadura 
Entre Tajo 
Alentajo 
Algarva 

SWITZERLAND/ 
I. Bern 



7, 8. Carthaginensis JEdi 

tani, Conteslani 
9, 10. Eaetica Bastiani, 

Bastuli, Turdetani, &c. 



Gallseciae 
Arevaci 



pars- 



Accaei, 

Carpe- 



12. Tarraconensis par; 

tani, Ore tani 

13. Gallseciae pars — Vettones 

14. Lusitaniffi pars — Bfeturia 
INSULiE HISFANICiE. 

Baleares 



LUSITANIA. 
Calliaci, Lusitani, Celtic* 



HELVETIA. 
1, 2, o, 4. Ambrone* 



COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 



163 



MODERN EUROPE. 



ANCIENT EUROPE. 



2. Fribnrg 

3. Basil or Bale 

4. Lucern 

5. Soloturn 

6. Schaffhausen 

7. Zurick 

8. Appenzel 

9. Zus 

10. Schweitz 

11. Glaris 

12. Uri 

13. Underwald 



6, 7, 8, 9, 10. TigUTini 



14. Geneva 


14. 


Nantuates 




15. Orisons, &c. 


15. 


Veragri, Vallis Pennina, 
Lepontii 


ITALY 




ITALIA. 


1. Savoy 


1. 


Lepontii, Segusini, "^ 








Taurini 


TS 


2. Piedmont 


2. 


Orobi J 


> 


3. Montferrat 


3. 


Insubres > Liguria 


£3 


4. Milan 


4. 


O.^ 


5. Genoa 


5, 


) 


or- few 


6. Parma 


6. 


Anaraani 


2^ 


7. Modena 


7. 


Boii 


.d 


8. Mantua 


8. 


Cenomani 


s 


9. Venice 


9. 


Venetia 


S 


10. Trent 


10. 


Tridentini 




11. The Popedom 


11- 


Lingoues, Senones, Picnum, 
Umbria, Sabini, Pars La- 
tii 

Tuscia vel Etruria 


12. Tascany 


12. 


13. Lucca 


13. 


Pars Tnsciae 


14. San Marino 


14. 


Pars Umbrife 


15. Kingdom of Naples 


15. 


Samnium, Pars Latii, Apu- 
lia, Campania, Lucauia, 
Bruttium 


ITALIAN ISLANDS. 




INSULiE ITALICS. 


J. Sicily 


1. 


Sicilia, Sicania, vel Triwa- 
cria 


2. Sardinia 


2. 


Sardo, vel Sardinia , « 


3. Corsica 


3. 


Cyrnus, vel Corsica 


4. Malta 


4. 


Melita 


5. Lipr.ri Islands 


5. 


Lipariae Insula 


6. Capri, Ischia, Sec. 


6. 


Capreae, Ischia, fee. 


HUNGARY 






TRANSYLVANIA 


DACIA 


SCLAVONIA 


PANNONIA 


CROATIA 


ILLYRICUM 





364 



COMPARATI\^ VIEW OP 



MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 



TURKEY IN EUROPE. 

1. Dalmatia 

2. Bosnia 

3. Servia 

4. Wallachia 

6. Moldavia and Bessarabia 

6. Bulg-aria 

7. Albaria 

8. Macedonia 

0. Romania 

10. Livadia 

11. Morea 

12. Budziac Tartary or Bessara- 

bia 

13. Little Tartary 
14 Crimea. 

GREEK ISLANDS. 

1. Corfu 

2. Cephalonia 

3. Zante 

4. Ithace, Thiace, &c. 

GREEK ISLANDS IN THE 
ACHIPELAGO. 

1. Catidia 

2. Negropont 

3. Stalimene 

4. Scyro, &c. 



1. 


Dalmatia 


2. 


Maesia Superior 


3*. 


Dacia Ripensis 


4. 


Getae 


5. 


Pars Daciae 


6. 


Mffisia Inferior 




7. Epirns 




8. Macedonia 




9. Thracia 


es 


10. Thessalia 




11. Peloponnesus 


12. Bcythia et pars Daciae 




13. Parva Scythia 




14. Taurica Chersonesuf. 



INSUL.E MARIS lONIL 

1. Corcyra 

2. Ceplialenia 

3. Zacyuthus 

4. Ithaca, &c. 

INSULiE MARIS IE.G^.1 

1. Creta 

2. Euboea 

3. Lemnos 

4. Scyros, &c. 



GREAT BRITAIN. 



SCOTLAND. 

1. Edinburgh 

2. Haddington 

3. Berwick 

4. Roxburgh 

5. Selkirk 

6. Dumfries 

7. Kircudbright 

8. Peebles 

9. Wigton 

10. Lanerk 

11. Air 

12. DumbartoH 

13. Bute 

14. Renfrew 

15. Stirling 
16» Linlithg^ow 



SCOTIA. 



I] \ I>aainii / y 
3. Ottodini ) 



ecturiones 



SelgovaB 



Novantes 




Pica 



ANCIENT AND MOD&RN GEOGRAPHV. 



56; 



MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 



SCOTLAND. 

17. Fife 

18. Clackmannan 

19. Kinross 

20. Perth 

21. Argyle 

22. Kincardine 

23. Forfar 

24. Aberdeen 

25. Banff 

26. Elgin 

27. Nairn 

28. Inverness 

29. Ross 

SO. Cromarty 

31. South erland 

32. Caithness 

33. Orkney 

34. Shetland 

ENGLAND„ 

1. Cornwall 

2. Devonshire 

3. Dorsetshire 

4. Hampshire 

5. Somersetshire 

6. Wiltshire 

7. Berkshire 

8. Oxfordshire 

9. Gloucestershire 

10. Monmouthshire 

11. Herefordshire 

12. Worcestershire 

13. Staffordshire 

14. Shropshire 

15. Essex 

16. Hartfordshire 

17. Kent 

18. Surry 

19. Susses 

20. Norfolk 

21. Suffolk 

22. Cambridgeshire 

23. Huntmgdonshire 

24. Bedfordshire 

^5, Buckinghamshire 



SCOTIA. 



Caledonii > Picti 



21. Epidii, Gadeni, CeroHes 

22. Vernicones ") 

23. Horestae 

24. } > Attacoti 

25. S Taezali 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 



i Vacomagi 

\ Cantae f 

32. Mertae ) 

33. Orcades 

34. Thule 



Scoti 



ANGL1A 
i Daranonii 
. Durotriges 

. S Belgae 

Attrebatii 
* > Dobuui 

> Silures 

12. ) 

13. > Cornavii 

14. S 

15. Trinobanteg 

16. Catieuchlaui 

17. Cantii 

> ftegni 

> Simeni, rel Icerti 



1. 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7. 

8 

9 
10. 
11. 



18. 
19. 



20. 
21. 

22. J 

23. \ Catieuchlatfs 

24. ) 

25. Attrebat?f 



^6 COMPARATIVE VIEW OP 

MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 



» 



26. Lincolnshire 


26. ^ 




27. Nottinghamshire 


27. 


28. Derbyshire 


28. VCoritani 


29. Rutlandshire 


29. 
30. 


30. Leicestershire 


31. Warwickshire 


31. Cornavi 


32. Northamptonshire 


32. Catieuchlani 


.53. Northumberland 


ll* \ ^"^^'"^ 


34. Durham 


35. Yorkshire 


35. 1 


36. Lancashire 

37. Westmoreland 


2^* Y Brigante« 
38! J 


38. Cumberland 


39. Cheshire 


39. Cornavii 


40. Middlesex 


40. Attrebates et CatieuchlaiM 




WALES. 


1. Anglesey 


1. Mona Insula 


2. Flintshire 


2. ' 




3. Montgomery 


3. 




4. Denbighshire 


4. 


' Ordovices 


5. Carnarvonshire 


5. 




6. Merioneth 


6. 




7. Cardiganshire 


7. ) 


8. Carmarthenshire 


6. \ Demetfic 


9. Pembrokeshire 


9. S 


10. Radnorshire 


10. } 


11. Brecknockshire 


11. > Silures 


12. Glamorganshire 


12. S 


IRELAND, 


HIBERNIA, yel IRENE, 




' 1. Louth 


1. Voluntii 




2. Meath Fast 

3. Meath West 


1 |Cau»ci 




4. Longford 


4. Auteri 




5. Dublin 

6. Kildare 


^' I Blanii 


,2 


7. King's County 


J.* > Corondi 


t^ 


8. Queen's County 




9. Wicklow 


9. Blanii 




10. Carlow 

11. Wexford 
V12. Kiikenny 


JO; 1 Manapfi 




12, 


Coriondi 



ANiaENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 56T 

MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 





'13. Donnegal or Tyrconnel 


13. Vennicnii 




14. Londonderry 


14. ) 

15. > Robogdii 

16. S 




15. Antrim 


t 


16, Tyrone 


^ . 


17. Fermanagh 


17. Erdini 


s 


18. Armagh 


18. ) 




19. Down 


19. S Voluntii 




20. Monaghan 


20. ) 




^21. Cavan 


21. Cauci 




'22. Cork County 


22. Vodiae, Iverni 


t3 


23. Waterford 

24. Tipperary 


It \ Brigantes 




25. Limerick 

26. Kerry 


Zl' Uelabori 




27. Clare 


27. ) 




} Gangani 


^ f28. Galway 


28. ) 


lii 1 ^<;9. Roscomtnon 


29. Aiiteri 


1 <j 30. Mayo 

§ ai. Sligoe 


30. ) 


31. > Nagnatae 


-3 1^3'2. Leitrim 


32. S 


BRITANNIC ISLANDS. 


INSULA BRITANN 


1. Shetland and Orkney 


1. Thule 


2. Western Isles of Scotland 


2. Ebudes Insulse 


3. Man 


3. Monseda vel Mona 


4. Ang^lesey 


4. Mona 


5, 


\ 


Vight 


5. Vectis 



MODERN ASIA, 



ANCIENT ASIA. 



TURKEY IN ASIA, 
L Natolia 



2. Amasia or Siwas 

3. Aladulia 

4. Caramania 

5. Irak 

6. Diarbeek 

7. Curdistan 
8- Turcoman ia 
9. Georgia 

IG. Syria and Palest iiie 



ASIA MINOR. 

1. Mysia, Lydia, Caria, Phry- 

gia, Bithynia, Galatiai, 
Paphlagonia. 

2. Pontus 

3. Armenia 

4. Cappadocia, Cilicia, &c. 

5. Babylonia, Chaldea 

6. Mesopotamia 

7. Assyria 

a* ^ Armenia Major 

10. Syria, Palmyrene,Pho&aicia^ 
Judaea, 



368 



COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 



MODERN ASIA, 



ANCIENT ASIA. 



. ARABIA. 


ARABIA. 


Arabia Petrasa 


Arabia Petrsea 


Arabia Deserta 


Arabia Deserta 


Arabia Felix 


Arabia Felix 


PERSIA. 


PERSIA. 


i. Chorassan 


1. Pars Hyrcaniaj et Sogdianit- 


•2.* Balk, Sablustan, Candahar 


2. Bactrania 


3. Sigistan 


3. Drangiana 


4. Makeran 


4. 


5. Kermpn 


5. Gedrosia 


6. Farsistan 


6. Persis 


7. Chusestan 


7. Susiana 


8. Irak Agem 


8. Parthia 


9. Curdestan 


9. Pars Assyria 


JO. Aderbeitzea 


10. Media 


11. Georgia 


11. ) 


12. Gangea 


12. > Iberia.Colchis, et Albania 


13. Dagestan 


13. S 


14. Mazanderam 




15. Gilaa Taberistan 


15. ParsHyrcanias 


3$. Chirvau 


16. ParsAlbaniae 


INDIA. 


INDIA. 


Mggol 


India intra Gangem\ 


Delhi 


Palibolhra 


Agra 


Agora 


Cambaia 


Regna Pori et Taxilis 


Bengal 




India within the Ganges. 




Decan 


Dachanos 


Goleonda 


Prasii vel Gangaridae 


Bisnagar 




Malabar 


Male 


Island of Ceylon. 


Taprobana Insula vel Salice 


India beyond the Ganges. 


India extra Gangerm 


Pegu 




Tonquin 




Cochiuchiaa 




Siam 


Sinarum Regie 


CHINA. 


Ninche 




Corea 





ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 569 

MODERN ASIA. ANCIENT ASIA, 



Laoton§ 

Pekia 

Xansi 

Xensi 

Xantum 

Nanking 

Chekiam 

Honaa 

Huquam 

Kiamsi 

Fokien 

Canton 

Suchuen 

Quecheu 

Yuuani 



Formosa 
Ainan 
Macao 
Bashee Islands 



Sin» 

Serica 

Cathsea 



i 



1. Astracaii 

2. Orenburg 2. 

3. Casan 3. 

4. Siberia Tobolsk, Jeni- 4. 

seia, Irkutsk, Kamschatka 



CHINESE ISLANDS. 



RUSSIA IN ASIA. 

1. Sarmatia Asiatica 



Scythia intra Imaum 



INDEPENDENT TARTARY. 



1. Great Bucharia 

2. Karasm 



1. Bactriana, Sogdiana 

2. Aria 



ALUTH TARTARS^ 

1. Little Bucharia 

2. Casgar 

3. Turkestan 

4. Kalmac Tartars 

5. Thibet 

6. Little Thibet 

CHINESE TARTAR i^ 

Kalkas 

Mongol Tartars 
Mantchou Tartai-B 

Coreg» 



SCYTHIA extra IMAUM, 



SINiE. 



48^ 



570 



COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 



MODERN ASIA. 



ISLANDS OF CHINESF 
TARTARY. 

Sagalien-Ula-hata 
Jedso 

ISLANDS OF JAPAN 

Japan or Niphon 

Xicoco 

Ximo 

PHILIPPINE ISLES. 

Lucon or iVIanilla 
Mindanao, &c. 

MARIAN OR L4DI10NE 
ISLANDS, 

Tinian 

ISLES OF SUNDA, 

Borneo 
-Sumatra 
Java, &;c, 

MOLUCCA ISLES-. 

Celebes 
Amboyna 
Cerani 
Timor 
Flores, £ze. 

MALDIVA ISLES, 



ANCIENT ASIA, 



MOI>ERN AFRICA. 

BARBARY, 

i. Morocco 
^. Algiers. 

3. Tunis 

4. Tripoli 
5.. Barca 

1. Egypt 

2. BiLDULGERUfc 



ANCIENT AFRICA 



L Mauritania Tingitana 

2. Mauritania Cajsariensis 

3. Numidia, Africa Propria 

4. Tripolitana 

5. Cyrenaica, Libya Superior 

1. ^GYPTUS 

«:r Libya Inferior, GiBETc- 



ANCIENT AND MODEP.N GEOGRAPHY. 57f 

MODERN AFRICA. ANCIENT AFRICA. 



3. 

4. 


Zaara, or the Desert 
Nkgroland 


3. 

4. 


SOLITTTDINES 
AUTOLOLES 


6. 
6. 


Guinea 

Upper Ethiopia 


6. 


iETHiopiiE et LiBY-a: pars 


7. 


Nubia, Abyssinia, Abex 


7. 


^THiopi,?5 pars 


8. 








Loango, Congo, Angola, 
Benguela, Matanan 






9. 


Ajan 






10. 


Zajvguebar 






11. 


Monomotapa 






12. 


MONOKMUGI 






13. 


SOFOLA 






14. 


Terra de Natal 






15. 


Cafraria, or country of 
the Hottentots 







NORTH AMERICA. 

BRITISH AMERICA. 

I. The countries on the east and -vrest side of Baliin''s and H«d~ 

son's Bays 
2- Labrador, or New Britain 

3. Canada 

4. Nova Scotia 

Islands. 
Newfoundland, Cape Breton 

British Islands in the West Indies. 
Bermudas, Bahama Islands, Ja-iaica, St. Christopher's, Nevjs, 
Mont^errat, Antigua, Dominica, St. Vincent, Tobago, Grenada^ 
Barbadoes, &c. k.c. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

New England Maine, New-Hampshire, Vermont, Massachu- 
setts, Connecticut, and Rhode-Island. 

State of New- York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Mary- 
land, Virginia, North-Carolina, South-Carolina, Georgia, Ten- 
nessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Louisiana, Alabama, Missou- 
ri, Mississippi, Illinois. 

The district of Columbia, the territories of Michigan, Arkansas'. 

SPANISH AMERICA. 
Mexico or New Spain, New Mexico,, 



572 COMPARATITE VIEW OF 

NORTH AMERICA. 

Spanish Islands in the West Indies.. 

Caba, Porto Rico, west part of St. Domingo, Trinidad, Margarita, 
Cubagua, &c. 

Dutch Islands in the West Indies. 

Part of St. Martin's Isle, Eustatius, Aves, Buenos Ayres, Curacoa, 

Aruba. 

French Islands in the West Indies. 
Miquelon, St. Pierre, part of St. Martin's Isle, St. Barihnlomew, 

Martinico, Guadaloupe, Dtsiada, JNlariegalant, St. Lucia, part 

of St. Domingo. 

Danish Islands in the West Indies. 
St. Thomas, Santa Cruz. 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

FRENCH. 
Part of the Province of Guiana, Cayenne, &c. 
SPANISH. 

Terra Firma, Country of the Amazons, Peru, Chili, Terra Magel- 
lanica, Paraguay, Tucuman. 

DUTCH. 
Part of Guiana, Surinam, &c. 

PORTUGUESE. 
Brazil, and many islands on the coast, part of Guiana 



ANCIENT EMPIRES. 



The Empire of Assyria, under Ninus and Semiramis, about 2200 
before J. C, comprehended, Asia Minor, Celchis, Assyria, Me- 
dia Chaldea, Egypt. 

The Empire of Assyria, as divided about 820 before J. C, form- 
ed three Kingdoms, Media, Babylo-Chaldea (Syria and Chal- 
dea), Lydia (all Asia Minor). 

The Empire of the Persians, under Darius Hystaspes, 522 b€t 
fore J. C, comprehended, Persis, Susiana, Chaldea, Assyria^ 
Media, Bactriana, Armenia, Asia, Parthia, Iberia, Albania, Coif 

chis» Aeia Minor, %j'pt, part of Ethiopia, part of ^eythia: 



ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 573 

The Empire of Alexander the great, 330 before J. C, con- 
sisted of, 1, all Macedonia and Greece, except Peloponnesus; 
2, all the Persian Empire, as above described ; 3, India to the 
banlcs of the Indus on the east, and the laxartes or Tanais on 
the north. 

The Empire of Alexander was thus divided, 306 before J. C.y 
between Ptolemy, Cassander, Lysimachus, and Seleucus, 

Empire of Piohmy. 
Lybia, Arabia, Coelosyria, Palestine. 

Empire of Cassander. 
Macedonia, Greece. 

Empire of Lysimachus. 
Thrace, Bithynia. 

Em,pire of Seleucus. 
Syria, and all the rest of Alexander's empire. 

The Empire of the Parthians, 140 before J. C, comprehended 
ParLhia, Hyrcania, Media, Persis, Bactriana, Babylonia, Meso- 
potamia, India to the Indue. 

The Roman Empire, under the Kings, was confiaed to the city of 
Rome, and a few miles round it. 

The Roman Empire, at the end of the Republic, comprehended 
all Italy, great part of Gaul, part of Britain, Africa Proper, 
g-reat part of Spain, Illyria, Istria, Liburnia, Dalmatia, Achaia, 
Macedonia, Dardania, M(Ksia, Thracia, Pontus, Armenia, Ju- 
daea, Cilicia, Syria, Egypt. 

Under the Emperors the following countries were reduced into 
Roman Provinces. 

All Spain, the Alpes Maritimae, Piedmont, &c. Rhaetia, Noricum, 
Pannonia, and Moesia, Pontus, Armenia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt. 

Constantiur Chlorus and Galerius dirided the Empire into East- 
ern and Western ; and under Consiantine each empire had 
a distinct capital or seat of government. 

The extent of each division was fluctuating from time to time ? 
but, in general, the Western Empire comprehended Italy, Il- 
lyria, Africa, Spain, the Gauls, Britain. 

The Eastern Empire comprehended Asia Minor, Pontus, Arme- 
nia, Assyria, Media, &c. Egypt, Thrace, Dacia, Macedonia. 

The Empire of Charlemagne, A. D. 800, comprehended 
France, Marca, Hispanica (or Navarre and Catalonia), Majorca, 
Minorca, and Ivica, Corsica, Italy as far south as Naples, Istria, 
Liburnia, Dalmatia Rhaetia, Vindelira, Noricum, Germany, 
from the Rhine to the Oder, and to the banks of the Baltic^ 



S74 



COMPARATIVE VIEW, &C. 



France contained, 1, Neustria, comprehend ins: Bretany, Norman- 
dy, Isle of France, Orleannois ; 2, Austria, comprehending Pi- 
caidy, and Champagne ; 3, Aquitania, comprehending Guien- 
ne, and Gascony ; 4, Burgundia, comprehending Burgundy, 
Lionnois, Languedoc, Dauphine, Provence. 



NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL RIVERS IN 
EUROPE. 



ANCIENT.. 

1. Rha 

2. Tanais 

3. Borystenes 

4. Tyras 

5. Danuhiua or Ister 

6. Padua 

7. Uliodanus 

8. Iberu3 

9. Boetis 

10. Anas 

11. Tagus 

12. Durius 

13. Garumua 

14. Liger 

15. Sequaria 
16.. Samara 

17. Scaldis 

18. Mosa 

19. Rhenus 

20. Visurgis 

21. Albis 

22. Viadrus 



MODERN. 

1. Wolga 

2. Don 

3. Nieper 

4. Niester 

5. Danuba 

6. Pa 

7. Rhone 

8. Ebro 

9. Guadalquit'er 

10. Guadiana 

11. Tayo 

12. Douro 

13. Garonne 

14. Loire 

15. Seine 

16. Somme 

17. Scheldt 

18. Maese 

19. Rhine 

20. Weser 

21. Elbe 

22. Oder 



The Vistula, tlie Dmna at Riga, and the Dwina at Archang-eL 



FINISL 



QUESTIONS 



FOR THE 



m.i^MmMwm m ^mmiLAm 



TYTLER'S ELEMENTS 



OF 



GENERAL HISTORY 



BY AN EXPERIENCED TEACHER. 



CONCORD, N. H. 

PRINTED BY ISAAC HILLe 

1823. 



DISTRICT OF NEW-HAMPSHIRE, TO WIT : 

District Clerk's OJice. 

I******** BE it remembered, that on the fourth day of Sep- 
* ^' ^'1 (ember, A. D. 1823. and in thr forty-eighth year of the 
*;p;j«t#4f:^#** Independence of the United Stales of America, ISAAC 
HILL, of the said District, hath deposited in this office the title of a book, 
the right vrhrrf of he claims as propri tor in the words following, to wit — 
''Elements of General History, ancient and modfrn. By Alexander Era- 
ser Tytler, F. R. S. E. Prtfessor of h'istory in the University of Ed- 
inburgh. IViih a continuaiion, terminating at the demise of King 
George TIL, 1820. By Rev. Edtvard J\''ures, D. D. Professor vf Mod- 
ern History tn ihe University of Oxford. To ivhich are added, a suc- 
cinct History of ihe United States ; an improved Table of Chronology > 
a comparative vicxo cf Ancient and Modem Geography, and Q^iestions on. 
each section. Adopted for the use of Scliools and Academies. By an ex- 
perienced Teacher." 

In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled 
" An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of 
Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors, and proprietors of <»uch copies, 
during the times therein mentioned ;" and alse an act, entitled " an act 
tupplementary to an act, ent'tled an act for the encouragement ef learning', 
by securing (he copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and 
proprietors of »uch copies during the ti»e? therein mentioned, and ei- 
lending the benefit thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etch- 
ing historical and other prints." 

WILLIAM CLAGGETT. Clerk 
of the District of JSTew Hampshire. 
A true copy of Record. 

Attest WILLIAM CLAGGETT, Clerk. 



QUESTIONS. 



SECTION I. 

1. Y^^HAT beoks afford the earliest authentic history of the 
ages immediately following the deluge ? 

2. When were Babylon and Nineveh built ? 

3. By whom were they built ? 

4. Who are said to have raised Assyria to a high degree of 
splendour ? 

5. What is the condition of the early parts of Egyptian lii^tovy ? 

6. Who was the first king- of Eg'ypt ? 

7. How was Egypt divided ? 

SECTION II. 

8. What is the earliest mode of government? 

9. Of what description were the lirst monarchies r 

10. What was the rank of the kings of Scripture ? 

11. What was the character of the first penal laws in human 
society ? 

12. What were the earliest laws formed for the benefit of society ? 

13. What singular usages prevailed among ancient nations relat- 
ing to matrimony ? 

14. What laws next succeeded in order to those of marriage ? 

15. What were the earliest methods of authenticating contracts ? 

16. What nation used hieroglyphics, and for what purpose were 
they used ? 

17. What were the methods for recording historical facts, and 
publishing them among tlie ancients ? 

18. What are among the earliest institutions that have existed? 
IB. How was the priesthood anciently exercised ? 

19. Of what a.re useful ar<:s the o-lspring? 

20. Of wha! ar-.; some of the earliest of them ? 

21. What were the first sciences cultivated ? ^ 

SECTION III. 

22. To what nation is most of the knowledge of ancient nations 
to be traced ? 

23. How did that knav/ledge descend to modern nations ? 

24. What presumption does the country aflbrd of the antiquity of 
the Egyptian empire ? 

25. To what are the inundations of the river Nile owing ? 

26. What was the government of Egypt? 

27. What was the character of their penal laws? 
2,8. What was the manner of conferring funeral rites in Egypt ? 



4 QUESTIONS. 

29. What regulation was there concerning the borrowing oi 

money ? 
jO, In the knowledge and cultivation of what useful arts and 

sciences were the Egyptians distinguished? 
n. "What samples of their architecture still remain? 

32. When were the pyramids buiit ? 

33. For what were they probably built ? 

34. What was the national character of the Egyptians ? 

35. What circumstances served to debase them in the opinion cf 

contemporary nations ? 

SECTION IV. 

36. By what name were the Phoenicians known in Scripture ? 

37. For what are we indebted to them ? 

38. What is said of them in the time of Abraham? 

39. What is the antiquity of their writings ? 

SECTION V. 
iO. To what early nations were the Grecians indebted for their 
first rudiments of civilization ? 

41. Who were the ancient inhabitants of Greece ? 

42. Wh.it colony settled in tiie country about ihe time of Moses f 

43. Wlio settled Attica and at what time ? 

44. Who established the court of Areopagus ? 

45. "Who established the Amphictyonic Council? 

16. Who introduced into Greece, and at what time, alphabetic 

v/riting ? 

17. How many letters did the alphabet then contain ? 
■'8. What was then the mode of writing? 

SECTION VI. 

49. "What is said of the T'elasgi, of Ancient Greece ? 

')0. W hat was a predominant characterestic of the early Greeks r' 

51. What Avere the names of their four solemn Games, as they 

were termed ? 
5-2. Of what did they consist ? 
'rS. What good political effects did these gaunes have ? 

SECTION VII. 

I>4. Who itt-:tituted the Eleusinian mysteries ? 

55. Vv hat v/as the nature of these mysteries ? 

56. Who laid the foundation of the grandeur of Attica: 

57. "When and how did he do it? 

58. W'hat was the object of the Argonautic expedition ? 

59. What was the character of the attack and defence in the sie- 

ges of Thebes and Troy ? 

60. On whose authority rests the detail of tlie war of Troy ? 

61. What are the principal facts recorded of that war by Homer 
.t)2. How were military expeditions then conducted? 



QUESTIONS. O 

SECTION VIIT. 

63. When did the Greeks besrin to c'>loni2e ? 

64. Who wa? elected the first chief magistrate of the Athenian 

republic ? 

65. What caused the Greeks to seek refuge in other countries by 

establishins: colonies ? 

66. What caused Greece to abolish the regal and establish are- 

publican government ? 

67. What distinguished civilians arose in Sparta and Athens at 

this time ? 

SECTION IX. 

68. What period was Lycurgus invested with the power of re- 

forming and new-modeling the constitution of his country ? 

69. What was the government of Sparta as new-modeled by 

Lycurgus ? 

70. To what did he particularly bend his attention ? 

71. How did he divide the territory ? 

72. What regulation did he make concerning the use of money ? 

73. By whom were the necessary arts practised ? 

74. What was the course of Spartan education ? 

75. By what was the general excellence of the institutions of Ly- 

curgus impaired ? 

76. How were the slaves treated ? 

77. What was the end of the institutions of Lycurgus ? 

SECTION X. 

78. What v.-as the nature of the change in the Athenian consti- 

tution when the regal office was abolished ? 

79. What was the tenure by which the Arclionship was held ? 

80. Who attempted a reform in the constitution, 624 B. C ? 

81. When did Solon attain the Archonship? 

82. What was his character ? 

83. How did he divide the citizens ? 

84. How did he counterbalance the weight of the popular as- 

semblies ? 

85. How did the particular laws of Athens compare with her 

form of government ? 

86. What was the nature of the laws relating to debtors and 

slaves ? 

87. What was the condition of women at this time in Athens ? 

88. What was one of the most iniquitous and absurd peculiari- 

ties of the Athenian and some of the other Grecian gov- 
ernments ? 
80. Kow were the arts viewed in Athens ? 

90. How did the character of the Athenians compare with that 

of the Spartans ? 

91. To whom were the liberties of Athens surrendered, 550 B. C? 

92. Who afterwards restored the democracy ? 

SECTION XI. 

93. Under whom did the first empire of the Assyrians terminated' 

1* 



i> QUESTIONS. 

94. ^Vbat tliree monarchies arose from its rums ■* 

95. "What king of Assyria, led the Jews into captivity, took . 

rusalem and Tyre, and subdued Egypt ? 

06. Who vras the successor of Cambyses in the throne of Persia ?• 

97. What countries did Cyrus annex to his empire ? 

08. What was the government of Persia ? 

99. To Avhcso care was the children and youth of Persia com- 
mitted for education ? 

100. What was the nature of the laws in Persia •* 

101. What w-as the religion of Persia ? 

102. What was the sacred book of the Persians called ? 

103. On what is the theology of the Zendavesta founded ? 

SECTION XII. 

104. What king of Persia invaded Greece ? 

105. Where was the Persian army defeated ? 

3 06. Who commanded the Greeks in the battle of Marathon ? 

107. What reward did Miltiades receive for his eminent services 

from the Athenians ? 

108. A\ ho were the successors 6f Miltiades in the war with the 

Persians ? 

109. Who succeeded Darius in the command of the Persians •' 

1 10. With ".vhat force did Xerxes attempt the conquest of Greece? 

111. Who was Leonidas ? 

11.2. With what force did Leonidas contend with the vast army of 
Xerxes .'' 

1 13. At what place was it .'' 

114. ^Vhat was the result ? 

115. What was the success of Xerxes w^ith his fleet at sea ? 

116. Where were the Persians totally defeated on land, by the 

combhied army of the Athenians and Lacedaemonians ? 

117. ^Vhat was the end of Xerxes ? 

118. What v/as the national character of the Greeks at this time ? 

SECTION XIIL 
i[9. V\lio governed Athens after the Persian war ? 

120. In what mavjncr did he govern it ? 

121. What g-ave rise to the war during the reign of Pericles fee- 

twee)! Athens and Lacedaeraon ? 

122. On v/hat account was Alcibiades condemned to death for 

treason ? 

123. By v»?iiom did the Lacedtcmonians reduce the power of the 

Athenians? 

124. What emiient philosopher was then in Athens at this time ? 

125. What w as particularly disgraceful to the Athenians in regard 

t© him ? 

126. What is the subject of the history written by Xonophon ^ 

SECTION XIV. 
^27. On the doline of Athens and Sparta, what other Grecian 
Republic rose to a hi^h degree of eminence among the con- 
temporary states ? 



QUESTIONS. / 

!28. Vv'hat led to t'nc war between Thebes and Sparta ? 

129. What two distinguished Generals did Thebes employ ia con- 

ducting this war ? 

130. How did this war terminate ? 

SECTION XV. 

131. Who at this time attempted to bring the whole of Greece 

under his dominion ? 

132. "'iVhat caused what was called the ^^aereti War of this period ? 

133. What distinguished Grecian orator exposed the artful de- 

signs of Philip ? 

134. In what battle was the fate of Greece, so that ail her states 

became subject to Philip? 

135. What great enterprise did he attempt ? 

136. Did he complete it ? 

137. Why not ? 

SECTION XVI. 

138. Who was the successor of Philip ? 

139. At what age did Alexander asc:^nd the throne of Macedon r 

140. How large was his army at this lime ? 

141. Vv'hat was his first enterprise ? 

142. Who was king of Persia at this time ? 

343. With wliat force did Darius meet Alexander ? 

144. Where did they meet ? 

145. What was the result of th«> battle of Granicus ? 

146. What %yere the respective losses ol the Greeks and Persians 

in the battle of Issus ? 

147. "What oppor' unity did Alexander have for the display of gen- 

erosity after the battle o[ Issus r 

148. What was the consequence of the battle of Issus ? 

149. What caused Alexander to storm and subject the city of 

Tyre ? 

150. What was the fate of its inhabitants ? 

151. Wliat was disgraceful to Alexander in his capture of Gaza,? 

152. What'opened Egypt to Alexander's victorious arms ? 

153. What city did he build in his return from Egypt ? 

154. Who met Alexander at Arbeia with an army of 700,000 men? 

155. What was the result of the battle at Arbeia ? 
■J5i6. When was Persia conquered by Alexander? 

157. What project did he attempt after the conquest of Persia ? 

158. What prevented his conquest of India ? 

159. What became of Alexander on finding a limit to his victo- 

ries ? 

SECTION xvir. 

160. Vrhat wish did Alexander express as to a successor ? 

161. What became of his family ? 

162. Vv'hich were the most powerful monarchies formed from his 

va.-t empires ?* 



8 atlESTlONS^. 

SECTION XVIH. 

163. What dislms:uished orator of Greece attempted to arouse 

his countrymen, to shake off the yoke of Macedon, on th6 
de3th of Alexander ? 

164. What empire arose in Europe on the decline of the Mace- 

donian power ? 

165. How was Greece added to the Roman empire ? 

166. When was the conquest of Greece completed ? 

SECTION XIX. 

167. What is said of the nature of the Republican government of 

Greece ? 

168. What was the conrSitien of the people under them ? 

169. In what periods of the Grecian history are we to look fot 

splendid examples of patriotism ? 

170. What is the most remarkable circumstance that strikes us on 

comparinsr the latti-r with the more early periods of the 
history of the Greeks ? 

SECTION XX. 

171. In what description of the arts did the Grecians excel ? 
17:2. Which of the I iae Arts did they carry to the greatest degree 

of perfection ? 
173. In whose rei;iin did the Fine Art? flourish most ? 
174 V^'hat were fh^ir three o.ders ol architecture? 

175. \A hat other orders of architecture are there ? 

176. What was the state of sculpture in Greece ? 

177. How did the paintings and music of the Grecians compare 

with those of the moderns ? 

SECTION XXI. 

178. IIow does poetry compare with prose as to antiquity ? 

179. When did Homer flourish ? 

180. Who are some of the otherprincipal poets of ancient Grcecer 

181. When was the origin ol drajnatic composition among the 

Greeks ? 

SECTION XXII. 

182. What eminent historians of Greece were contemporaries ? 

183. When did they flourish ? 

184. Who were some of the later distinguished historians ot 

Greece ? 

185. What is said of Plutarch's Lives of Illustrious Men ? 

SECTION XXIII. 

186. What v/as the most ancient school of philosophy in Greece ? 

187. Who founded the Italian sect of philosophers in Greece? 

188. When did Socrates flourish ? 

189. Who founded the Academic sect ? 

190. Who founded the Peripatetic sect i 



QUESTIOr^S. " 

j91. . Who fife some of the oiher Greek philosophers ? 

192. What is the effect of the Greek philosophy on morality and 

the progress of useful knowledge ? 

SECTION XXIV. 

193. After the conquest of Creeco what Power became an object 

of particular iiiiportance ? 

194. What was the character of the first inhabitants of Italy ? 

195. Who were they ? 

196. ¥/hat is the opijiion of Diouysius concerning the origin of 

Rome ? 
497. What is the vulgar account of the origin of the city built by 
Romulus ? 

198. At what time was it founded ? % 

199. Who were the inost formidable enemies of the early Romans ? 

200. Who v\^as the second kina: of Rome ? 

201. Who added lOO Plebeians to the Roman Senate? 

202. Who lemoved the poorer citizens iroia all share in the goT- 

erntnent of Home ? 

203. What became of Servius Tulhus ? 

204. W'ho succeeded him on tl^ic throne ? 

205. What caused the expulsion of Tarquinius ? 

206. What was the first retrenchment in the power of the Roman 

Senate ? 

207. What use did th? craly fiomans make of their victories ? 
20fJ. How long did the regnal ^overrnnent of Rome contini>e ? 

209. Hov/ many kings were there ? 

210. What is said of the wars in Vviiich Rome was almost contiix- 

ually engaged ? 

SECTION XX\^ 

211. What government succeeded the regal one in Rome ' 

212. Who were the two first cons^^ls ? 

213. What law is mentioned that was made under the directio« 



of Val 



eruts 



214. What gave rise to the office of Dictator ? 

215. What was the power of the Dictator ? 

216. What gave rise to the office of Tribune ; and what were 

the powers of that office ? 

SECTION XXVI. 

217. What effect had the office of Tribune on the powers of the 

Senate ? 

218. Under what circumstances was Valero made Tribune ? 

219. When did the Pvoman constitution become a complete de- 

mocracy ? 

SECTION XXVIT. 

220. For what purpose v/ere the Decemviri chosen ^ 

221. What v/ere the laws called, which they framed i 

222. At what time were they made ? 

223. With what powers were the Decemviri inrested ' 



10 QUESTIONS. 

224. Who Tvas at the head of the Decemvirate ? 

225. What caused the abolition of this ofScc ? 

226. How long did it exist ? 

SECTION XXVI II. 

227. What two barriers separated the patricians and plebeians 'i 

228. What two offices were created, 437 B. C ? 

229. What successful expedient did the senate adopt for filling 

the Roman armies ? 

230. What city was taken by Camillas ? 

231. At what period and after how lon^ a siege ? 

232. To what event do the Roman writers attribute the loss of all 

the records and monuments of their early history ? 

233. What is there singular in regard to most of the revolutions 

in Rome ? 

SECTION XXTX. 

234. How long after the foundation of their city did Rome become 

mistress of ail Italy ? 

235. What w^as the policy observed by the Romans with respect 

to the nations they had conquered ? 

236. What gave rise to the Tunic wars ? 

SECTION XXX. 

237. By whom and when was Carthage Tr^iViided ? 

238. How many smaller cities were under the dominion of Car- 

thage, at the time of the Punic wars ? 

239. What was the form of government ? 

240. To w^hat was the wealth and splendour of Carthage owing ^ 

SECTION XXXI. 

241. Wha founded Syracuse ? 

242. What was the government of it ? 

SECTION XXXII. 

243. Where did the war betw«en Rome and Carthage cora- 

mence ? 

244. What Roman consul was taken by the Carthaginians in the 

first Punic war ? 

245. What patriotic act did Regulus perform when a prisoner to 

the Carthaginiars ? 

246. How did the first Punic war terminal e ? 

247. How long did the peace between P^ome and Carthage con- 

tinue ? 

248. How did the second Punic war be^in ? 

249. Hho was the Carthaginian general in this war ? 

250. How did Hannibal conduct this war ? 

251. Where did the Romans meet with complete defeat? 

252. HoAv many were slain in the battle of Cannae ? 

253. What is s'lpposcd would have been tho consequence had 

Hannibal improved this victory ? 



(iUESTfONS. 11 

254. In what way rlid the Romans compel the Carthaginians to 

sue for peace ? 

255. What Roman .s:eneral carried war to the gates of Carthage ? 

256. At what time did the second Punic war close ? 

257. When did the third commence ? 

258. What was the issue of this war ? 
,259. When was Carthage destroyed ? 

260. What other success attended the Romans this year ? 

SECTION XXXTII. 

261. What two persons, at this time, uadp.took to reform the cor- 

ruptions of the- fionians ? 

262. What circumstances attending the war of Jognrtha gave de- 

cisive proo( of the c ir,..ptiou of the lioman manners ? 

263. W^hal became of Jugnrtha? 

264. Between what two rivals did a civil war now break out in 

Rome ? 

265. What became of Marius '' 

266. To what office was ^ylla afterwards elected ? 

267. What magnanmious act characterized the latter part of his 

life ? 

268. Between whom was the civil war revived after the death of 

Silla? 

269. What conspiracy, at this time, threatened the destruction of 

RoiTie ? 

270. By whose provident zeal and patriotism was it extinguished ? 
£71. What distinguished individual now rose uito notice ? 

272. Under what circum'tances was the first lrium<?irate formed? 

273. What Roman g-eneral invaded and conquered Britain, 54 B.C? 

274. Who procured the ban;?hment of Cicero ? 

275. Who eflfected his recal from exile ? 

276. What dissolved the Triumvirate ? 

SECTION XXXIV. 

377. What proposition was made at this time by Caesar ? 

278. Did Porapey accede to it ? 

279. Did war ensue between them ? 

280. What decree did the senate pronounce ? 

281. Where was a decisive battle fought ? ^ 

282. What became of Porapey ? 

283. In what v/ar was the famous library of Alexandria burnt ? 

284. What was the character of Caesar's administration of the 

government, after the complete overthrow of Pompey's 
partisans ? 

285. To what offices was he appointed ? 

286. What was the end of Caesar ? 

287. Under what circumstances was the second Triumvirate form» 

ed? 

288. For what did Antony summon Cleopatra to appear before 

him ? 

289. What caused the overthrow of Antony ? 



13 Questions, 

290. What becaine of him ? 

291. V. hat indii.ced Cleopatra to destroy herself: 

Fi:CTION XXXV. 

292. What pc'<ver was giv-r. to every head of a family? 

293. \'^'hat were rfri-'.oiiec the higrhest points of female merit ? 

294. What qiialinciiticrjs contributed most to elevate persons to 

the highf St otSces and dignities of the state ? 

SECTION XXXVI. 
2?£, What was the state of literature in the early ages of the 

Roriian repibiic ? 
Q96. vVho Tver the principal Roman historians? 

297. vVhu T.cre tVie prmcipal Romcin poets? 

SECTION XXXVII. 

298. Was much attention paid to the study of philosophy in the 

early periods of Rome ? 

299. At what tia)t; did philosophy become an object of attention 

with ihe Romans ? 

300. Who first diffused a taste for the study of philosophy among 

thp Romar s ? 

301. \\ ho may be reckoned their most eminent philosopher ' 

SECTION XXXVIII. 

302. What were some of the most distinguishing traits of charac- 

ter in the early Roman-^ ? 

303. What contributed chiefly to their change of character and 

manners ? 

304. What were some of the amusements of the Romans ? 

SECTION XXXIX. 

305. To what may be ascribed the extensive conquests of the 

Romans? 

306. "^^ hat was the number of soldiers in a Roman legion ? 

307. ■V^■hen is it supposed that the tactic of the Romans was at its 

height of excellence ? 

308. By whom was the art of entrenchment carried to great per 

fection ? 

309. WheB was the naval military art first known among the Ro- 



SECTION XL. 

310. When did the most material change fsr the worse in the na- 

tional character of the Romans take place ? 

311. What were the morals of the Romans in the last ages of the 

commonwealth ? 

312. From what circumstances did Roman virtue so rapidly de 

cline ? 

313. To what did the Roman republic -owe its dissolution ? 



QUESTIONS. 



13 



SECTION XLI. 

314. What battle decided the fate of the commonwealth and 

made Octavius master of Rome ? 

315. By what name was he now called ? 

316. What event said to be productive of universal joy distia- 

g;aished his reign ? 

317. What methods did he practice to keep himself in the favour 

of the people ? 

318. When did Aua^ustus die and at what age? 

319. How long did he reign ? 

320. Who swcceeded him ? 

321. What was the character of Tiberius ? 

322. In what manner was he related to Augustus ? 

323. Wliat was the end of Tiberius 

324. In what year of his reign was Jesus Christ crucified : 

325. Who was the surcessor of Tiberius ? 

326. What was his character ? 

327. What became of him? 

328. Who succeeded Caligula ? 

SECTION XLII. 

329. By what acts of violence was the reign of Nero, the succeb- 

sor of Claudius, characterised ? 

330. Who v/'re the three next Roman emperors? 

331. Under which of the emperors was Jerusalem taken? 

332. Who succeeded Vespasian ? 

333. What was the chara<:ter of Titus ? 

334. How was it suspected Titus came to his death ? 

335. What three emperors next in order succeeded Domitian ? 

336. What was the character of Trajan and Adrian ? 

SECTION XLIII. 

337. For what length of time did the Antonines reign ? 

338. What was their character ? 

339. What length of time was there from the death of the Anto- 

nines to the accession of Diocletian ? 

340. What was the character of the emperors that reigned in this 

period ? 

341. VVhat change in the government did Diocletian introduce ? 

342. Under v/hom was the seat of the Roman empire removed aad 

when ? 
343- What was his religion ? 

SECTION XLIV. 

344. What is the general character of the government of Rome 

■under Constantino? 

345. la what way did he injure the army? 

346. What was the policy pursued by the emperor Julian towards 

Christianity ? 

347. Who were the three emperors that succeeded in order to J«t- 

lian ? 

o 



1 4 QUESTIONS. 

SECTION XLV. 

348. In whose reign did Christianity become the established re- 

ligion of the Roman empire ? 

349. \Vhy were the Romans less tolerant towards the Christian 

than they were towards the different pagan religions of oth- 
er nations ? 

350. \\'hen were the books of the New Testament collected into 

a volume ? 

351. "V^'hen was the Old Testament translated into Greek from the 

original Hebrew ? 

352. In what way did Christianity suffer in the third century ? 

353. Did Christianity become more or less pure as it received fa- 

vour from the civil powers ? 

SECTION XLVI. 
454. When and by whom was the city of Rome sacked and plun- 
dered ? 

355. What is the lengtli of time from the building of Rome to 

the extinction of the empire ? 

356. What may be considered the ultimate cause of the ruin of 

the Roman Empire ? 

357. V\ ho was the last emperor of Rome ? 

358. VVhen was he compelled to resign the throne ? 

359. By whom was he compelled to do it? 

SECTION XLVII. 

360. From what country is it supposed that the Goths were orig- 

inally derived ? 

361. What was the character of the ancient Scythians? 

362. Of what nation were the Germans a branch ? 

393. What effect had the religion of the Goths upon them, as a 
warlike people ? 

SECTION XLVIII. 

354. Were the Roman laws retained after Italy was conquered by 

the G oths ? 

365. What character does Tytler give the conquerors of Italy ? 

366. What government did the Goths establish in Italy after its 

conquest ? 

367. W'as it elective or hereditary ? 

SECTION XLIX. 

368. What are the most ancient books of history in existence? 

369. Who are sotre of the earliest writers of profane history 

whose works are still extant ? 

370. What modern histories of Greece and Rome are most Worthy 

of perusal to the person who has attended to original works 
named ? 

371. V hat may be considered the greatest magazine of historical 

knowledge over collected ? 

372. U'hat are esteemed the lights of history ' 



QUESTIONS. 15 

FART SECOND; 

MODERN HISTORY. 

SECTION I. 

373. At what rera is the commencement of profane history dated ? 

374. V\ hat new and powerful dominion arose in the latter part of 

the sixth century ? 

375. To whom do the Arabians trace their descent? 

376. When and where was Mahomet born ? 

377. What was his des( ent and education? 

378. What is the sacred book of the Mahometan religion called ? 

379. By whom and under what circumstances was it written ? 

380. V\ hat are the nature and substance of Mahometan re]i;2,ion ? 

381. What caused the banishment of Mahomet from Mecca? 

382. What is his flight called ? 

383. When did it take place ? 

204. Did the Mahometan religion have a rapid increase ? 

385. What was the title of the head of this empire ? 

SECTION II. 

386. Who were the Franks ? 

387. From what did they receive this name ? 

388. Under whom and what circumstances were the Franks con- 

verted to Christianity ? 

389. Who delivered France from the ravages of the Saracens? 

390. At what time did this take place ? 

391. U ith whom and under what circumstances cammenced the 

second race of kings iu i^ raiice ? 

392. Who succeeded i epin in the sovereignty of France ? 

SECTION III. 

393. HtvV was the power of the government divided and exer- 

cised in the early parts of the French monarchy? 

394. What was the religions character of the ancient Germans ? 

395. V\hat new system of policy arose at this time among the 

united Germans and Franks, which extended itself over 
most nations of Flurope ? 

396. What is to be understood by the Feudal System? 

397. VS hat effect had the Feudal System on (lie power of the 

sovereign ? 

398. By what name is the second race of French kings called? 

SECTION IV. 

399. How came Charlemagne into possession of the undivided 

sovereij^nty of France ? 

400. What was his private character ? 

401. When did he die? 
4U2. Who was his successor ? 



>6 (QUESTIONS. 

SECTION V. 

403. What is said of Charlemagne in relation to commeFce ? 

404. How did he view literature ? 

405. What style of architecture was successfully studied and 

cultivated in that age ? 

406. What sanguinary and most iniquitous custom of the present 

time may be traced to the age of Charlemagne ? 

SECTION VI. 

407. What great heresies existed in the Christian church about 

this time ? 
400. By vrhom and when was the Arian heresy condemned ? 

409. \\ hat was a source of the inoet obstinate controversy in those 

ages ? [ fering ? 

410. What gave rise to penances and other religious voluntary suf- 

411. What effect had the conquests of Charlemagne on Christi- 

anity? 

SECTION VII. 

412. Who was the immediate successor of Charlemagne ? 

413. Did Iiis empire remain entire under his successors? 

414. What was the character cf his successors ? 

SECTION VIIT. 

415. What was the condition of the Eastern empire during the 

eighth and ninth centuries? 

416. What was the character of the emperors ? 

417. ^N hat religious dispute prevailed at this time ? 

SECTION IX. 

418. Under whom did the Pope begin to acquire temporal power? 

419. What is said of the religious character of the temporal prin- 

ces of this period ? 

420. What chexk was there, at this time, to the increasing power 

of the church of Rome ? 

421. What is the character of the clergy of this period? 

SECTION X. 

422. By v/hom was the empire of Morocco founded ? 

423. When did the Saracens overrun and conquer Spain? 

424. ^Vas the Mahometan religion extensively professed ? 

425. Vv'hat prevented the Saracens from raising an extensive em- 

pire ? 

SECTION XI. 

426. W^hat had become the condition of the empire founded by 

Charlemagne, in the tenth and eleventh centuries ? 

427. How were the emperors at this time elected ? 

428. V^ ho were some of the most distinguished monarchs of Ger- 

many in the middle ages ? 

429. Were there frequent disputes between the Popes of Rome 

and German emperors ? 



QUESTIONS. 



17 



SECTION XII. 
430. From whom is it probable the British isles derived their first 

inhabitants ? 
43i: What was the condition of the country -when invaded by 

the R-o'nans r 

432. Wher did Julias Caesar enter Britain? 

433. W'hen did a complete reduction of the island take place, and 

put it under the Roman power ? 

434. When did the Romans abandon the country? 

435. ''A hat led the Saxons into Britain? 

436. How long were the Saxons in conquering; the Britons ? 

437. What was the government called, established by the Sax*. 

ons ? » 

438. When and by whom Avas the Saxon Heptarchy brought under 

one sovereign ? 

439. What piratical people for a long period subsequent to this, 

desolated the coasts of Britain ? 

440. What relationship was there between Alfred the Great and 

Egbert ? 

441. What is the character of Alfred? 

442. When did he die ? 

443. Who were the immediate successors of Alfred? 

444. What people invaded and obtained the government of Eng- 

land subsequent to the time of Alfred ? 

445. When was William duke of Normandy put in possession of 

the throne of England ? 

SECTION XIII. 

446. What was the character of the Anglo-Saxon government? 

447. How many ranks of people were there ? 

448. How did the Anglo-Saxons compare with the Normans in 

point of civilization ? 

SECTION XIV. 

449. W'ho was elected to the throne of France, A. D. 987 ? 

450. What was the prevailing passion among the nations of Eu^ 

rope during the tenth and eleventh centuries'* 

451. What was the state of the Northern powers of Europe in 

point of civilization, at this time ? 

452. What was a subject of dispute between the Popes and the 

Emperors '' 

SECTION XV. 

453. What was the consequence of the battle of Hastings? 

454. What was the end of VV illiam the conqueror ? 

455. What important law did he introduce into England ? 

4it6. Which part of his subjects were treated with most favour ? 

457. Who were some of the immediate successors of William the 

conqueror ? 

458. Who effected the conquest of Ireland ? 

459. What clouded the latter part of the jeign of Henry 11^ ^ 

2* 



^^ QU£5T{0NS> 



4G0. What was the character of this monarch? 

461. Who succeeded him on the throne? 

462. How came Richard I. to be imprisoned in Germany? ^ 
413. Under what sovereign was the Ma^na Charta produced ; j 

SECTION XVI. \ 

464. What two factions were there in Italy in the thirteenth cen- 
tury ? 
466. "V^'hat occasioned them ? 

466. What was the political state of Europe at this time ? 

SECTION XVII. 

467. Who was the first promoter of the Crusades ? | 

468. V/hat was the object of the Crusades ? • 4 

469. What was the number of Peter^'s army, and when did he ^ 

commence his crusade to the Holy Land ? 1 

470. What became of thig army ? h 

471. When was a second crusade undertaken and how many en- i 

gao:ed in it ? ,\ 

472. What was the fate of this expedition? 'i 

473. W ho headed the third crusade ? 4 

474. Wh.cn was the fourth fitted out? ) 

475. ^V'hat particular success attended one, and what was its 



issue ? 

476. \\ ho undertook the last crijsade into tke East? 

477. Vv'hat became of Lcvv^is IX. ? 

478. How many, is it supposed, of the persons who e'ng^aged Ie 

the crusades, perished ? 

479. What benefit resulted from the crusades ? 

SECTION XVIII. 
180. How was the profession of arms esteemed among the Ger- 
jnans ? 

481. \\ hat is faid to have beon characterestic of the Gothic man- 

ners ? 

482. \Mien C.ld chivalry attain its perfection ? 

'183. What writings accompanied the adventures of chivalry? 
484. y^re works of fiction capable of producing good moral effects' 

SECTION XIX. 
-185. When did Ihc crusaders take Constantinople ? 
48G. iiow Ions; di*:! the Froncli emperor? govern it ? 
487. VN lien may the rise of tlie house of Austria be dated ? 
cUo. II:v7 did lliij siates of Italy compare at this time with most 
of the other countries of Europe ? 

489. .\''I.at severe and bloody measure v/as adopted in relation to 

tke Knights Templars ? 

SECTION XX. 

490. 'Wlicn did Suitzcrland become independent? 

491. Ey what name was it then called ? 

49,i. 'xv what goycrnuicnt bad it Dccn subject ? 



QUESTIONS. l^y 

493. What was the number of battles fought before it became in- 

dependent ? 

SECTION XXI. 

494. ^^'hat prince imposed a tribute on all the Italian states ? 

495. In nhose time was the Popedom removed to Avig-uon ? 

496. How long; did it remain there ? 

497. y> hat act disting-uished the reign or Charles IV. ? 

498. Who summoned the council of Constance, 1414 ? 

499. What raartj'rdoms were the consequence of this council ? 

500. By whom was the wealth of the Germanic stales possessed •' 

SECTION XXII. 

501. What character is g-iven of Henry III. ? 

502. B}' whem was he made a prisoner ? 

503. V»'ho succeeded Henry HI. on the throne of England? 

504. When and by whom was Wales conquered ? 

SECTION XXIII. 

505. What is the state of the Scottish history before the time of 

Malcolm III ? 
556. Who were the two next succeeding kings of Scotland ? 

507. Who became competitors to the! crown, 1285 ? 

508. How was the dispute decided ? 

509. What distinguished warrior arose, at this lime, to assert the 

liberties of J ' .:itry ? 

510. What became _ Wallace ? 

511. Who finally succeeded in delivering Scotland from the Eng- 

lish and was crowned sovereign of it, 1306 ? 

SECTION XXIV. 

512. What statute was passed by Edward I. which related to tax- 

es and imposts ? 
5 '3. How many times in his reign is he said to have ratified the 
Mac:pa Chario ? 

514. ^^'ith how large an army did he invade Scotland ? 

515. '\\'ith v.'haL lorce did Bruce meet him ? 

:'AG. Who ciolhroned Edward II. and under what circumstances? 
517. In v/hat manner did Edward III. revenge the murder of his 

father ? 
510. On what did he found liis claim to the throne of France ? 

519. When are the English said for the first time to have used ar- 

tillery in battle ? 

520. What king of France was carried captive to England, and by 

v/hom ? 

521. What bfcairiC of the captive king of France ? 

522. ^Vho succeeded John in France and Edward IIL in England ? 

SECTION XXV. 

523. What became of Richard II. and who succeeded him ? 

524. What was llie origin of the quarrels between the houses of 

Lancaster and York ? 



2V w,ut»inJi.a« 

525. Wliat induced Henry V. to invade France I 

526. What was the result of this expedition ? 

527. On what terms did Henry V. receive a right to the throne oi 

France during the life of Charles VI. ? 

528. By what aid was Charles VII. enabled to secure the thron'^ 

of France to himself? 

529. What became of the Maid of Orleanc ? 

530. What was the state of society in Europe at this period? 

531. What circ'incstances show that it wr.s in a low state ? 

SECTION XXVI. 
•32. At what time did the Turks cross over into Europe ? 

533. What Asiatic conqueror arose in the 14th century, who for 

a time checked the Turks in their career of conquest and 
oppression ? 

534. What effect did the death of Tamerlane have on the Turks 

535. What prince subjected Constantinople to the power of the 



Turk 



536. When did this take place, and hov/ long had the eastern em- 

pire then subsisted ? 

537. Did this terminate the empire of the East, as it was termed I 

SECTION XXVIL 

538. What is the g:overnment of Turkey ? 

539. What limits and restraints are there upon a Turkish Sultan ?" 

540. What is the character of the people ? 

541. With what officer are the principal functions of the govern- 

ment entrusted ? 

542. How are the revenues of the g^overnment obtained ? 

SECTION XXVIH. 

543. What greatly increased the power of the French cfrown in the 

15th century ? 

544. What was the character of Lewis XI ? 

545. Who were the two immediate successors of Lewis XI, on the 

throne of France ? 

546. In what foreign enterprise did Charles VIII. of France en- 

gage ? 

SECTION XXIX. 

547. What circumstance unittd the kingdoms of Arragon and 

Castile under the same sovereigns ? 

548. What institutions were formed in thisperiod for the discovery 

and punishment of crimes ? 

549. When did Ferdinand take the title, king of Spain ? 

550. How long time did the dominion of the Moors continue in 

Spain ? 

551. On what account and when did Ferdinand expel the Jews 

from Spain ? 

552. How numerous were they ? 

&53» What memorable di&covcry was made in this reign ? 



QUESTIONS. 21 

SECTION XXX. 
55 i. What v/as the character of pope Alexander VL? 

555. ^' hat became of him : 

556. vS ho conspired to deprive Lewis XII. of Navarre r 

557. When did he die ? 

SECTION XXXI. 
553. Hovv' did the partisans of York and Lancaster distinguish 
tiiernsclves [roni each other? 

559. Vkiiich party triunijjlied ? 

560. IJoAV many of the Lancastrians were slain in the battle near 

Toulon ? 

561. To whoin was Edward IV. in the first instance indebted for 

his throne ? 
56?.. \V hat caused '^■^'arwlck to turn a:xainst Edward ? 

563. What epiLhet was g'iven to arwick ? 

564. Who wKS (he queen of Henry \ I. a. id what is said of her 

character ? 

565. V\ hat of Herry "^'I. — of his queen Margaret — and of the 

Prince, the;r son ? 

566. V.'ho was Jiichard !II? 

567. llcv,- di i he come to (he throne. ? 
5Go. What bf'came ofhiai ? 

569. V-hat became of Edv/.^ul ^'.P 

570. How werf.' the Ho use; 

put a period to the civil wars between them? 

571. V. hat is said of the governnient of rienry V'll. ? 

SECTION XXXII. 
57-2. What was the st~ate of the feudal system in Scotland ? 

573. V\ hat was a constant policy of the Scottish kings ? 

574. What Scottish kinj: Ava? prisoner in Loudon in company witja 

Johr, king of France ? 

575. How long was ht: held in captivity there ? 

576. How long was James I. held in captivity by the English? 

577. What advantage did he derive from this captivity? 

578. To what end did the five Jameses come? 

579. With what English sovereiga was James V. cotemporary, 

and engaged in war ? 

SECTION XXXIII. 
630. What was the constant policy of the Scottish kings ? 
58 L v\ hat rendered this policy necessary ? 

582. In whom resided the legislative power ? 

583. Of what did the revenue of the sovereign consist ? 

SECTION XXXIV. 

584. Who were the first restorers of learning in Europe ? 

585. What sovereigns in this age encouraged the revival of learn- 

ing in Europe ? 

586. What distinguished genius appeared in the middle of the 

thirteenth century ? 



22 QUESTIONS. 

587. In what did the genius of Bacon discover itself? 

.588. What led to a discovery of many of the ancient authors^ 

during the fifteenth century ? 
589. What contributed most to the dissemination of knowledge at 

this period ? 
690. To what is to be traced modern dramatic composition. 

SECTION XXXV. 
391. What was the boldest naval enterprize of the ancients ? 

592. W hat parts of Europe were unknown to the ancients ? 

593. To what sea was the commerce of the ancients mostly con- 

fined ? 

594. What cities of modern Europe first became commercial ? 

595. \'^ hen and where was first established a national bank ? 

596. What were the Italian merchants called in the middle ages ? 

597. Vi hat give rise to Bills of Exchange ? 

598. ^^* hen did commerce extend itself to the north of Europe ? 

599. For what purpose was the League of the Hanse towns 

formed ? 

600. When did the woollen manufactures of England become im- 

portant? 

601. W hat English sovereigns in these ages particularly encourage 

ed commerce and the useful arts ? 

SECTIOx\ XXXVI. 

602. W' hen was the mariner"'s compass first used ? 

603. V/hat nation became particularly distinguished in the fif- 

teenth century for naval enterprize ? ^ 

604. When and by whom was the Cape of Good Hope doubled ? 

605. How extensive did the i^orluguese possessions in India become 

at this time ? 

606. W'hat effect had these discoveries on the commerce of 

Europe ? 

607. W'ho made repeated attempts to destroy the trade of the 

Portuguese ; 

608. What besides the Portuguese discoveries produced a spirit of 

successful enterprize in England ? 

609. What has been the increase of population in Britain since the 

reign of Elizabeth ? 

610. What proportion of the population is supposed to be em- 

ployed in manufactures and commerce ? 

611. How does it appear that there has been a great increase of 

national wealth in Britain ? 

SECTION XXXVII. 

612. Who were the parents of Charles V. ? 

613. When did he come to the throne of Spain ? 

614. W'ho was the competitor of Charles V. for the throne of Aus- 

tria on the death of Maximilian ? 

615. Who was king of England at this time? 

616. How did the r/ar terminate between Charges ard Francis ? 



QUESTIONS. 



"617. With \^hom did Henry VIII. take part on the renewal of the 
war ? 

618. What induced Charles to conclude a treaty with Francis, i» 

1544? 

619. When and by whom was the order of Jesuits founded? 

620. What was the principle of the order .'' 

621. What gave Charles perpetual disquiet in Germany? 

622. At what age and where did he resign his dominions ? 

SECTION XXXVII l. 

^623. What was the condition of the Germanic empire previous to 

the reign of Maximilian I. ? 
624. What emperor acquired the greatest power in Germany ? 

SECTION XXXIX. 
e^5. What important events distinj^rJrlu 1 iie aj^c of Charles V. r 

626. Who was a leading charactei' m p-odn-uing- the Reformation ? 

627. Who was Roman PontiiT at Uus tim'^ ? 

628. What practice of the R«misb chnroh did Luther first attack? 

629. What procured Henry Vill. the title of Defender of the 

Faith ' 

630. What distinguished reformer arose in Switzerland •' 

631. What sovereign at ihis time was upon the thrones of Sweden, 

Denmark and Norway ? 

632. Who was Gustavus V' asa ? 

633. What act of Leo X. and of Christiern II. contributed to the 

reformation in the north ; 
134. From what circumstance did the Lutherans derive the name 

of Protestants ? 
035. Who became a distinguished convert to the doctrines of the 

reformation in' Qentva? 

636. V/hat is said of the character of Calvin ? 

SECTION XL. 

637. What reformer arose in England in the middle of the four- 

teenth century ? 

638. In v/hat v/ay had Wickliffe prepared the minds of the people 

of England for the reformation ? 

639. Who was the immediate cause of it? 

640. Vvhat led ilenry Vlil. to declare himself head of the church 

in England ? 

64 1. When did he die, and by whom was he succeeded ? 

642. What checked the progress of reformation in England, in 

the year 1553 ? 
G43. IIov/ many Protestants suffered martyrdom during the reign 
of Mary, in Englar:d ? 

644. In whose rei en did the Protestant religion become establish- 

ed accciding to its present form in England ? 

SECTION XLI. 

645. Who discovered America ? 

646. To v/hom did he apply in vain for aid in making discoveries'-' 



24 QUESTIGKS. 

647. Who finally furnished him for the vcyag^e ^ 

648. Mow lon^ after Columbus left the Cauaries, before he dis- 

covered land ? 

649. In which oi" his voyages did he discover the continent of 

America ? 

650. From Tvhoif! vas the nnme of America received? 

651. H >r.- <-]i ' 'lie, r-pr.; iaidj treat the inhabitanis of the newly 

dj'^ccA • r 'i rcir'itriee :! 
65^. Whrn arc^ oy v^'hom Avas the continent of America explored? 
65'P>. :• nw lonp; hwd the Mexican empire been founded at this time ? 
C5-1. \' hf- ■vva3 i]) : ?rv<:rc'<f:n of it'' 

G5o. ''•' Iiat v/ai ti e if-i'lt of the fxpodition ag'ainst the Mexicans? 
Gof'. '^hoaid v/ih v^'h3' j^'j-^ce^s attempted to supersede Cortez ? 
■'■■7. ^V; a( heca'Tie oi' ^] .littzurna ? 

<-•<'; ■,' ii(j. Ti'as his succpcsor, and v/hat Vecame of him? 
659. \vii.n and by whom was an expedition undertaken against 

Prrii ? 
630 /Vh ^T. are some of the most important circumstances that at- 

It a-led this fxpff!itio.n ? 

661. v^'lia' bf'C:^me r.f lj"'Alma'j;rn and Pizarro ? 

662. Vvha' constiLuted the principal value of the American 

Spanish pcssesfeions ? 

SECTION XI.TI. 

663. What effect had the success of the Spaniards on the otheV 

nations of Europe ? 

664. Who first settled Brazil, Flnrida and Canada? 

665 From v/hat did England derive her right to her American set- 
tlements ? 

666. V> ho first planted an English colony in America ? 

6G7. How do thosi/ parts of America at first^^cttled by British col- 
onists compare in natural richness with the Spanish posses- 
sions ? 

SECTION XLIIL 

668. What was the state of the fine ajts iu Europe in the time of 

Le > X. ? 

669. What v/as their progress ? 

670. la what arts did the Italians excel ? 

671. Who were some of the most distinguished Italian painters? 

672. Who were some of the most distinguished Italian scalptors ? 

673. When is the invention of engiaving on copper dated ? 

SECTION XLIV. 

674. What is the character of the Turks in the fifteei-ith century ? 

675. From whom did the '■ urks take the island of Pthodes ? 

676. From Avhat ancient nation are derived the principles of mari- 

time jurisprudence existing among modern nations ? 

677. "V^'hat cont.|ucsts did the Turks niake ia the sixteenth cen- 

turv ? 



(iUESTIONS. ^^ 

SECTION XLV. 

678. What occasioned a revolution in Tersia in the latter part of 

the fifteenth century ? 

679. What is the government of Persia ? 

680. From what country have proceeded the conquerors who oc- 

casioned the principal revolutions of Asia ? 

681. What singular phenomenon does the kingdom of Thibet ex- 

hibit? 

SECTION XLVI. 

682. Who has furnished the earliest accounts of India r 

683. Hew do those accounts compare with the present condition 

of the Hindoos ? 

684. When did the Mahometans be^in an establishment in India ? 

685. What was the condition of the Mogul empire in the begin- 

ning of the eighteenth century ? 
636. Who conquered and obtained poss'^ssion of the Mogul em- 
pire about the middle of the eighteenth century ? 

SECTION XLVII. 

687. How have the remains of the ancient knowledge of the Hin ■ 

doos been pres- rved ? 

688. How has the body of Hindoo people been divided ? 

689. What inference is to be drawn from this classification of the 

Hindoos, as to their early civilization? 

690. What was the civil policy of the Hindoos in the time of Al- 

exander the great ? 

691. What is the antiquity of some Hindoo compositions lately 

translated ? 

692. What is the antiquity of some numr rical tables lately ob- 

tained from the Bramins by M. Gc-ntil ? 

693. W^hat do the writings of the Hindoo priests demonstrate ? 

694. What is the religion of India generally ? 

SECTION XLVIII. 

695. What is said of the laws and system of government in China ? 

696. When did the Tartars establish themselves permanently ia 

the sovereignty of China ? 
€97. When and by whom was the empire of Japan discovered ? 

698. Who carried on a beneficial trade with the people of Japan? 

699. What caused this trade to be broken off? 

700. Why is it that the Dutch are still allowed to trade with the 

Japanese ? 

SECTION XLIX. 

701. To whom does Sir William Jones trace the origin of the Chi- 

nese ? 

702. What is the government of China ? 

703. How are honours bestowed in China ? 

704. What is the state of the sciences in China at this time t 

705. What arts in China are carried to great perfection ? 

706. What are the morals of the Chinese .^ 

3 



2(i QUESTIONS. 

707. "\Miat Chinese \rritcr is said to have produced a g:ood system 

of morality ? 

708. What is the religion of the emperor and the higher manda- 

rins ? 

SECTION L. 

r09. What was the opinion of Mr. Bailly concerning the arts and 

sciences among: the nations o( the east ? 
flO. How long have they been stationary with the Chinee ? 
'11. At how early a period are the Chaldeans represented tc 

have been an enlightened people ? 
12. Is the opinion of Mr. Bailly well founded ? 

SECTION LI. 

713. Who took Calais from the English for the French ? 

714. How long had it been in possession of the English ? 

715. What was the character of Thilip II. ? 

716. The gdverument did he confer on the Prince of Orange? 

717. For what purpose did he establish the Inquisition in those 

provinces ? 

718. What led to the establishment of the republic of the seven 

united proviuces ? 

719. What is the chief magistrate called ? 

720. What became of the Prince of Orange ? 

721. Who aided this republic in obtaining independence ? 

SECTION LI I. 

722. \Miat was the government of the seven united provinces : 

723. What important evil is there in the constitution of the gov- 

ernment ? 

724. \N hat was the authority of the chief magistrate ? 

725. Who almost aimihilated the republic ? 

726. When was the Stadtholdership made hereditary ? 

SECTION LIII. 

727. How was the loss of tlie Netherlands compensated to Phil- 

ip II. ? 

728. When did he take possession of Portugal ? 

729. \^ hat naval enUrprise engaged the attention of Philip ? 

730. V. hat was the result of it ? 

731. \^ hat is the character of Philip? 

SECTION LIV. 

732. What accelerated the progress oi' reformation in France : 

733. What two parties were eapjged in a civil war in the latter 

part of tlic sixteenth century ? 

734. "\\ hen was the massacre of St. Bartholomew ? 

735. \niat was the character of Charles IX. of France ? 
73-0. Who werr lus two immediate successors: 

737. What became of them ? 

7^. What great project waa Henry IV meditating, when assassi- 
nated? 



QHESTIONS, 



27 



SECTION LV. 

739. When did Elizabeth come to the throne of England? 

740. ^Vhat was the state of the kiuji^dom during her reign? 

741. What fixed a stain on Elizabeyi's character ? 

742. Under what pretence did Mary of Scots assume the arms and 

title of queen of England ? 

743. What form of religion became established in Scotland, in the 

reign of Elizabeth ? 

744. Who was a distinguished reformer in Scotland ? 

745. \'Wio were the two husbands of Mary ? 

746. How came Mary in the hands of Elizabeth ? 

747. Under what pretence Avas Mary condemned, and executed 

748. How long was she a captive in England ? 

749. At what age and when did Elizabeth die ? <. 

SECTION LVI. 

750. Who succeeded Elizabeth on the throne of England ; 

751. What rendered James unpopular with his subjects : 
75-?. What was the object of the gunpowder treason ? 

753. By whom was the conspiracy formed ^ 

754. What was a favorite object with James ? 

755. Who was his successor ? 

756. Wliat were some of the principal subjects of dispute between 

Charles and his parliaments ? 

757. What caused the Scots to rebel and take up arms against the 

government of Charles ? 
750. What two distinguished individuals at this time were im- 
peached by the commons and beheaded? 

759. What important occurrence v/as there at this time in Ire- 

land ? 

760. When the civil v/ar commenced, who were on the side of the 

king, and Avho on that of tlie ]iarliament? 

761. Who directed the measures of the army of parliament? 

762. In what way was Cromwell able to procure the death of 

Charles ? 

763. When was he beheaded ? 

764. How far were the proceedings of the commons justifiable ? 

SECTION LVII. 

765. What part did the parliament of Scotland take in regard to 

the king ? 

766. On what condition was Charles II. proclaimed king of Scot- 

land ? 

767. Who were the Covenanters (>f Scotland ? 

76J). Wfiat became of Charles II. when overcome by Crojnwell : 

769. \Vhat was the title of Cromwell ? 

770. What was the character of his government? 

771. At what age did he die, and who was his successor? 

772. What was the parliament called that put to death kinjr 

Charles ? '' 

773. Under what circumstances and when wa? Charles II restored * 




28 QUESTIONS. 

SECTION LVIir. 

774. What was the character of Charles II. ? 

775. When were the epithets of Whig and Tory first known, and 

how were they appli^? 

776. Who was the successor of Charles II. ? 

777. What made him unpopular with his subjects ? 

778. By what means was Charles removed from the throne ? 

779. On whom was the crown then settled ? 
7S0. What became of James ? 

t 
SECTION LIX. 

81. To what period may the rudiments of the English constitn- 

tion be traced ? 

782. In v/hose reign was instituted the trial by jury ? 

783. In whose reign did the Magna Charta originate ? 

784. In whose reign was the act of Habeas Corpus passed ? 

785. Of what does the parliament of Great Britain consist? 

780. Of what does the house of lords consist ? 

787. Of v/hat does the house of commons consist ? 

788. What is the act of Habeas Corpus ? 

SECTION LX. 

789. How are the pecuniary supplies of the sovereign obtained ? 

790. When did the English national debt arise ? 

791. What constitutes the Sinking Fund? 

792. Is it probable the debt will ever become extinct ? 

SECTION LXI. 

793. To what minister was France indebted for much of her good 

success in the reign of Lewis XIII. ? 

794. W hat was the character of Lewis XIII. ? 

795. W hat became the condition of the Protestants in the reign of 

Lewis Xlll.? 

796. When did he die ? 

SECTION LXII. 

797. What weak and despicable act did Philip III. commit? 

798. W'hen did Portugal become an independent sovereignty? 

799. Who became her first king? 

8G0. What is said of Spain in the reigns of Philip III. and IV. '- 

SECTION LXIII. 

801. What was the condition of Germany when Charles V. abdi- 

cated the throne ? 

802. W'hat was then and for a long period afterwards a subject of 

contention in Germany ? 

803. What peace put a period to this contention? 

804. When did the peace of Westphalia take place ? 

SECTION LXIV. 

805. When did Lewis XIV. come to the throne of France ' 

806. At what age' 



QUESTIONS. 29 

J]07. What led to a civil war in the early part of his reign ? 

808. When did Mazarin die? 

809. What change took place in the affairs of France at Ihis time ? 

810. What was reckoned one of the weakest and most impolitic 

measures of Lewis XIV. ? 

811. What was the state of the finances of France in the latter 

part of the reign of Lewis XIV. ? 

812. What character is given of Lewis XIV.? 

813. At what age and when did he die ? 

SECTION LXV. 

814. What change took place in the government of France, under-] 

the Capetian race of kings ? 

815. What power arose to limit and check the royal prerogative,^ 

in and from the reign of Lewis XIII. ? 

816. What made the powers of parliament a constant subject of 

dispute ? 

817. In what way was the crown of France to descend? 

818. What was the established religion of France? 

819. What took place in the assembly of the Galilean church, ia 

1682 ? 

SECTION LXVI. 

820. What two distinguished characters in the north of Europe 

were cotemporary with Lewis XIV. ? 

821. When is Russia said to have received Christianity ? 

822. What sovereign first published a code of laws in Russia? 

823. When was Siberia added to the Russian empire ? 

824. When and how did feter become master of the Russian em- 

pire ? 

825. How was the early part of his life spent ? 

826. What method did he adopt to improve himself in the sci- 

ences and useful arts? 

827. When and at what age did Charles XII. come to the throne 

of Sweden ? [made 

828. At what age and with what success was his first campaign 

829. What change did he effect in the government of Poland? 

830. By whom was he defeated ? 

831. How many of his army remained to him after this defeat ? 

832. To what means did Charles then resort to regain his lost 

pov/er ^ 

833. What became of Charles XII. > 

834. When did Peter the Great die } 

SECTION LXVII. 

835. Who were the principal philosophers in the seventeenth cen- 

tury ? 

836. For what was Galileo imprisoned ? 

837. What institutions were formed which contributed to the ad- 

vancement of science and the arts ? [phy ? 

838. What work of Newton contains the elements of all philoso- 

839. Whgit was Locke'g theory coacerning the human mind ? 

3* 



30 QUESTIONS, 

840. What are some of the most distinguished poetical productions 

of modern times ? 

841. Vv'ho are some of the most eminent English Poets ? 

842. Who were distinguished writers in history dwing the 16th and 

I7th centuries ? 



APPENDIX, 



HISTORY OF THE JEWff. 

SECTION I. 

843. What constitutes the basis of the first historical records ? 

844. How can we account for the fabulous relations of the first 

historians ? 

845. From what period are the details in profane history to be 

received as facts ? 

846. What historical records are the most ancient as well as the 

most rational ? 
$47. What historical facts do they contain, not found in ©ther his- 
tcry ? 

SECTION II. 

848. W^ho were the Israelites ? 

849. Why were they suffered to be subdued by the Romans ? 
S50. In what condition do their descendants exist? 

851. What circumstraice illustrates the truth and inspiration oi 

the prophetic writings ? 

SECTION III. 

852. IIow long before Herodotus did Moses live ? 

853. What acknowledgement did Porphyry make as to the anti- 

quity of ihe writings of Moses? 
S54. What pagan traditions confirm the truth of the Pentateuch f 
855. 'What is said of Zoroaster ? 
f!56. What Jewish historian successfully vindicates the authority 

of th« Jewish scriptures ? 

SECTION IV. 

857. What are the principal facts recorded in the book of Gen- 
esis ? 

853. What remarkable prophecy of Isaiah is there concerning 
Cyrus ? 

859. And what one; concerning Babylon ? 

liQO. What was the length of time from the giving of the law to 
Moses to the reformation in worship and government of the 
Jews by Neh&miah ? 

86 1 . What hcrertilary distinction of rank existed among the Jews* 

862. What is said of Moses, Elisha, and Gideon ? 

^63. What internal undoubted characteristic of truth is thertr 
ia tlie scjciptwre.,^ - 



QUESTIOiNS. 3i 

SECTION V. 

864. When was the creation of the Avorld accoir:pli3hed ? 

865. What was one of the most remarkable circumstances of the 

antediluvians ? 

866. How long did some of the oldest of them lire ? 

867. \^'hy did the Almighty destroy the world by a deluge of 

water ? 

868. Who were saved from it and by what means ? 

869. Who were some of tiie first inventers of the useful arts ? 

SECTION VL f 

870. What is said of the three sons of Noah :" 

871. What is the most important event between the deluge and 

the call of Abraham ? 

872. Of what city was Babel the beginning ? 

SECTION VII. 

873. From whom do the Jews derive their origin ? 

874. What relationship was there between Jacob and Abraham ? 

875. How came Joseph, the son of Jacob, to be in Egypt ? 

876. By what means was he made governor of Egypt ? 

877. How came his father and brel'jren to remove thither ? 

878. How long did the Israelites remain in Egypt ? 

879. What were some of the circumstances connected with their 

leaving it ? 

880. How long after leaving Egypt did Moses die ? 

SECTION VIIL 

881. What caused a league to be formed between the Syrian chiefs? 

882. Who was the successor of Moses in the government of Israel ? 

883. How were the Israelites governed after the death of Joshua? 

884. Who were the two last Judges of Israel ? 

S85. What change took place in the government on the death of 
Samuel ? 

SECTION IX. 
.886. What was the original government of Israel called ? 

887. W^hat moral and political change took place on the death of 

Joshua, in the condition of Israel ? 

888. Why was the regal government introduced ? 

SPXTION X. 

889. How long did Saul reign over Israel ? 

890. By what means vi^as David raised to the throne as his suc- 

cessor ? 

891. What prosperous events characterised the reign of David J 
89-2. What adverse ones characterised it ? 

893. How long did David reign, and v/:io succeeded him ? 

894. What is the most remarkable event in the reign of Solomon. ? 

895. What books are ascribed to him ? 

896. Under what eircumstauces was the kuagdonx divided t 



32 QUESTIONS. 

897. By what names were the two kingdoms subsequently to this 

division called ? 

898. What became of the ten tribes who constituted the kingdom 

of Israel ? 

899. Whencp sprang the Samaritans ? 

900. When and in what manner ended the kingdom of Judah r 

I SECTION XI. 

I 901. How long were the Jews held captive in Babylon ? 

'^902. By whom were they released ? 

|903. From what time and circumstance tvere the Israelites called 

; Jews ? 

^^ 904. What caused Alexander the great to march to Jerusalem 

} with hostile intentions ^ 

905. By what means was he appeased ? 

9^6. What favours did he then bestow on them ? 

907. What advantage did Ptolomy take of the regard which the 

Jews paid to ilie Sabbath ? 

908. In what manner did the five brothers named Maccabeus be- 

come distinguished ? 

909. Who was their father ? 

910. When and by whom were the Jews subjected to the Romans: 

911. \^■ho was then placed on the throne of David under the pro- 

tection of the Romans ? 

912. By what memorable event was the reign of Herod distin- 

guished ? 

913. By whom and when was the Jewish nation extinguished ? 

914. How many Jews are supposed to have perished in their last 

war with the Romans ? 

SECTION XII. 

915. What is the period of scriptural history? 

916. Where is it supposed that the Jews obtained their knowledge 

of the arts and sciences ? 

917. What was the state of commerce among the Jews ? 

918. With what inference does Tytler conclude his work on his- 

tory ? 



CONTINUATION, OR PART THIRD. 

SECTION I. 

919. What was the age of Lewis XV. when the crown of France 

descended to him ? 

920. When and what heirs to the crown of France, died w-ithin a 

few months ? 

921. What made it necessary for France on the death of Lewis 

XIV, to preserve peace with foreign states ? 

922. Who was regent of France during the minority of Lewie XV - 



QUESTIONS. 33 

92:^. What distinguished minister was at the court of Spain, in 
this period ? 

924. What was the character of the duke of Orleans, the regent 

of France ? 

925. By what means were the duchies of Lorrain and Bar made 

to revert to France ? 

SECTION 11. 

926. Who succeeded queen Anne on the throne of Britain ? 

927. Wiiat acts of parliament had passed connected with the 

accession of George I. concerning; religion ? 

928. When did he enter his new dominions ? 

929. How did the rehellion of 1715 in Scotland, terminate ? 

930. By what name were the adherents to tlie Pretender called ? 

931. By what name was the party called to which George I. com- 

mitted the government of tiie realm ? 

932. Who was king of Swed:;n at this time ? 

933. For what purpose and by whom was he nearly instigated to 

invade Britain ? 

934. What ruined the prospects of Alberoni? 

935. ' 

936. Why did he not succeed ? 

937. At what age and when did George I. die ? 

SECTION III. 

938. When did Charles VI. become emperor of Austria and 

Germany ? 

939. Who was the Austrian commander in the first war of Charles 

VI. with the Turks ? 

940. W'hat arrangement did he make for the descent of the Aus- 

trian crown ? 

941. What was this arrangement or his act in making it called ? 

942. When did Charles VI. die, and who succeeded him? 

943. Was she permitted to enjoy unmolested the dominions de- 

scended to her ? 

944. What circumstances were calculated to raise up competitors 

for different parts of her estates ? 

945. Who was the most forward and active of the queen's oppo- 

nents ? 

946. What prevented the competitors of the queen from succeed- 

ing in obtaining their claims ? 

947. Which one of them succeeded in obtaining the imperial 

crown in 174 1 ? 

948. How long after this did he live ? 

949. On his death who obtained the imperial crown ? 

950. When did the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle take place ?- 

SECTION IV. 

951. At what tifee and age did George II. come to the throne of 

England ? 

952. Wlio was his queen ? 

953. Who was prime minister of England at this time ' 



34 QUESTIONS. 

954. What caused him to resign ? 

955. Upon what two occasions had his views been thwarted ? 

956. When did he die ? 

957. What inteiesting event occurred in Scotland the same year : 

958. What was the object of the insurrection in Scotland? 

959. In v/hat battle were the hopes of the Stuart family forever 

blasted ? 

960. What became of the heir of this family after that battle ? 

961. W'hat is considered the most melancholy circumstance at- 

tending the Scottish rebellion ? 

962. What singular act of parliament was passed in the year 1751 ? 

963. When and at what age did George II. die ? 

SECTION V. 

964. By what treaty was the house of Hanover effectually estab- 

lished on the British throne ? 

965. How was the British naval force left by this treaty compared 

with the naval forces of other Etjropean nations ? 

966. What did Austria lose by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ? 

967. What did Prussia gain by it ? 

968. How did it effect Holland ? 

969. By v/hat means was Russia introduced into the southern 

states of Europe ? 

SECTION VI. 

970. What became a subject of jealousy and future warfare, after 

the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, between France and Eng- 
land ? 

971. In what respect did the peace of Europe, in 1748, extend 

to Asia aad America ? 

972. What French governor in the East Indies attempted to bring 

the Mcgul empire under the dominion of France ? 

973. In what way did the French in America gain an advantage 

over the English ? 

974. When did the French war in America commence '' 

975. What number of French merchant vessels was captured and 

carried into the English ports the first year of the war ? 

976. When the war was extended to Europe, what powers arrang- 

ed themselves against each other? 

977. Who was king of Prussia at this time ? 

978. What is his character? 

979. What has this war been termed ? 

980. How many men have been supposed to have perished annu- 

ally in the campaigns of it ? 

981. What advantage did the English gain in America ? 

982. Wliat nev/ally did France obtain in the year of 1761 ? 

983. Wliat induced him to join the league against England ? 

984. What advantages did England gain by this war ? 

985. What change in the ministry <?f England coutributed to the 

peace ? 



QUESTION^. 35 

SECTION VII, 

986. When did George III. succeed to the throve of Britain ? 

987. What was one of his first acts which shewed him to be the 

friend of liberty ? 

988. What gave rise to distressing- tumults in the year 1762? 

989. How did the measures of lord Bute differ from those of Mr. 

Pitt ? 

990. What contributed to make the first years of George III. un- 

quiet ? 

991. What besides public addresses and remonstrances contribu- 

ted to the popular fervour and agitation of public feeling at 
this period ? 

992. What constitutional question came under discussion at this 

time ? 

993. For what is the year 1764 remarkable? 

SECTION VIII. 

994. What was the pretence for taxing- the American colonies ? 

995. What was the first instance of imposing direct taxes without 

th^ir consent ? 

996. When was this imposed? 

997. When was it formally repealed ? 

998. What reason is there for supposing that the Americans did 

not contemplate independence when they first made oppo- 
sition to the British government ? 

999. How long was it after the passing of the stamp act before the 

commencement of hostilities ? 

1000. When and where was American independence declared ? 

1001. Who were sent to France, and when, to solicit aid for the 

Americans ? 

1002. What other powers besides that of France, united against 

England ? 

1003. When did Great Britain ratify the treaty which admitted 

the American independence ? 

SECTION IX. 

1004. Who laid the foundation for the French revolution ? 

1005. Why were the Jesuits banished from Portugal in the year 

1750? 

1006. What charge was attempted to be fixed on them at Paris, 

subsequent to this ? 

1007. When was the order of Jesuits abolished in France ? 

1008. From what other countries were they expelled, and when? 

1009. Whom did the dauphin of France, afterwards Lewis XIV. 

marry ? 

1010. When did he come to the throne ? 

1011. When was an alliance formed between the court of Ver- 

sailles and America ? 

1012. Who were the most eminent friends of liberty in the British 

parliament ? 

1013. What, at this time, produced an extraordinary effect on the 

;ance of the French court ? 



36 QUESTIONS. 

1014. What pjirtlcular,difficulties had the Idng (o encounter' 

1015. What, in the year 1783, tendtd to hasten the French revo- i 

liTliop and bring matters to a crisis ? 

1016. Who fir^t called for the -tate-jreneral ? 

1017. \^ h.f was in the French ministry when the states-general 

Avas called ? 

SECTION X. 

1018. What inconsistency was there in the conduct of Maria The- 

re ?a concerning Poland ? 

1019. What led to a war between Austria and Prussia, in the year 

1778? 

1020. What part did Austria take in regard to the war for Ameri- 

can independence ? 

1021. When and at what age did Maria Theresa die ? 

SECTION XI. 

1022. How long before the death of his mother, Maria Theresa, 

did Joseph II. come to the imperial throne of Austria? 

1023. In what manner did he labour to acquire the informatioh 

needful to his subjects ? 

1024. What was the population of his dominions? 

1025. V^ hat important edict was passed by him, October 31, 1781 ? 

1026. When did the Netherlands declare themcelves independent 

of Austria ? 

1027. vVhfiii did Joseph IL die, and by whom was he succeeded ? 

1028. JTow lonj^ did Leopold reign ? 
10£'9. V\ ho succeeded him and when ? 

1030. Wha^ evil did he experience from taking part against the 

Krf-nch revolutionists ? 

1031. By Avhom were the Austrians assisted against the French in 

the war of 1799 ? 

SECTION XII. 

1032. When was the states-general assembled ? 

1033. What was the French state prison called? 

1034. What became oi it ? 

1035. H -w many faiiiilies were there at this time in France of the 

ancient hereditary nobility ? 

1036. In what way did the kins attempt to rescue himself from 

the restraints imposed on him ? 

1037. When was the national assembly dissolved ? 
103S. What prevented Sweden aad Russia from engaging in hos- 
tilities agaiust the French ? 

1039. What furnished the demagogues with opportunity for char- 

ging the king with making war upim his peo]:)le ? 

1040. What has this period of the t rench history been called ? 

1041. Who was at the head of affairs in France ? 

1042. How many, suspected of being aristocrats, were assassina- 

ted on the second of September ? 

1043. When was the king brought to trial ? 

1044. When v/as he executed ? 



1045. Into how many factions were the revolutionists divided, 

and what were they called ? 

1046. Which one triumphed ? 

1047. What became of the queen of France ? 

SECTION XIII. 

1048. What change toek place in the ministry of Great Britain af- 

ter the peace with America ? 

1049. Who succeeded Mr. Fox in the British ministry ? 

1050. What is the Sinking Fund of Great Britain ? 

1051. What important prosecution was undertaken at this time 

by the British parliament ? 

1052. How long did it last, and what was its result ? 

1053. When was the attention of the house of commons first cal- 

led to the slave ti'ade ? 

1054. When was it abolished ? 

1055. What event compelled the British parliament to meet on 

the 20th of November, 1788 ? 

1056. What occurrence arose to threaten war between England 

and Spain, in the year 1790. 

1057. What led to the declaration of war agralnst the king of 

Great Britain, by France, in the year 1793? 

1058. With what success was the war prosecuted ? 

1059. What important occurrence took place in Ireland, 1798 ? 
,1060. What important event to Ireland succeeded the suppres- 
sion of the rebellion .' 

1061. What took place in India during the last year of the eighs- 

teenth century ? 

1062. What led to the peace of Amiens, between France and Eng- 

land, October 1st, 1801 ? 

SECTION XIV. 

1063. What was the situation of France towards the close of tht 

year 1793? 

1064. What took place on the 17th of November, 1793 ? 

1065. What alteration was there made in the calendar ? 

1066. When and where did Napoleon Bonaparte first distinguish 

himself ? 

1067. What became of Robespierre ? 

1068. W' hat was the government of France, established and pro- 

claimed in 1795 ? 

1069. What were the affairs of France externally at this time ? 
I07t). Who were some of her most distinguished generals ? 

1071. What territories were added to the French republic ? 

1072. What became of Lewis XVII.? 

SECTION XV. 

1073. When did Bonaparte receive the chief command of the 

French army in Italy ? 

1074. What was his age at that time ? 

'W75. On the reduction of Mantua, what did he state to his seJ" 
diers had been their success ? 
4 



38 QUESTIONS. 

1070. Why were the Venetians unwilling to take part either with 
the Austrians or French ? 

1077. Of what dishonourable conduct was Bonaparte guilty, in 

relation to the Venetians ? 

1078. What took place on the 4th and 5th of September, 1797 ? 

1079. Upon v/hat expedition did Bonapart*^ enter, in the year 179& 

1080. V'> hat success did he hare in Ihis expedition ? 

1081. What lessened his triumph and gave a new turn to the war ? 

1082. What chang-( took place in the French government on Bon- 

aparte ^s return from Egypt ? 
iOC3. When, by whom and with what result was the battle of 
Marengo fought ? 

1084. When and between whom was the treaty of Luneville, 

signed ' 

1085. When and between whom was the treaty of Amiens signed? 
10S6. What was the French power, and what were her posses- 
sions at this time ? 

SECTION XVI. 

1087. What regulation did Bonaparte make for religion in France i 

1088. V\ hat took place on the 2d of August, 1302? 

i089. What led to a renewal of hostilities between Fi*ance and 
England, 1803 ? 

1090. On the renewal of hostilities, what security did Bonaparte 

take for the future good conduct of England ? 

1091. What military enterprise did he project ? 

1092. What took place on the ICth of May, and the 2d of Be- 

cember, 1804? 

1093. W'hy did general Moreau come to America ? 

1094. \"bat induced Russia, Prussia, and Austria, to unite in hos- 

tilities against Napoleon ? 

1095. \A hat took place on the 21st of October, 1805 ? 

1096. After what battle did the empeior of Austria solicit peace ? 

1097. What appeared to lead to the exaltation of Joseph Bona- 

parte to the throne of Naples ? 
1698. What change took place in the governmejit of Holland, in 
1306 ? 

1099. What change took place, in the same year, in the political 

condition of Germany ? 

1100. How came Bonaparte to be in Berlin, in November, of this 

year ? 

1101. What extraordinary decree did he dictate, while there ? 

1102. What concessions did the emperor of Russia make to tKc 

French emperor in the treaty of Tilsit ? 

SECTION XVII. 

1103. When did Charles IV. come to the throne of France ? 

1104. What caused the Spaniards, in 1793, to invade France ? 

1105. What was the consequence of this invasion to Spain ? 

1106. By what means did St. Domingo fall into the hands of the 

French ? 

1107. What led to the war between England and Spain in 1806 ? 



QUESTIONS. ^9 

2108. Why did the royal family of Portugal remove to Americaj 
and when ? 

1109. On what account was Ferdinand arrested and imprisoned 

by the Spanish authorities ? 

1110. By what means was the Spanish throne declared vacant, 

and Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed king of Spain ? 

1111. What foreign power aided Spain and Portugal, against the 

French ? 

1112. In what battle were the French beaten and compelled to 

evacuate Portugal f 

1113. When and under whom did the British army enter Spain ? 

1114. What became of Sir John Moore? 

11 ir>. When did Sir Arthur Wtllesley, with fresh troops from Eng- 
land, enter Spain ? 

1116. For what service was he raised to a peerage ? 

1117. What battle caused the gates of Madrid to be throwtvopen 

to the Spanish patriots iu 1812 ? 
1118.,Wht-:n was the battle of Vittoria fought ? 
1119. What were the consequences of it to the French ? 

SECTION XVIII. 
i 120. What was the partition treaty between France and Spain ? 

1121. What was the Milan decree ? 

1122. Who was created king of Naples when Joseph Bonaparte 

remove to Spain ? 

1123. How long did the war of Austria last, which commenced in 

1809 ? 

1124. On what condition was Austria able to obtain peace ? 
il'i,^. vN hen did Bonaparte's second marriage take place ? 

1126. When was the war renewed with Russia? 

1127. With how large an army did j-'onaparte invade Russia, in 

1812? 

1128. What Avas the success of this expedition ? 

1129. With what force did he commence hostilities in 1813 ? 

1130. What battle completely Liiscnmfited the French emperor? 

1131. When did the allies pass the Rhine ? 

1 132. When did they reach ravis ? 

1 133. On what conditions was Bonaparte permitted to abdicate 

the French throne ? 

1134. When did the Bourbons return to Paris ? 

SErTION XIX. 
1135* From what cause had Poland suffered much ? 

1136. VN hat caange did Chai-ies Xll. make in the state of Poland f 

1137. By the aid of wh-se power was the family of Augustus 

kept upon the thrr^ue of Poland during the first half of 
the fcighttenih century? 

1138. Who succeeded Au ustus III. and when ? 

1139. What internal dispute greatly distracted Poland at this 

time ? 
X140. With whom did the plan of dismembering Poland, originate ? 






40 QWESTIOI^S* 

2141. What reasons were given "fey the partitioning powers for tht 
dismemberment of Poland ? 

1142. Did the Poles willingly acquiesce in the measure ? 

1143. When was the division actually agreed upon and sanction- 

ed by the Polish diet ? 
1-144. When did a second partition take place, and when a third ? 
:ti45. What became of Stanislaus, the last king of Poland ? 

1146. When and by vrfhom was the kingdom declared re-establish- 

ed ? 

1 147. What is the present political condition of it ? 

SECTION XX. 

1148. When were hostilities renewed by England against France-; 
] 149. \Miat caused Spain also to be involved with Great Britain ': 
1150. How did the En°flish violate the rules of justice in regard 

to Spain ? \^ hat splendid victory did the English obtain 

over the French and Spanish, in 1805? 
2.151. Of what act of injustice were the English judged guilty ti3- 

wards the Danes ? 
1152. What caused the royal family of France to take refuge ia 

England, in 1807 ? 
tl53. What were tlie English orders in council 'mvLQA in Jai:iua!'y 

and November, 1807 ? 

1154. When was the p.'iace of Wales appointed regent of Great 

Britain ? 

1155. Why wa&he appointed? 

1156. What distinguished jiersonage was assassinated in the montk 

of May, 1812? 
1 U-7. What interesting event took place ia England, in May, 181 6f 

1158. By what melancholy event was it succeeded in November 

of the following year ? 

1159. When did George HI. die ? 

SECTION XXI. 

1160. How d^d the French army feel toward the emperor Napole- 

on, after he was exiled ? 

1161. When did Bonaparte laud in France, on his return from 

Elba? 

1162. When did he enter Paris ? 

1163. When was the battle of Waterloo fought, which fore-/er 

terminated his prospects ? 

1164. V/hen did he arrive at St. Helena, to which he-was ban- 

ished ? 

1165. What resolution w^as adopted by the allied military com- 

manders in relation to the works of art, which the French 
had collected in former victories ? 

1166. What precaution did the allies adopt to prevent future revo- 

lutions in that country ? 

SECTION XXII. 

1167. Who were the three immediate saccessors of Peter I. upoei 

the throne of Russia ? 



QUESTIONS. 4 ! 

1 168. Hffw Ions? after the death of her father did the priaces3 

Elizabeth rorae to the throne ? 

1169. How long- did she reic^n, and who succeeded her? 

1170. What became of Peter U\. ? 

1171. What was the character of Catharine II. his widow, who 

succeeded ? 

1172. When did Alexander, the present emperor of Russia, come 

to the throne ? 

1173. W^hat became of his predecessor ? 

1174. How long has Prussia existed as a kingdom? 

1175. How many kings have reigned orer it ? 

1176. \^'hich of them did most toward raising the kingdom to the 

first degree of power and renown ? 

1177. What two factions were there in Sweden in the reign of 

Frederick? 

2178. How long did Gustavus III. reign? 

1179. How did he come by his death ? 

1180. Wfcy did Gustavus IV. abdicate the throne? 

1181. Who is the present king of Sweden? 

1182. When did he come to the throne? 

1183. How many kings have reigned in Denmark since the close 

of the seventeenth century ? 

1184. In what war was Christian VII. connected with George IIL, 

of England? 

1185. Why did his queen, Caroline Matilda, retire to, and end her 

days in Germany ? 

1186. Who is the present kir.^ of Denmark? 

SECTION XXIII. 

1187. In what disputes was Switzerland involved during the first 

part of the 18th century? 

1 1 88. Which of the popes of Rome suppressed the order of Jesuits ? 

1189. Who was raised to the papal chair in 1775 ? 

1190. At what age, when, and where did he die? 

1191. How came he at Valence ? 

1192. When was his successor chosen, and by what name is he 

called? 

1193. When did he aid in establishing the catholic religion in 

France ? 

1194. What injury did he afterwards receive from France? 

SECTION XXIV. 

1195. Who was the reigning prince of India in the beginning of 

the 18lh century ' 

1196. To what age did he live? 

1 197. In what manner did he come to the throne ? 

1198. What singular fact is mentioned as evidence of the conten- 

tions common for the throne, with that semi-barbaroua 
people ? 

1199. What chartered privilege has the English East India Com- 

pany with this people ? 
4* 



4:2 QUESTIONS. 

1200. W]icn did the Company receive this priv^ilege ? 

1201. What descri{-.lioii of this people is called Sepoys ? 

1202. Who is regarded as the founder of the British empire in- 

India ? 

1203. \Micn did the British parliament make provision to prevent 

abuses of power in India ? 

1204. V> hat distinguished individuals were instrumental in the 

first reforms under the new system ? 

1205. What is the reasoa why this system Wcis not scrupulously 

adhered to ? 

1206. What was the object of Tippo in regard to the Ens;lish ? 

1207. For what object was the East India College established ? 

1208. What is the population of British- India ? 

STATE OF ARTS, SCIENCES, RELIGION, LAWS, GOVERN- 
MENT, &c. 
1-209. What countries have been particularly distinguished in lit- 
erature, arts, and science, in the 18th century ? 

1210. Which of the sciences in particular have been much culti- 

vated and advanced in that time ? 

1211. In what particulars has chemistry undergone important 

chan!:;es in the latter part of the 18th century ? 

1212. Who claim to be the authors of the new theory of chemistry ? 
1213- What is now ascertained to be the nature of atmospheric 

air ? 

1214. By Avhom was the discovery of vital air, or oxygen gas, 

made ? 

1215. To what branch of chemistry is the discovery of the de- 

composition of water owing? 

1216. Who discovered the constituent parts or principles of water? 

1217. What are they called ? 

1218. Who are some of the most distinguished chemists of the- 

18th century ?' 

BOTANT. 

i219. Where and when was Linnseus born ^ 
1220. What is the foundation of bis systematic botany ? 
1221.. With how many species of plants are botanists now said to 
be acquainted ? 

1222. What French botanist has done much for the benefit of the 

science ? 

1223. What is the difTercnce betv/eea the system of Linnaeus and 

that of JuE-bicU:: 

ELECTRICITY. 

1224. Who were some cf the persons who first wrote learnedly oa 

on the subject of electricity ? 

1225. ■^Vho proved that the electric fluid- and lightning are the 

same thing ? 

1226. To what practical purposes did he apply this ? 

1227. Of VN'hom was Galvanism the discovery ' 
:i^8. What is GalyanisQi ea.lled ? 



1229. What English philosopher has become much cciebraled for 

his electro-chen)ical researches ? 

MINERALOGT AND GEOLOGY. 

1230. When did the modem scientific arrangements of minerals 

beg-in to occupy the attention of naturalists ? 

1231. Who has the credit of reducing the science into classes and 

orders ^ 

1232. From what did eeology arise ?- 

1233. What is geology^? 

GEOGRAPHY. 

1234. What two new quarters of the v/orld have been presented 

to us, in the last century, according to the French geog- 
raphers ? 

1235. What does Australasia include ? 

1236. What does Polynesia include ? 

1237. What took place in Y'iGl, in evidence of the improvements 

in civilization ? 
1230. What eminent Prussian traveller has contributed to the per- 
fection of geographical knowledge ? 

1239. From what period have the Russian sovereigns made lauda- 

ble elicits to obtain correct geographical information? 

1240. Has the sciencts of astronomy undergone as great changes 

as the other sciences named during the last century ? 

1241. riov/ many planets have been discovered in that time ? 

1242. Vvhat tact is stated from which we can form some conjecture 

of the number of fijLed stars ? 



1243. What French writer did much to unsettle the minds of his 

countrymen on religion and politics ? 
1244» From whom has- it been supposed that Voltaire imbibed his 

deistical sentiments ? 
2245. V^'ho v.^ere the principal d- istical writers of England ? 

1246. Uhat counteracted the tendency of their writings ? 

1247. \^ hat other eminent French philosopher visited England, be- 

sides Voltaire, about the same time ? 

1248. To what did he principally confine his views ? 
3249. V^ hat were the political opinions of Ro.stau? 

1250. \^ hat was the origin of the French Encyclopedia ? 

1251. What courts of Europe were thrown open to the Fiench 

philosophers ? 

1252. Is it to be supposed that the French philosophers, to whom 

the revolution has been imputed, contemplated the awful 
catastrophe of that event i 

1253. Who was chiefly instrumental in introducing the improve- 

ments of the 18th century into Russia ? 

DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 

"254. What are the principal discoveries and inventions of modem 

tiiaes ? 



44 QUESTIONS*- 

1255. What effect had the French revolution on the people of oth- 

er countries ? 

1256. What moral improvements have takea place in the condi- 

tion of various civilized nations? 

RELIGION. 

1257. In what countries does paganism prevail ? 

1258. What is the present condition of the Jews? 

1259. \'^here does Mahometanism prevail? 

1260. What are the principal sects of the Christian religion ? 

1261. V^ hat sects have been most active as missionaries ? 

1262. V^ bat change has the papal authority experienced in the 

time under consideration ? 

HISTORY, POLITE LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, &c. 

1263. What Germans have been distinguished in literature, and 

the fine arts ? 

1264. Who in France ? 

1265. \^ ho in Great liritain ? 

1266. Who in Italy ? 

TREATY OF VIENNA, 1815. 

1267. What addition of territory was given to Russia, and what 

new title to the Czar ? 

1268. What is to be the condition of Cracow ? 

1269. How did this treaty affect Saxony? 

1270. How did it aflect Prussia ? 

1271. What change took place in the NetheFlanda ? 



PART FOURTH. 



UNITED STATES. 

SECTION I. 

1272. W^hen and by whom was America discovered ? 

1273. Under whose patronage was it discovered ? 

1274. What part of it was discovered first ? 

1275. Why were the islands first discovered called the West la- 

dies? 

1276. Why was the continent called America ? 

1277. How long time after Columbus sailed from the Canaries be« 

fore he reached St. Salvador ? 
'/1278. To what governments did he apply for patronage without 
success ? 



SECTION 11. ;:^ 



1279. By whom and when was the continent of North America 
diseovered? 



QUESTIONS. 45 

1-2G0. On what account did Virginia derive its naiiic < 

J2S1. ¥.'ho made the first attempt to colonize this part olthe con- 
tinent ? 

1582. To whom did Sir Walter Raleigh afterward assign his in- 
terest ill the country ? 

i203. From what did James river take its name ? 

"12o4. On v.'liat account did capt. John Smith obtain his first re- 
lease from the Indians ? 

Y2?>h. Who effected his second release from: them ? 

i20(;. On v,'hat account was the cultivation of the soil neglected 
l;y the first colonists '' 

z2u7. Wli.at is the history of Pocahontas subsequent to saving the 
life of capt. Smith ? 

i230. Who first brought the African negroes into this part of tht 
country ? 

1289. Wliat part did the Virginian? take in relation to the revc- 
i!_;tion cf the mother country under Cromwell? 

l;.'0O. V. nat was the population of Virginia, in 168(5. 

SECTION III. 
1C91. ^•^ hat y/as the origin of tlie Plymouih colony ? 
1'292. \"'- hen was the settlement made ? 
r-29o. Oi' how many persona did the colony at first consist ? 

1294. Of how many did it consist ten year>* afterwards i 

1295. How many emigrants carne to IMassachusetts, in the yeaf 

1630.? 
129G. What'lcd to the first settlement of Rhode If^land and Froti- 

dence plantations ? 
1297. Who laid the foundation of Hartford, Springfield, an-d 

Weathersfield ? 
1293. 'NVhen and by whom was New Hampshire first settled ? 

1299. When did a systematic v/arf?.re commence between the 

Eng''ish and Indians ? 
1300 What number of British subjects had settled in New-EnSj- 
land, up to 1638 ? 

1301. \\'hat instances of leligious persecution took place in Mas- 

sachusetts, about the middle of the 17th century ? 

1302. \^ hen and v/LaL were the particulars of the Salem witch- 

craft ? 

1303. V hen was Harvard college founded ? 

1304. Frojn whoan did Maryland derive its name, and by whom was 

it first settled ? 

1305. By whom was iNew-Yerk first settled ? 

1306. When v/as it surrendered to the English ? 

1307. By whom and under what circumstances was Penusylvaiiia 

settled ? 

1300. When and by whom was Georgia settled ? 

SECTION IV. 

1309. '^■- hat settlements had the French in America 1' 

1310. la what way did France endeavour to confine the English 

v;ithia narrov/ limits, or to driyc. them from the contijient ? 



40 QlJESTiONS. 

1311. When, and what method did the Virginia assembly adopt to 

support the English claims, over the disputed territory? 

1312. When and with what force was general Braddock sent over 

to support these claims ? 

1313. Vv hat was the success of Braddock's expedition ? 

1314. How many campaigns Avere attended only with expense 

and disappointment to the English ? 

1315. \^ hat led to a change in English prospects ? 

1316. V. hat celebrated English general was killed in the capture 

of Quebec ? 

1317. Hov/ many soldiers did the colonies furnish in the French 

war i, 

1318. V^'hen was the British stamp act passed ? 

1319. Where in the colonies was it first opposed ? 

1320. Which of the colonies proposed a continental congress io 

be holdcn at New- York ? 

1321. When was the law repealed ? 

1322. What bill was passed on the repeal of this ? 

1323. \'\'hat disturbances took place at Boston, in 17^)8 ? 

1324. \\hat change took place on the elevation of Lord North ? 

1325. V\ hat disturbances took place in Boston, ia March 1770? 

1326. Vv'hat took place in 1773 ? 

1327. What resistance was made 1773, in Boston, to the British 

government in relation to tea ? 

1328. Who was the British commander-in-chief in Boston, at this 

time ? 

1329. What took place at the congress of 1774, holden in Phila- 

delphia ? 

1330. Where and under what circumstances was spilt the first 

blood of the reyoluticnary war ? 

1331. What led to the burning of Charlestown ? 

1332. Who headed an expedition into Canada •* 

1333. V. ith what success was it made ? 

1334. By whom was general Gage superseded ? 

1335. \\ hen did the British evacuate Boston r 

1336. When was published the declaration of American Indepen- 

dence ' 

1337. What tended much to raise the desponding hopes of Ameri- 

ca in the latter part of 1776 ? 

1338. What splendid advantr^ges did the Americans gain in 1777?" 

1339. V\ hen was a treaty of alliance formed between the French 

and Americans ? 

1340. Who took the command of the English army on the retura 

of general Howe ? 

1341. Why was general Lee suspended ? 

1342. V^hat took place on the 15th July, 1779 ? 

1343. W here, and under what circumstances was count Polasld 

mortally wounded ? 

1344. What prevented V^est Point from falling into the posses- 

sion of the English ? 
^45. What distinguished French military and naval commanders 
were sent to the aid of America * 



QUESTIONS. 47 

'*1346. What event is reckoned to have decided {he contest be- 
tween England and America ? 

1347. How much money did England expend, and how many 

lives did she sacrifice in this war ? 

SECTION V*. 

1348. When did the convention meet to^form a new constitution ^ 

1349. 'SMien and where did tiie first congress meet under the new 

constitution ? 

1350. VVhat produced an insurrection in the western part of Penn- 

sylvania ? 

1351. What was the state of affairs between the United States 

and F ance, during the revolution in the latter ? 

1352. '^ heu did congress first meet in the city of Washin^rton? 

1353. Wiiat an the principal particulars of the war with Tripoli? 

1354. V'ihenand for how much was Louisiana purchased? 

SECTION VI. 

1355. W^hat were the ppa-iiculars that led to the suspension of 

commodore BHrro ? 

1356. Wliat led to the declaration of war on the li'.th of June, 

1812, between the United States and Great Britain ? 

1357. What were some of the prin' ipal disasters on land, which 

the Americans experienced during- the war ? 

1358. What were their principal and most brilliant successes oo 

land ? 

1359. What naval victories did they obtain ? 

1360. What naval losses did they experience ? 

1361. What American officers we^e killed during the war ? 

1362. What British officers were killed during it ? 

1363. When and where was a treaty of peace signed ? 

1364. Who were the commissioners ? 

1365. What states, since the admission of Louisiana in 1312, hare 

been admitted into the union ? 

1366. What accession of territory did the United States receive 

in 1819? 

1367. What was the population of the Uruted States in 1820 f 



/3 



K 716 



# 



: 



